Assignment 7
may2025
CH10PPT-withnotes.pptxChapter 10
Groups and Teams
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Introduction
The existence of groups can alter a person’s motivation or needs and can influence the behavior of people in an organizational setting
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The existence of groups can alter a person’s motivation or needs and can influence the behavior of people in an organizational setting. Organizational behavior is more than simply the sum of the behavior of separate individuals, but rather a much more complex phenomenon, a very important part of which is the group. This chapter provides a model for understanding the nature of groups in organizations.
Introduction
Groups and Teams are Not the Same
Group… two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal
Team… mature group with member inter-dependence and motivation to achieve a common goal
Teams start out as groups, but not all groups mature into teams
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Groups and teams are not the same. A group is two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal. Teams are mature groups that share a common purpose, responsibility, and accountability for achieving performance goals. Teams start out as groups, but not all groups become mature and interdependent or teams. Teams and groups share many common characteristics. First, as already noted, they can be formed when two or more individuals interact. Second, both teams and groups provide structure for the work and interaction of their members. Third, their members can perform specific technical, leadership, problem-solving, and emotional roles. Last, members of groups and teams share a common goal(s).
EXHIBIT 10.1 Comparison of Groups and Teams
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Exhibit 10.1 presents some of the differences between groups and teams. The depth of commitment distinguishes groups and teams. Groups are accountable to a manager and are often randomly formed (e.g., hiring different people over time), resulting in a varied mix of skills. Teams are internally accountable to one another, and each member’s skills complement those of the other team members. Group members create and share norms of performance and behavior. On the other hand, teams share a culture, a set of rituals and processes, and a philosophy in working together.
The Nature of Groups
Minimum requirements for a group to exist
Two or more individuals
A common goal to be accomplished
Some form of exchange or communication between these individuals
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As indicated earlier, the following definition of groups will be used throughout this chapter: two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal. One way of viewing this definition is to think of it in terms of specifying three minimum requirements that must be met for a group to exist. The first requirement deals with size. There must be two or more individuals for there to be a group. One person does not constitute a group. Note that in this definition, while there is a minimum size requirement, there is no maximum. The second requirement specifies that there must be some form of exchange or communication between these individuals. That is, they must interact with each other in some manner. We usually think of interaction between group members as occurring in a face-to-face verbal exchange, but that does not have to be the case. In nominal groups (discussed in Chapter 14), for example, themembers might never speak with one another; their only interactions are typically in writing The final requirement in our definition of groups is that of attempting to accomplish a common goal. If there is no common goal or purpose, there is no group by our definition. A common goal is a goal toward which individual members are willing to work.
EXHIBIT 10.2 A Model of Group Formation and Development
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Although every group is different, possessing its own unique attributes and dynamics, it is also true that in many important ways groups tend to display similar patterns of evolution. Exhibit 10.2 presents a model of group formation and development that we will follow in discussing this important organizational behavior and management topic. The model suggests that the end results of group activity are shaped by a number of antecedent variables, each category of which we will examine in this chapter. Each segment of the model can (and, in reality, does) influence each of the other segments.
Types of Groups
Formal Groups
Command
Task
Team
Informal Groups
Interest
Friendship
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An organization has technical requirements that arise from its stated goals. The accomplishment of these goals requires that certain tasks be performed and that employees be assigned to perform these tasks. As a result, most employees will be members of a group based on their position in the organization. These are formal groups. Whenever individuals associate on a fairly continuous basis, there is a tendency for groups to form whose activities may be different from those required by the organization. These are informal groups. Both formal groups and informal groups exhibit the same general characteristics.
Formal Groups -The demands and processes of the organization lead to the formation of different types of groups. Specifically, at least two types of formal groups exist: command and task.
Command Group- The command group is specified by the organization chart and is made up of the sub-ordinates who report directly to a given supervisor. The authority relationship be-tween a department manager and the supervisors, or between a senior nurse and her subordinates, is an example of a command group.
Task Group-A task group comprises the employees who work together to complete a particular task or project.
Informal Groups-Informal groups are natural groupings of people in work environments in response to social needs. In other words, informal groups are not deliberately created; they evolve naturally. Two specific types of informal groups are interest and friendship.
Interest Groups-Individuals who may not be members of the same command group, task group, or team may come together to achieve some mutual objective.
Friendship Groups-Many groups form because the members have something in common such as age, political beliefs, or ethnic background. These friendship groups often extend their interaction and communication to off-the-job activities.
A distinction has been made between two broad classifications of groups—formal and informal. The major difference between them is that formal command and task groups and teams are designated by the formal organization as a means to an end. Informal interest and friendship groups are important for their own sake.
Exhibit 10.3 Five Reasons Why People Form Groups
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One of the most compelling reasons people join groups is because they believe membership in a particular group will help them to satisfy one or more important needs. Social needs, for example, can be satisfied through groups that provide a vehicle for members to interact with one another. Security needs may be partially met by membership in a group that acts as a buffer between employees and the organizational system. Esteem needs may be partially met by belonging to a high-status or prestige group in which membership is difficult to obtain.
Proximity and attraction are two related reasons people form groups. Proximity involves the physical distance between employees performing a job. Attraction designates the attraction of people to each other because of perceptual, attitudinal, performance, or motivational similarity. Proximity makes it easier to determine areas of common attraction. Thus, both of these factors work together to facilitate group formation.
Stages of Group Development
Forming- Group forms and situation is uncertain and disorganized
Storming- Turbulence, disruption, and frustration is at highest level
Norming- Share vision, values, goals, and expectations; deviations are not welcome
Performing- Roles are specific, goals are clear, and results are noted
Adjourning- Orderly disbanding
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Groups learn just as individuals do. The performance of a group depends both on individual learning and on how well the members learn to work with one another. One widely cited model of group development assumes that groups proceed through as many as five stages of development: (1) forming, (2) storming, (3) norming, (4) performing, and (5) adjourning. Although critics of this model suggest that other factors such as time and deadlines are more valid predictors of group functioning, the five-stage model remains influential.
Group Composition
Members of a homogeneous group share a number of characteristics
Members of a heterogeneous group have few or no similar characteristics
All else being equal, homogeneous groups are the most likely to be cohesive
Heterogeneous groups can outperform homogeneous ones because they have a richer variety of knowledge and experience
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As groups evolve through their various stages of development, they begin to exhibit certain characteristics. To understand group behavior, you must be aware of these general characteristics. Some of the more important ones are composition, status hierarchy, roles, norms, leadership, and cohesiveness.
Composition -Group composition relates to the extent to which group members are alike. Members of a homogeneous group share a number of similar characteristics. Characteristics may be demographic (race, gender, socioeconomic background, education, age, or cultural origin), personality, skills and abilities, or work experience, to name just a few. A heterogeneous group, on the other hand, is composed of individuals who have few or no similar characteristics. Group composition can be extremely important because it can influence a number of other characteristics and outcomes. All else being equal, for example, homogeneous groups are likely to be more cohesive than heterogeneous ones. On the other hand, heterogeneous groups may outperform homogeneous ones in certain situations because they have a richer variety of knowledge, information, and experience to draw upon.
Group Status Hierarchy
Status is typically a consequence of characteristics that differentiate one position from another
A person is sometimes given status because of job seniority, age, or assignment
Assigned status may have nothing to do with the formal status hierarchy
The status hierarchy can have unintended and undesirable effects on preference
Subordinates may be reluctant to challenge those in charge, even when necessary
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Status and position are so similar that the terms often are used interchangeably. The status assigned to a particular position is typically a consequence of certain characteristics that differentiate one position from other positions. In some cases, a person is given status because of such factors as job seniority, age, or assignment. Assigned status may have nothing to do with the formal status hierarchy.
Group Member Roles
Expected Role
Perceived Role
Enacted Role
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Each position in the group structure has an associated role that consists of the behaviors expected of the occupant of that position.
Expected behaviors generally are agreed upon.
The perceived role is the set of behaviors that a person in a position believes he or she should enact.
The enacted role, on the other hand, is the behavior that a person actually carries out.
These multiple roles result in a number of expected role behaviors. In many instances, the behaviors specified by the different roles are compatible. When they are not, however, the individual may experience role conflict.
Group Norms
Norms are standards shared by group members
Formed only with respect to things that have significance for the group
May be communicated in writing or verbally
Accepted in various degrees by group members
Used to regulate member behavior
May apply to all members, or only some
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Norms are the standards of behavior shared by members of a group, and they have certain characteristics that are important to group members. First, norms are formed only with respect to things that have significance for the group. They may be written, but very often they can be verbally communicated to members. In many cases, they may never be formally stated but somehow are known by all group members.
Norm Conformity
Why employees conform to group norms is an issue of concern to managers
Variables which influence conformity
Personal characteristics of the individual
Situational factors
Inter-group relationships
Cultural factors
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An issue of concern to managers is why employees conform to group norms. A number of variables may influence conformity to group norms. The personal characteristics of the individual play a role. For example, research indicates that persons of high intelligence are less likely to conform than less intelligent individuals, and authoritarian personality types conform more than do nonauthoritarians. Situational factors, such as group size and structure, may influence conformity. For example, conformity may become more difficult in larger groups or in those whose members are geographically separated. Intergroup relationships, which include such factors as the kind of pressure the group exerts and the degree to which the member identifies with the group, are another potentially important variable. The degree of conformity with group norms may also be influenced by cultural factors. Some cultures with a more collective tradition may place greater emphasis on the group and on conformity with norms than might cultures with a more individualistic orientation.
EXHIBIT 10.4 Hypothetical Production Norm and Its Zone of Acceptance
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The exhibit illustrates where a group’s production norm might fall on a productivity continuum. The zone of acceptance depicted in the exhibit represents minor deviations above and below the norm that would be deemed acceptable to the group. Group members greatly exceeding the norm might be referred to as rate-busters, while those producing well below group expectations are seen as social loafers.
Group Leadership
Leaders exert influence over members
In formal groups, leaders can reward or punish members who do not conform to orders or rules
A formal group may have no formal leader
Autonomous work groups
Self-managed teams
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The leadership role is an extremely crucial characteristic of groups as the leader exerts influence over the other members of the group. In the formal group, the leader can exercise legitimately sanctioned power. That is, the leader can reward or punish members who do not comply with the orders or rules. Sometimes, however, there is no single formal leader, even in a formal group. Such a condition may exist in the case of autonomous work groups. Self-managed teams, for example, may collectively share leader duties among the group members.
Group Leadership
An informal group leader generally is a respected and high-status member who
Embodies the values of the group
Helps the group accomplish its goals
Enables members to satisfy needs
The leader receives and interprets communication relevant to the group
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The leadership role also is a significant factor in an informal group. The person who becomes an informal group leader generally is viewed as a respected and high-status member who embodies the values of the group, aids the group in accomplishing its goals, and enables members to satisfy needs. Additionally, the leader is the choice of group members to represent their viewpoint outside the group and usually is concerned with maintaining the group as a functioning unit.
Group Cohesiveness
A closeness or commonness of attitude, behavior, and performance
Acts on the members to remain in a group
Is greater than the forces pulling members away from the group
As the cohesiveness of a work group increases, conformity to group norms also increases
These norms may not be consistent with those of the organization
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Formal and informal groups seem to possess a closeness or commonness of attitude, behavior, and performance. This closeness has been referred to as cohesiveness. Cohesiveness typically is regarded as a force. It acts on the members to remain in a group and is greater than the forces pulling the members away from the group. A cohesive group, then, comprises individuals who are attracted to one another. A group that is low in cohesiveness does not possess interpersonal attractiveness for the members. Since highly cohesive groups are composed of individuals who are motivated to be together, management tends to expect effective group performance. This logic is not supported conclusively by research evidence. In general, as the cohesiveness of a work group increases, the level of conformity to group norms also increases. But these norms may be inconsistent with those of the organization.
Group Cohesiveness
Sources of group attraction
Goals of the group and members are compatible
A charismatic leader
A good reputation for accomplishing tasks
The group is small enough to permit members of have their opinions heard
Members support and help one another
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There are, of course, numerous sources of attraction to a group. These might include:
1. The goals of the group and the members are compatible and clearly specified.
2. The group has a charismatic leader.
3. The reputation of the group indicates that the group successfully accomplishes its tasks.
4. The group is small enough to permit members to have their opinions heard and evaluated by others.
5. The members are attractive in that they support one another and help one another overcome obstacles and barriers to personal growth and development.
EXHIBIT 10.5 The Relationship between Group Cohesiveness and Organizational Goals
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Exhibit 10.5 indicates that if cohesiveness is high and the group accepts and agrees with formal organizational goals, then group behavior probably will be positive from the formal organization’s standpoint. However, if the group is highly cohesive but has goals that are not congruent with those of the formal organization, then group behavior probably will be negative from the formal organization’s perspective. Exhibit 10.5 also indicates that if a group is low in cohesiveness and the members have goals that are not in agreement with those of management; then the results probably will be negative from the standpoint of the organization.
To Increase Group Cohesion
Reach joint agreement on group goals
Make the group more homogeneous
Increase interaction among group members
Make the group smaller
Physically or socially isolate the group
Allocate rewards to the group, not individuals
Give the group and members more responsibility
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As a manager, you may find that members of your workgroup aren’t getting along as well as they should. To improve cooperation within the group and its overall productivity, you may want to increase the cohesion level of the group. Some strategies for increasing group cohesion are shown on this slide.
Groupthink
The deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment in the interest of group solidarity.
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Highly cohesive groups are important forces in influencing organizational behavior. One author has provided a provocative analysis of highly cohesive groups. In his book, Irving Janis analyzed foreign policy decisions by a number of presidential administrations and concluded that those made by such groups often included a decision-making process he called groupthink. Janis defines groupthink as the “deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment” in the interest of group solidarity. According to Janis, groups suffering from groupthink tend to display a number of common characteristics.
Groupthink
Characteristics of groups suffering from groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability
Tendency to moralize
Feeling of unanimity
Pressure to conform
Opposing ideas dismissed
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Characteristics of groups suffering from groupthink include the following.
The illusion of invulnerability. Group members collectively believe they are invincible.
The tendency to moralize. Opposition to the group’s position is viewed as weak, evil, or unintelligent.
Feeling of unanimity. All group members support the leader’s decisions. Members may have reservations about decisions but do not share these views. Rather than appearing weak, members keep dissenting views to themselves. This indicates how the pressure toward group solidarity can distort the judgment of individual members.
Pressure to conform. Formal and informal attempts are made to discourage discussion of divergent views. Groups exert significant pressure on individual members to conform.
Opposing ideas dismissed. Any individual or outside group that criticizes or opposes a decision receives little or no attention from the group. Group members tend to show strong favoritism toward their own ideas in the manner by which information is processed and evaluated, thereby ensuring that their own ideas will win out.
End Results
Measurable production is not the only end result of work group activities
The group’s productive output meets the standard of quantity, quality, and timeliness of the users of the output
The group process of doing the work enhances the capability of group members to work together interdependently in the future
The group experience contributes to the growth and well-being of its members
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Groups exist to accomplish objectives. In the case of work groups, those objectives are generally related to the performance of specific tasks, which in turn are designed to result in attainment of formal organizational outcomes. Measurable production (e.g., number of units assembled, percent of market captured, the number of customers served) is perhaps the most obvious, but certainly not the only, end result of work group activities. While some form of production output (goods, services, ideas, etc.) is typically an important measure of group performance and effectiveness, it is not the only consideration. Organizational researcher Richard Hackman identifies three important criteria of group effectiveness.
Teams
The difference between a team and an immature, developing group
Total commitment to common goals and accountability to the team
Perceived gains from using teams…
Economic improvements
Quality and productivity gains
Flattening of the organizational structure
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As indicated at the start of this chapter, a team is viewed as a mature group comprising people who share a common purpose, responsibility, and accountability for achieving performance goals. Admittedly, the distinction between a team and a group can be arbitrary and is sometimes vague. A total commitment to common goals and accountability to the team is what makes a team stand out and distinguish itself from immature, developing groups.
Types of Teams
Team categories
Problem-Solving
Cross-Functional
Virtual
R & D
Self-Managed
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There is no standard classification system for describing different types of teams. Distinctions among teams can be made on the basis of size, composition, organizational level, duration (temporary versus permanent), objectives, and potential contribution to organizational performance, to name only a few distinguishing characteristics. We will use a number of these to categorize important types of teams in organizations today—problem-solving teams, research and development teams, and the previously mentioned self-managed teams (SMT).
Team Effectiveness
Effectiveness
Empowerment
Rewards
Communications
Training
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Teams represent one form or type of group. As such, factors influencing the effectiveness of any group are important in determining team effectiveness. Previously discussed group characteristics such as composition, norms, leadership, and cohesion are examples. Some issues, however, are particularly important when it comes to developing effective teams. Four of these issues are: training, communications, empowerment, and rewards.
Training
Team training includes
Individual task-related skills and abilities
How to function as a team member
Problem-solving skills
Creative thinking
Interpersonal skills
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Effective teams don’t just happen. In addition to their individual task-related skills and abilities, team members must also know how to function effectively as team members. This almost always suggests training. Depending on the type and purpose of the team, training may be needed in problem-solving skills, creative thinking, or interpersonal skills. Certainly, at the very least, team members must be well-versed in the company’s philosophy regarding teams, the team mission, and new roles and responsibilities individuals will have as a consequence of being part of the team.
Improving Member Effectiveness
Skills to improve team member effectiveness
Open-mindedness
Emotional stability
Accountability
Problem-solving abilities
Communication skills
Conflict resolution skills
Trust
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Whether a member of a student project group or a self-managed work team in an organization, what does it take to be an excellent team member? Research indicates that these seven skills are highly desirable for team members to be effective.
Communications
Teams often require information that used to be management’s exclusive domain
Managers often fear a loss of their decision-making power
Many teams fail due to management’s unwillingness to share information with the teams it created
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One of the more significant effects creating teams has on an organization’s management is an increased need for information. Team members need information to accomplish their objectives. Much of this is information that has traditionally been management’s exclusive domain. If teams are to be effective, however, full disclosure of formerly restricted information may be necessary. Management—particularly middle management—is often threatened by this, fearing a loss of decision-making power. The failure of many team efforts can be traced directly to management’s unwillingness to share information with the teams it has created.
Empowerment
Regardless of the type of team, those that lack authority are less effective
It suggests that management doesn’t trust the team
It is the root of team empowerment problems
Teams can also be given too much authority
Particularly true during the early stages of team development
Training can help members use authority effectively
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Along with information, teams must have the authority to make decisions and act autonomously. Whether a problem-solving team, an R&D team, or an SMT, teams that lack authority are generally less effective. In addition to hindering taking action, lack of authority suggests to team members that management doesn’t really trust them in the first place, further reducing team effectiveness Being given insufficient authority is typically the root of team empowerment problems. It should be noted, however, that sometimes teams may be given too much authority. This is particularly a danger in the early stages of team involvement. Team members may be unaccustomed to making decisions and be overwhelmed by the degree of authority they suddenly possess.
Rewards
Most rewards systems are individual-based
To the extent that teams perform well, the team should be rewarded
Reward systems can be incentive based or a form of profit-sharing
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The reward system in most organizations is individually based. That is, organizational members are rewarded based on an evaluation of their individual performance. While the individual’s contribution to team success is a legitimate part of the reward system, team success must also be factored in. To the extent that teams perform well, the team should be rewarded. Distribution of that reward to individual team members is an important, but separate issue. Rewards can be allocated to teams in a number of ways. With problem-solving teams, for example, an incentive system is frequently used, wherein the team receives a percentage of the savings realized by the organization. Many organizations using SMTs have modified their reward structure to include some form of profit sharing. Regardless, it is important that teams be rewarded for their contribution to organizational objectives.
