Assignment 7
may2025
CH12PPT-withnotes.pptxChapter 12
Power and Politics
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Introduction
Power is a pervasive part of organizations
Both managers and non-managers use it
A person’s success or failure in using or reacting to power is determined by…
Understanding power
Knowing how and when to use it
Being able to anticipate its probable effects
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Power is a pervasive part of the fabric of organizational life. Managers and nonmanagers use it. They manipulate power to accomplish goals and, in many cases, to strengthen their own positions. A person’s success or failure in using or reacting to power is determined largely by understanding power, knowing how and when to use it, and being able to anticipate its probable effects. The purpose of this chapter is to examine power and its uses in organizations. We will look at sources (bases) of power, how power is used, and the relationship between power and organizational politics.
The Concept of Power
Power
The capability to get someone to do something (the potential to influence)
Influence
The exercise of that capability (power in action)
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The terms power and influence are frequently used interchangeably in the management literature; however, there is a subtle, yet important, difference between them. Influence is a transaction in which person B is induced by person A to behave in a certain way. Like influence, power involves a relationship between two people. Robert Dahl, a political scientist, captures this important relational focus when he defines power as saying “A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something B would not otherwise do.”
What is the difference between this definition of power and our definition of influence? Power represents the capability to get someone to do something; influence is the exercise of that capability. Another way of stating the distinction is to say that power is the potential to influence, while influence is power in action.
The Concept of Power
Power is not a personal attribute
It’s an aspect of the relationship that exists between two or more people
No individual or group has power in isolation
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We frequently speak of someone having power over someone else. While this is correct, it is important to stress that power is not an attribute of a particular person. Rather, it is an aspect of the relationship that exists between two (or more) people. No individual or group can have power in isolation; power must exist in relation to some other person or group. If A has power over B, it is, in part, because B is willing for that to be an aspect of the relationship between them. If and when B no longer desires that to be part of the relationship with A, A will no longer have power over B and no longer be able to influence B’s behavior. Thus, obtaining, maintaining, and using power are all essential to influencing the behavior of people in organizational settings.
The Concept of Power
Obtaining, maintaining, and using power are essential to influencing the behavior of people in organizational settings
Symmetrical relationships
Both parties have the same amount of power
Asymmetrical relationships
One person has more power than the other
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Some power relationships in organizations are symmetrical. This means that both parties are equal, or have the same amount of power. Other power relationships are asymmetrical, meaning one person in the relationship has more power than the other. Symmetry is a property that can change over time, as a person or group gains or loses power. To understand how power can shift, it is important to know where power is obtained.
Where Does Power Come From?
Interpersonal Power
Organizational Power
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Personal Power
Expert
Referent
Information power
Structural Power
Resources
Decision-making power
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Power is obtained in a variety of ways in an organization. Since power facilitates the organization’s adaptation to its environment, the people and groups within the organization that are able to assist in that adaptation are the ones that will hold power. Two important categories of power in an organization are interpersonal and structural. Within each of these two categories are several specific sources of power.
In what is considered a classic essay in the management and organizational behavior literature, John French and Bertram Raven suggested five interpersonal sources, or bases, of power: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent.
Power is frequently prescribed by structure within the organization. Structural sources of power result from the nature of the organizational social system rather than from attributes of an individual. The structure of an organization is the control mechanism by which the organization is governed. In the organization’s structural arrangements, decision-making discretion is allocated to various positions. Also, the structure greatly affects the patterns of communication and the flow of information within the system. Thus, organizational structure creates formal power and authority by specifying certain individuals to perform specific tasks and make certain decisions.
EXHIBIT 12.1 Symptoms & Sources of Powerlessness
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A number of organizational situations can serve as the source of either power or powerlessness (not acquiring power). The powerful manager exists because he or she allocates required resources, makes crucial decisions, and has access to important information. He or she is likely to make things happen. The powerless manager, however, lacks the resources, information, and decision-making prerogatives needed to be productive. Exhibit 12.1 presents some of the common symptoms and sources of powerlessness of first-line supervisors, staff professionals, and top-level managers. This exhibit indicates that a first-line manager, for example, may display a number of symptoms of powerlessness such as supervising very closely and not showing much concern about training or developing subordinates. If these symptoms persist, it is likely that the individual is powerless.
Empowerment
Defined by Conger and Kanungo as…
“Enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among organizational members by identifying and then removing conditions that foster powerlessness”
Removal of these conditions may be by formal organizational practices or informal techniques
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Empowerment has been defined by Conger and Kanungo as “a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information.”
Empowerment
Empowerment is not universally embraced
Managers fear loss of power, control, authority
Employees can’t make responsible decisions
Empowering employees was tried and it failed
Sharing proprietary information
Sharing proprietary information means leaking ideas, plans, and knowledge to competitors
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Despite the common sense appeal of empowering employees, empowerment is not universally embraced for a number of reasons, such as the ones listed on this slide
Empowering Others
To increase empowerment effectiveness
Delegate authority
Be a partner
Be supportive
Share information
Provide training opportunities
Provide constructive performance feedback
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There are a number of activities management can use to increase the effectiveness of their empowerment activities
Stages of Empowerment
Identify conditions leading to powerlessness
Implement empowerment strategies/techniques
Remove conditions that caused powerlessness; provide self-efficacy information to subordinates
Receiving such information results in feelings of empowerment
Empowerment feelings from stage 4 are translated into behaviors
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The empowerment process is presented in a staged sequence within organizations. The first stage involves identifying the conditions existing in the organization that lead to feelings of powerlessness on the part of organizational members. These conditions could find their origin in organizational factors (such as poor communications or highly centralized resources), management styles (such as authoritarianism), reward systems (nonmerit-based rewards, low incentive value rewards), or the nature of the jobs (low task variety, unrealistic performance goals). The diagnoses completed in the first stage lead to the implementation of empowerment strategies and techniques in the second stage. Use of participative management, establishing goal-setting programs, implementing merit-based pay systems, and job enrichment through redesign are examples of possible empowerment activities. In the third stage, Self-efficacy describes a belief in one’s effectiveness. Individuals high in self-efficacy tend to be confident and self-assured and feel they are likely to be successful in whatever endeavors they undertake. Receiving such information results in feelings of empowerment in the fourth stage. This is because increasing self-efficacy strengthens effort–performance expectancies. You will recall from the discussion of expectancy theory in Chapter 5 that this means increasing the perceived probability of successful performance, given effort. Finally, the enhanced empowerment feelings from stage four are translated into behaviors in the fifth and final stage. These behavioral consequences of empowerment include increased activity directed toward task accomplishment.
Power
A subunit is a semi-autonomous part of an overall organization
A center for coordinated actions
Organization usually based on a product line
Strategic contingency
An event or activity of crucial importance to completing a project or accomplishing a goal
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The primary focus to this point has been on individual power and how it is obtained. However, it is also important to consider subunit or interdepartmental power. A sub-unit (business unit or strategic business unit) is a semiautonomous part of an overall organization that is a center for coordinated actions. Its organization is usually based on a product line or product lines, and it competes against specific competitors. Sub-unit power is the focus of the strategic contingency theory developed by Hickson. A strategic contingency is an event that is extremely important for accomplishing organizational goals
EXHIBIT 12.2 A Strategic Contingency Model of Subunit Power
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It is possible to develop a concise explanation of strategic contingencies. The model presented in Exhibit 12.2 suggests that subunit power, the power differential between subunits, is influenced by (1) the degree of ability to cope with uncertainty, (2) the centrality of the subunit, and (3) the substitutability of the subunit.
Coping With Uncertainty
The subunits most capable of coping with uncertainty typically acquire power
Types of coping activities
Coping by prevention
Coping by information
Coping by absorption
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Unanticipated events can create problems for any organization or subunit. It is, therefore, the subunits most capable of coping with uncertainty that typically acquire power. There are three types of coping activities. The relation of coping with uncertainty to power was expressed by Hickson as follows: “The more a subunit copes with uncertainty, the greater its power within the organization.”
Centrality
Subunits that are most central to the flow of work typically acquire power
No subunit has zero centrality
A subunit has power if its activities have a more immediate or urgent impact than those of other subunits
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The findings of a number of research studies strongly suggest that centrality can be a significant source of subunit power. The subunits that are most central to the flow of work in an organization typically acquire power. No subunit has zero centrality since all subunits are somehow interlinked with other subunits. A measure of centrality is the degree to which the work of the subunit contributes to the final output of the organization. Since a subunit is in a position to affect other subunits, it has some degree of centrality and therefore power. Also, a subunit possesses power if its activities have a more immediate or urgent impact than those of other subunits.
Substitutability
The ability of other subunits to perform the activities of a particular subunit
A subunit’s power will be diminished if the organization can obtain alternative sources of skill, information, or resources
The lower the substitutability of the activities of a subunit, the greater its power
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Substitutability refers to the ability of other subunits to perform the activities of a particular subunit. If an organization has or can obtain alternative sources of skill, information, and resources to perform the job done by a subunit, the subunit’s power will be diminished. Training subunits lose power if training work can be done by line managers or outside consultants. On the other hand, if a subunit has unique skills and competencies that would be hard to duplicate or replace, this tends to increase the subunit’s power over other subunits. Hickson et al. capture the importance of substitutability power when they propose that the lower the substitutability of the activities of a subunit, the greater is its power within the organization.
The Illusion of Power
Where a person or subunit’s power starts or stops is difficult to pinpoint
Even people who seemingly possess only a little power can influence others
A series of studies conducted by Milgram focused on the illusion of power
One may be able to influence others simply because he/she is perceived to have power
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Admittedly, some individuals and subunits have vast amounts of power to get others to do things the way they want them done. However, there are also illusions of power. Imagine that one afternoon your supervisor asks you to step into his office. He starts the meeting: “You know we’re really losing money using that Beal stamping machine. I’d like you to do a job for the company. I want you to destroy the machine and make it look like an accident.” Would you comply with this request? After all, this is your supervisor, and he is in charge of everything—your pay, your promotion opportunities, your job assignments. You might ask yourself, “Does my supervisor have this much power over me?” Where a person or subunit’s power starts and stops is difficult to pinpoint. You might assume that the supervisor in the hypothetical example has the specific power to get someone to do this unethical and illegal “dirty work.” However, even individuals who seemingly possess only a little power can influence others.
A series of studies conducted by Milgram focused on the illusion of power. In these studies, subjects who had been voluntarily recruited thought they were administering electrical shocks of varying intensity to other subjects. Ostensibly the experiment was designed to study the effects of punishment on learning. In reality, the studies focused on obedience to authority.
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Exhibit 12.3 displays the surprising results. At the experimenter’s direction, 26 of 40 subjects, or 65 percent, continued to increase the intensity of the shocks they thought they were administering to another person all the way to the maximum voltage even though the control panel indicated increasing voltage dosages as “intense,” “extreme,” “danger,” and “severe shock.” Additionally, screams could be heard coming from the booth, and the subject allegedly receiving the shock begged the experimenter to stop the project. Despite this, and even though the subjects were uncomfortable administering the shocks, they continued.
Political Strategies and Tactics
Political behavior can mean
Behavior that is outside the legitimate,
recognized power system
Behavior that benefits an individual or subunit, often at the expense of the organization
Behavior that is intentional and designed to acquire and maintain power
Political behavior can displace formal power
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Individuals and subunits continually engage in politically oriented behavior. By politically oriented behavior we mean a number of things: 1. Behavior that usually is outside the legitimate recognized power system. 2. Behavior that is designed to benefit an individual or subunit, often at the expense of the organization in general. 3. Behavior that is intentional and is designed to acquire and maintain power. As a result of politically oriented behaviors, the formal power that exists in an organization often is sidetracked or blocked. In the language of organizational theory, political behavior results in the displacement of power.
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A number of studies have been conducted to explore political behavior and perceptions in organizations. A study that assessed the political skill of about 700 employees suggested that political skill can be accurately broken down into four distinct factors: social astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and apparent sincerity. A related study found that of these four factors, social astuteness (i.e., being sensitive to others) is the strongest predictor of supervisor ratings and leadership effectiveness. Being sensitive to the needs and feelings of others is an important survival skill in to-day’s office environment. Another study of political behavior was conducted in the electronics industry in Southern California. A total of 87 managers (30 chief executive officers, 28 higher-level staff managers, and 29 supervisors) were interviewed and asked about a number of aspects of organizational political behavior. Among other questions, the managers were asked to describe the personal characteristics of organizational members who were effective “politicians.” These characteristics are presented in Exhibit 12.4, along with the percentage of each group of managers who thought the characteristic was associated with effective political behavior. A total of 13 characteristics were identified as being important, headed by articulateness, sensitivity, and social adeptness. As Exhibit 12.4 shows, there was a fairly high level of agreement between the three levels of managers on what characteristics were regarded as important.
Playing Politics
Politics is a fact of organizational life
It exists in every organization
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The managers in the study described above were aware of political behavior because it was part of their organizational experiences. As the researchers noted, the study was not designed to either praise or criticize organizational political behavior. Instead, it was intended to show that politics is a fact of organizational life. Politics and political behavior exist in every organization. We will now switch our focus and will briefly examine a couple of different ways that the study of political behavior, or “playing politics,” has been approached in organizations.
Reasons Games are Played
Resist authority (insurgency)
Counter resistance to authority (counter-insurgency)
Build power bases (sponsorship, coalition building)
Defeat rivals (line versus staff)
Bring about organizational change (whistle blowing)
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Political behavior in organizations has been described by many researchers in terms of game playing. Henry Mintzberg has identified several types of political games played in organizations. These games, played at all organizational levels by both managers and nonmanagers, are intended to accomplish a variety of purposes. Games are played to (1) resist authority (the insurgency game); (2) counter the resistance to authority (the counterinsurgency game); (3) build power bases (the sponsorship game and coalition-building game); (4) defeat rivals (the line-versus-staff game); and (5) bring about organizational change (the whistle-blowing game).
Political Influence Tactics
Consultation
Ingratiating tactics
Legitimating
Rational persuasion
Coalition tactics
Personal appeals
Inspirational appeals
Pressure tactics
Exchange tactics
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Influence is what playing politics is all about. Individuals and groups engage in political behavior to influence the perceptions or behaviors of other individuals and groups. Accordingly, the means or tactics used to accomplish this have been the focus of much research. One particularly interesting approach has been refined over a period of many studies by several different researchers. This research stream has identified nine specific tactics used by individuals to influence their superiors, co-workers, and subordinates to do what they wanted them to do.
EXHIBIT 12.5 Frequency of Outcomes for the Use of Political Influence Tactics
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Not all these tactics are equally effective in bringing about desired results. Exhibit 12.5 shows the results of one study that assessed the effectiveness of each tactic. Over 500 cases involving the use of influence tactics were analyzed in terms of leading to one of three outcomes:
1. Commitment results when you agree internally with the decision, action, or request, are enthusiastic about it and are likely to exert unusual effort to carry out the request.
2. Compliance occurs when you carry out the request but are apathetic about it and make only a minimal effort to do it.
3. Resistance results when you are opposed to the request and try to avoid doing it.
As can be seen from the exhibit, inspirational appeals and consultation were more effective than the rest of the tactics, with inspiration resulting in commitment 90 percent of the time it was used. On the other hand, legitimating, coalition, and pressure were less effective than the other tactics. Variables other than the type of influence tactic used can impact the success of the influence attempt. Even the use of a tactic such as pressure can sometimes result in commitment. Likewise, any tactic may result in resistance if it is used in an unskillful manner or if the request being made is clearly objectionable.
Impression Management
The actions individuals take to control the impressions that others form of them
Impression management is universal
Many impression-management tactics are designed to emphasize the positive
Creating blatantly false impressions can damage your credibility and reputation
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Impression management refers to the actions individuals take to control the impressions that others form of them. Impression management is universal. Employers do it, as do employees; students do it with professors and professors do it with students; parents and children do it with each other. Research suggests that a significant part of behavior in organizations is motivated by the desire of organization members to be perceived by others in certain ways. Virtually everyone makes a deliberate effort in some situations to create a desirable impression. Some of the political influence tactics discussed in the previous section represent attempts at impression management. Consultation, for example, is used to create the impression that you are participative and that you want, value, and respect input from the person you are trying to influence. Ingratiation is designed to project an impression of you as a nice, thoughtful, or friendly person. Impression management has increasingly gained the attention of organizational researchers. The desire to present ourselves in the best possible light when the stakes are high is a widely held desire. Effective impression management can be quite useful. An obvious example is the use of impression management tactics during the employment interview.
Impression Management
Impression Management- Actions individuals take to control the impressions that others form of them
Self-Promotion- Communicating your accomplishments in order to appear able and competent
Intimidation- Using threats and harassment to appear powerful
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After reviewing 20 years of research on impression management behaviors, researchers found that effectively managing the way others see us is linked to a variety of favorable outcomes not just in job interviews, but also in performance appraisals and overall career success. These researchers identified and organized 31 impression management tactics that can result in either good or bad effects to an individual’s image. For example, an employee might use self-promotion during an interview to receive a job offer. Alternatively, an employee who uses intimidation to convince his or her teammates to pursue a certain approach to a project is likely to hurt his or her image as a team player.
Self-Handicapping
Any action taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for failure or a credit for success
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One very effective impression management technique, self-handicapping, is designed to make the best of an as yet undetermined outcome. Self-handicapping refers to any action taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for failure or credit for success. A self-handicap provides a persuasive causal explanation for potential failure while setting the stage for the individual to receive more credit for success than would otherwise be the case.
Ethics, Power, and Politics
Ethical dilemmas exist where power and politics are used to accomplish goals
Examples of unethical behavior
Bribing government officials
Lying to employees and customers
Polluting the environment
A general “ends justify the means” mentality
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Issues of power and politics often involve ethical issues as well. For example, if power is used within the formal boundaries of a manager’s authority and within the framework of organizational policies, job description, procedures, and goals, it is really non-political power and most likely does not involve ethical issues. When the use of power is outside the bounds of formal authority, policies, procedures, job descriptions, and organizational goals, it is political in nature. When this occurs, ethical issues are likely to be present. Some examples might include bribing government officials, lying to employees and customers, polluting the environment, and a general “ends justify the means” mentality.
Ethics, Power, and Politics
Behavior must satisfy certain criteria to be considered ethical
Utilitarian outcomes
Individual rights
Distributive justice
Overwhelming factors
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Managers confront ethical dilemmas in their jobs because they frequently use power and politics to accomplish their goals. Each manager, therefore, has an ethical responsibility. Researchers have developed a framework that allows a manager to integrate ethics into political behavior. These researchers recommend that a manager’s behavior must satisfy certain criteria to be considered ethical.
1. Utilitarian outcomes. The manager’s behavior results in optimization of satisfaction of people inside and outside the organization. In other words, it results in the greatest good for the greatest number of people
2. Individual rights. The manager’s behavior respects the rights of all affected parties. In other words, it respects basic human rights of free consent, free speech, and freedom of conscience, privacy, and due process.
3. Distributive justice. The manager’s behavior respects the rules of justice. It does not treat people arbitrarily but rather equitably and fairly.
What does a manager do when a potential behavior cannot pass the three criteria? The behavior may still be considered ethical in the particular situation if it passes the criterion of overwhelming factors. To justify the behavior, it must be based on tremendously overwhelming factors in the nature of the situation, such as conflicts among criteria (e.g., the manager’s behavior yields both positive and negative results), conflicts within the criteria (e.g., a manager uses questionable means to achieve a positive result), or an inability to employ the first three criteria (e.g., the manager acts with incomplete or inaccurate information).
Using Power to Manage Effectively
Nothing gets done in any organization until someone makes it happen
A manager’s job is making the right things happen
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Nothing gets done in any organization until someone makes it happen. Making the right things happen is what a manager’s job is all about. To be effective, a manager must successfully influence the activities of other organizational members. As we pointed out at the start of this chapter, influence requires the exercise of power. To influence successfully, power must be used effectively.
Important Power Considerations
There are multiple interests in every organization
Know what position individuals and groups hold with respect to issues important to you
To get things done you must have power
In the case of those who oppose you, you must have more power than they do
Recognize the strategies/tactics through which organizational power is developed and used
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Organizational theorist and researcher Jeffrey Pfeffer has identified several important considerations in using power to manage effectively. We close this chapter with a look at Pfeffer’s conclusions in this regard:
Recognize that there are multiple interests in nearly every organization. Not everyone has the same interests, and not everyone’s interests are necessarily compatible with yours. It is important to understand the organization’s political landscape by knowing what interests exist and to whom they belong.
Know what position relevant individuals and groups hold with respect to issues important to you. When this perspective is different from yours, it is also important to understand the basis for the difference. It is much easier to influence those who agree with us than it is to affect the behavior of those who do not. Knowing why someone’s perspective is different from yours makes the task of exercising influence easier. Understanding why subordinates dislike a new incentive pay plan, for example, affords you a better opportunity to diagnose how they are likely to respond to different attempts you might make to sell them on its merits.
Understand that to get things done you must have power, and in the case of those who oppose you, you must have more power than they do. This means it is essential that you know where power comes from and how these sources of power can be nurtured. It is important to recognize that there is nothing wrong with the acquisition and use of power if it is done in a professional and ethical manner. However effective you are as a manager, increasing your influence will further increase your effectiveness. Finally, recognize the strategies and tactics through which organizational power is developed and used. This includes understanding the importance of timing, the use of the organization’s structure, and the various forms of interpersonal power. As Pfeffer concludes, “We need to understand strategies and tactics of using power so that we can consider the range of approaches available to us, and use what is likely to be effective.”
