Week 2 Assignment: Packet Preparation Week 2

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

Explain the types of preparation needed to obtain a career in a field of interest.

Apply the elements of thought to critical thinking scenarios.

Compare and contrast representations of the scientific method.

Scientifically critique claims published in popular and scholarly sources.

Understand the importance of written communication skills.

Distinguish credible resources for obtaining information about APA professional ethics.

Nellia, about to graduate with her bachelor’s degree in psychology, says, “I’ve always been the friend that people talked to about their problems. I’m passionate about helping people and I also want to have my own private practice. I would love to earn a PhD or PsyD in clinical or counseling psychology to become a licensed psychologist. If that doesn’t work out, I’ll get my LPC [Licensed Professional Counselor].”

Marcus has worked with his company for eight years and has been promoted twice. His supervisor is pleased with his work and believes Marcus would make an excellent manager, but Marcus must have a bachelor’s degree to be promoted to a management position. He chose psychology because his job requires him to work with people, and he has found that the extra insight has helped him improve his performance. None of the upper management positions in his company require a master’s degree, so he is not interested in a graduate degree.

Janine is graduating in less than two months and is still not sure what she wants to do with her psychology degree. Her grades are average and she is comfortable taking online classes and enjoys engaging with the instructors and her classmates. She ponders, “I think I would enjoy teaching online classes.” She is planning to apply to an online graduate psychology program to earn her master’s degree. She is not yet committed to earning a doctorate degree but is open to the possibility depending on how she does in the master’s program.

Kyle is planning to open his own business eventually. “Before starting my own business, I’ll earn my MBA while obtaining sales, marketing, budgeting, and leadership experience in a retail chain business. Having a psychology background will help me understand my customers and the market.”

1Professional Applications of Psychology

Yolanda Harper, PhD—Ashford University

Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock

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Ariel is earning her bachelor’s in psychology with a minor in criminal justice while on active duty in the Air Force. She has a successful military career and is looking forward to her retirement in three years. She tells her instructor, “I am preparing for a position in the justice system, most likely a probation officer. Occasionally, I think I might be interested in law school—my husband says I love to argue and debate like an attorney—but I don’t know. I’ll probably just look for a job in juvenile probation.”

Five different stories, five very different career paths, each one relevant to psychology. Each of these graduates will utilize the knowledge and skills obtained from basic and applied psychological research in unique ways, as will you. This book is designed to assist you in synthesizing information you have learned throughout your degree program to prepare you for a variety of career trajectories after graduation. As you think about these stories, consider the following questions:

Which of these stories do you relate to most, and why? What ways have you applied psychology in your everyday life? How might a degree in psychology help you navigate your personal and professional life more effectively?

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What psychology career interests you?

1.1 What Are You Planning to Do With Your Psychology Degree? A psychology degree develops knowledge of human behavior as well as critical thinking, research, and writing skills. The core classes in your program are designed to provide you with a basic understanding of a broad range of topics (e.g., human development, learning theories, research and statistical methods, and abnormal psychology). Collectively, the core topics provide a foundation upon which a wide range of specializations are built (e.g., child psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and forensic psychology).

Whether or not you have decided on a career path, take time to explore the interest groups, known as “divisions,” organized by members of the American Psychological Association (APA). You can find a list of these divisions with links for more information at http://www.apa.org/about/division/ (https://www.apa.org/about/division/) . Some divisions correspond to distinct subfields of psychology (e.g., pediatric, military, experimental, social, or clinical), while others focus on topical areas (e.g., creativity and the arts, aging, culture and ethnicity, gender, trauma, or media and technology). Each division has its own website, publications, email list, meetings, and convention activities and, if interested, you may join as a student affiliate, a member of the APA, or a non-member. Many divisions have active Facebook pages on which people post news stories, career-related opportunities, and events such as workshops, conferences, webinars, and phone seminars. Many of the opportunities promoted through social media do not require membership at all.

As you prepare for commencement and a new academic, personal, or professional journey, take advantage of opportunities to learn more about what active psychology professionals are doing and talking about. The questions in the Career Spotlight: What’s Next box in this section will assist you in identifying what types of preparation you will need for careers you find interesting. Each chapter in this book will provide a review of key psychological knowledge while demonstrating practical applications of that knowledge. In Chapter 10, we will revisit the topic of career planning as you work to finalize your applied project for your course. You may find that your initial career goals continue to be affirmed as we explore how psychological knowledge is utilized in a contemporary context, or you may become passionate about a new career option you never knew existed.

Career Spotlight: What’s Next?

Write down your dream job—the career you are most passionate about. Then write down one or more additional specific job title(s) you find interesting enough to consider pursuing. Research each career and answer the following questions:

1. What type of work experience does each position require? 2. What type(s) of degree(s) or coursework does each position require (e.g., psychology, social

work, business, law)? 3. Is a graduate or professional degree required? If so, what type? 4. Which universities offer the degree(s) needed? 5. What are the entrance requirements to obtain acceptance into the desired degree program(s)? 6. Will you be required to take a standardized graduate or professional school admissions test

such as the GRE, GMAT, LSAT, or MAT? If so, identify how you will prepare for the exam (e.g., test preparation books, online course and practice tests, in-person workshops).

7. After completing your degree(s), will you need to obtain a certification or licensure? If so, what type of education, examination(s), or work experience will you need to qualify for licensure?

8. Are there individuals working in that career in your network whom you can ask questions about their educational and work experiences?

9. What services are offered through Ashford's career services department to assist you with career planning?

How Will You Apply What You Have Learned in Psychology?

Whether or not you are studying psychology with the intent of pursuing a specific career path, the information gained from your psychology degree has broad applications. Will you continue to apply your knowledge in an academic setting as a graduate student, tutor, trainer, or educator? Will you apply psychological knowledge in one of the many helping or service professions? In a commercial business or non-profit organization? In community service as a volunteer? With friends and family members? Or for personal self-improvement?

Beyond the numerous subfields and specializations within psychology, many additional professions rely on psychological knowledge; examples include education, political science, human resources, criminology, sociology, social work, psychiatry, sales, marketing, health, acting, music, and space studies, to name a few. Since most professions require some degree of human-to-human interaction and communication, almost every job imaginable can benefit from some aspect of psychological knowledge. The skills learned in psychology give us the ability to think critically and intelligently about experiences, information, and about our opinions so that we speak and behave in ways that foster positive interpersonal relationships.

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1.2 What Are Critical Thinking Skills? Je pense, donc je suis is a philosophical proposition by René Descartes usually translated as “I think, therefore I am” (Descartes, 1838, p. 54). One of the most significant factors in determining the quality of what one learns in life is the ability to evaluate the quality of one’s own thinking. Exposure to the best information available is of limited usefulness if one lacks the tools of mind necessary to think critically. Critical thinking is an applied set of skills which has lifelong value for your academic, personal, and professional lives. Much of the theory and research in the science of critical thinking relies heavily on cognitive psychology (a psychological perspective which assumes human behavior is determined by thinking processes called “cognitions”). According to Paul and Elder (1996), critical thinking includes all of the following:

1. self-disciplined, self-directed thinking that is appropriate to subject matter and discipline; 2. thinking that exemplifies mastery of higher order intellectual skills and abilities; and 3. metacognition: proficiency in the ability to reflect on your thinking in real time—while you are engaged in thinking—to improve the quality of thought (clearer,

more accurate, or more logical).

When thinking, people use a variety of the elements of thought depicted in Figure 1.1, including point of view, purpose, question at issue, information, interpretations and inferences, concepts, assumptions, and implications and consequences (Paul & Elder, 1996). Paul and Elder use the term “elements” analogously to the concept of the elements (such as hydrogen and oxygen) used in chemistry. Much like chemical elements combine to create chemical substances, the elements of thought combine to create the substance of thinking. Understanding the basic building blocks of thinking enables us to identify, examine, and evaluate the quality of the building blocks of our thoughts, as well as the quality of the thoughts themselves.

Figure 1.1: Elements of thought

The elements of thought are considered the building blocks of thinking.

For example, say your significant other normally responds to your texts quickly, but today has not responded to your texts all day. Let’s break this down using the elements of thought. The question at issue is that your partner is not responding to your texts, and your purpose is to figure out why. The information you have is that you have sent three text messages at different points of the day and not gotten responses. Depending on your point of view, you may infer that there is a positive (in meetings all day), negative (upset with you), or neutral (dead battery) reason for the lack of texts. Since you do not know why the text is delayed, you are making assumptions that are not based in facts. Using the concept of critical thinking, you might be able to step back and realize that the implications you are considering aren’t based on facts, and that you need to wait until you have more information to make a judgment.

On a practical level, if a person’s thinking is unrealistic, that person is more likely to make life choices that result in unforeseen consequences. Some are more adept at using critical thinking skills and monitoring their own thoughts than others. While some absorb principles of critical thinking from their role models seemingly effortlessly, many have to be taught critical thinking skills later in life. Critical thinking skills can be used to analyze the quality of our own thoughts as well as the quality of the thinking conveyed by others in their spoken and written communications.

According to Paul and Elder (2010), proficiency in certain intellectual standards is necessary to think critically. These standards—clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness—are applied to thinking in order to evaluate the quality of one’s reasoning. As seen in Figure 1.2, Paul and Elder suggest that we should ask questions of ourselves and others to aid in the enhancement of critical thinking skills and improve communication and decision making.

Figure 1.2: Intellectual standards

Intellectual standards are criteria applied to thinking to assess the quality of reasoning.

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Source: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2010, October). Universal intellectual standards. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/universal-intellectual-standards/527 (http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/universal-intellectual-standards/527)

According to Paul and Elder (2010), “intellectual standards are standards which must be applied to thinking whenever one is interested in checking the quality of reasoning about a problem, issue, or situation” (para 1.). The list of intellectual standards provided in Figure 1.2 is not exhaustive, but it should be enough to understand how to assess your own reasoning and the reasoning of others. Well-educated adults are expected to model high-quality thinking by routinely meeting intellectual standards such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, and others. For example, Aimee is complaining to her colleague Megan about how unreasonable their supervisor is being regarding the vacation Aimee wanted to take in July. Megan empathizes with Aimee, but then asks questions that challenge Aimee’s reasoning and force her to think more critically about the situation. Megan asks Aimee to consider the situation from her supervisor’s point of view, and asks whether she is being completely fair by putting the blame entirely on her supervisor. As you read through the questions in Figure 1.2, what additional questions might you apply to a situation like this to hold the quality of Aimee’s thinking to a higher standard? How might the situation have turned out differently had Aimee asked herself these questions ahead of the conversation with Megan?

Critical thinking has both short-term and long-term implications for quality of life for ourselves and for those with whom we interact. As human beings, we perceive, interpret, understand, and construct our perceptions of present reality and our memories of past experiences based on our worldviews, which both influence and are influenced by the quality of our thinking. One of the most basic levels of challenging our thinking is to engage in multiple-perspective-taking. As one African proverb states, “Until lions have their historians, tales of the hunt shall always glorify the hunter.” This reminds us that there are always at least two viewpoints for every situation, and, in reality, there are usually more than two ways to view an experience or a piece of information. Critical thinking requires the application of systematic approaches to utilizing information to prevent people from basing their actions on misinformation or faulty logic that may lead to the creation of memories that grossly misrepresent the events that transpired. See the Career Spotlight: Alberto feature box for a practical example of critical thinking applied to a decision many people make at different times in their lives.

Career Spotlight: Alberto R.

Alberto is considering a career change. His company has downsized three times in the last three years and he finds himself anxiously wondering if his position will be eliminated in the next twelve months. Alberto has decided he will begin to look for a better job. To think this through, he uses many of the elements of thought described in Figure 1.1. His purpose is not only to avoid ending up unemployed, but also to gain a better job, which he defines as a job with higher pay and work hours more compatible with his wife’s schedule.

He begins by asking himself questions such as

What jobs am I interested in? What jobs am I qualified for? What jobs are available? What are the pros and cons of the available jobs? How can I improve my chances of getting one of the available jobs?

Next, he gathers information to answer those questions. After obtaining the information, he comes to conclusions about which jobs would be the best fit for him and how to improve his chances at getting those jobs.

As he decides which options to pursue, he makes assumptions about his own attributes, about the jobs themselves, and about what the future holds. He will examine the implications of getting a new job, such as the possibilities of

being out of a job for a period of time, losing seniority, having a longer commute to work, not liking the new position or the people he would be working with, and

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the impact on his family.

Alberto also thinks about ways improving the quality of his job would improve the quality of his life. For example, if the new company is financially stable, he may have less anxiety about being laid off. However, Alberto does not just assume that a new job will automatically make his life better, or that issues in other areas of his life will be solved by a new job. He knows that his point of view could be biased, and that making a hasty change without critically appraising the pros and cons could make matters worse than they are. There is a saying that goes, “The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence,” which means when people are not satisfied with their own situation, they tend to think others have it better, even though this may not be the case. Having as much information as possible about new positions he is considering will help Alberto avoid this type of thinking.

Strategies for Critical Thinking

The following critical thinking strategies will help you become a better consumer of information:

1. Be skeptical, ask questions, and be willing to wonder. A critical thinker is not duped into believing anything he or she is told; he or she respectfully questions the sources of information and asks questions when confronted with details that do not make sense. Given your interest in human behavior and psychology, asking “what if” questions should come naturally. For example, think about questions like (a) What would happen if I started studying the night before the test? (b) What would happen if I treated my partner the way I want to be treated? or (c) What would happen if politicians delivered on their promises? Your natural curiosity about behavior combined with practice and applied research methods skills can provide you with the framework and tools to begin to answer, scientifically, the questions of interest to you.

2. Define the problem and examine the definition of terms. Defining the problem is one of the first steps of the scientific method. If we want to understand or predict some sort of behavior, we need to be able to describe and define what that behavior is. In psychology, we rely on operational definitions to help us know what precisely we are measuring.

3. Examine the evidence. A critical thinker looks for and examines the evidence on an issue. In psychology, we tend to rely on empirical evidence, but other types of evidence can be useful at times. For example, anecdotal evidence (evidence based on a personal story or experience) can sometimes be useful in thinking about ways to solve problems or for generating plausible hypotheses, but anecdotal evidence is generally not considered to be valid scientific or empirical support for a hypothesis. In examining the evidence of others, we look for the standards of science to be met.

4. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. Two scientists looking at the same evidence might draw different conclusions. Often evidence is preliminary in nature and conclusions should be delayed until more evidence is available. Furthermore, some types of evidence only support some types of conclusions. For example, evidence from correlational studies suggests a statistical relationship between variables, not a causal relationship. In other words, cause-and-effect conclusions are rarely drawn from correlational evidence. There is usually a positive correlation between height and weight, but it is awkward and incorrect to conclude that height causes weight or that weight causes height. Just because two variables are significantly correlated does not mean that values of one variable cause the values of the other variable to change. Age is typically correlated with net worth, but we know of young millionaires and of elderly people who live in poverty. As scientists, we want evidence, but we need to be cautious about the types of conclusions we draw based on the types of evidence we have.

5. Consider alternative explanations for research evidence. One of our primary tasks is to consider alternative explanations in the interpretation of research findings. In fact, most researchers consider alternative explanations before conducting studies. The psychologist is constantly looking for alternative explanations, ideally before the research is conducted; in reality, though, sometimes we speculate about alternative explanations after a study is complete.

6. Examine biases and assumptions. The critical thinker must examine his or her own biases and assumptions as well as the biases and assumptions of others. Information comes to us from a source, and this source almost always has a certain slant, angle, or spin. That is, the messages we receive are sent for a purpose, and often that purpose is to influence our thinking, change our attitudes, or influence our behavior. It’s also important to remember that we are not always impartial, even when we think we are.

7. Avoid emotional reasoning as a substitute for reasoning. We are emotional beings—there is no denying that. Emotions can sometimes cloud and disturb our decision-making skills, and the available evidence is not often utilized fully when emotions are peaking. Sometimes we get caught in the trap of “since I feel this way, it must be true.” We may focus too much on one element of the situation without gaining the perspective to understand multiple sides of an issue. Feelings and emotions are important, but they should not be substituted for careful examination of the evidence.

8. Try not to oversimplify or overgeneralize. We live in a complicated world and it is rare that we can condense an important issue down to a convenient (yet accurate) generalization. Oversimplifications and overgeneralizations are mental shortcuts that we all make to help us organize and understand the world, and to take a break from critical thinking. Some of our prejudices and stereotypes are based on unfair overgeneralizations. Living in a complicated society dictates that complicated solutions must be generated; simplistic, either-or thinking usually doesn’t work well in the long run. When we simplify and generalize for ourselves and others, trying to force the complex world we live in into neat, organized cubbyholes, it leaves us with an oversimplified and inaccurate view of the world.

9. Tolerate uncertainty. Science is based on tentative answers formed from the best evidence available at the time. Key in on the phrase “at the time.” Given the reliance on evidence, the critical thinker may at times change position on a topic due to personal experience and the emergence of new evidence. In the scientific community, new evidence emerges frequently. When evidence and beliefs change, uncertainty is present. Consider the information we receive about our health. It is common, for example, to read a study that says oat bran is good for you and that it lowers your cholesterol, but six months later read another study that suggests that oat bran has no effect on cholesterol. What do you believe? The critical thinker must examine the evidence, looking for alternative explanations, and if a different conclusion is warranted by the evidence, change his or her opinion. Sometimes this uncertainty is what causes anxiety and fear. An ability to tolerate uncertainty can be fostered by being open-minded to change yet still applying the rigorous standards of critical thinking.

The critical strategies offered above can assist us in elevating the level of our thinking to demonstrate the intellectual standards depicted in Figure 1.2. Consistently using these strategies can help us become more intelligent consumers and disseminators of information.

Critical Listening, Reading, and Writing

Being a critical thinker allows you to see both the big picture and the small details. Additional abilities related to critical thinking are critical listening, critical reading, and critical writing. When we engage in critical listening, our motivation is to gain an accurate understanding of what the other person is saying. A critical listener applies the elements of thought to understand the message the speaker intends to convey from the perspective of the speaker and also monitors her or his own thoughts and feelings to evaluate how they filter, enhance, or diminish the message of the speaker. In critical reading, we actively engage in the intellectual process of applying the elements of thought to a written text in order to accurately understand the writer’s point of view. Thus, a critical reader can accurately identify an author’s purpose, key concepts and ideas, assumptions, rationales and justifications, supporting examples, the quality of evidence, implications and consequences, and any other aspects of the written text in order to accurately and fairly interpret the reading. Critical writing is noted for its well-reasoned conclusions based on the evaluation and analysis of evidence from several sources representing different points of view. The ultimate goal of critical writing is to present the truth in a clear and accurate manner. Critical writing helps develop advanced critical thinking skills (Paul, 1995), as, in order to write in a critical manner, one must think in a critical manner.

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DGLImages/iStock/Thinkstock

Critical listening requires the listener to evaluate the speaker's perspective while also processing their own.

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1.3 What Does It Mean to Think Like a Scientist? For some, the phrase “think like a scientist” elicits images of people like Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking, George Washington Carver, or Marie Curie. Others might think of stereotypical characters from a TV show like The Big Bang Theory. However, you do not have to have a doctoral degree to think like a scientist. While some in our class will go on to publish research that will impact generations to come, all of us have opportunities every day to utilize scientific thinking. Any time we choose to acquire and utilize knowledge or data in a systematic and testable way to draw conclusions, we are thinking like scientists. At times, this will mean rigorously employing a scientific method in a formal research project. However, for many of us, our main interaction with scientific thinking will be in the day-to-day application of principles which assist us in distinguishing fact from fiction to make intelligent choices and solve real-world challenges. Being able to think like a scientist will be of great personal and professional benefit throughout your lifetime.

Values of Science

Science is not the only way by which to understand the world—there are numerous methods of inquiry that employ logic and intuition to varying degrees. Scientists seek to employ approaches which allow for conclusions to be drawn with a certain amount of confidence in the accuracy of those conclusions. The scientific methods you learned about in your psychology program are built on a number of core values (see Figure 1.3) as summarized here:

Science places high value on theories that have the largest explanatory power. If you have a theory that can explain the outcomes of a great many hypotheses, that theory is highly useful. Science values predictive power. The more we can predict future behavior based on scientific data, the more useful that data will be. Science values fecundity—that is, fruitfulness (the generation of new ideas). If a theory can help us generate new ideas about the world we live in, then that theory has value. Sometimes this characteristic is known as the heuristic value of a theory. Science values open mindedness. Critical thinking and open mindedness are essential tools for success in science. Science values parsimony. When all else is held constant, scientists prefer simpler theories to more complex theories. Scientists require logical thinking in their explanations. By making the processes and results public, scientists must withstand public scrutiny and make cogent arguments for their conclusions. Scientists value skepticism. Although anecdotal evidence may be memorable (and often entertaining), scientists want evidence in such a way as to either support or refute a claim (Smith & Scharmann, 1999). Science is self-correcting. New findings can correct outdated research and theoretical interpretations. Assertions based on research that other scientists cannot replicate become discredited. Contradictory findings prompt researchers to design better quality studies.

Figure 1.3: The values of science

Some of the core values associated with science.

As a student of psychology, you may have already had peers ask your opinion about matters pertaining to human behavior, such as what dreams mean or what the best treatment for depression or ADHD is. Or maybe you became interested in psychology because you had questions about what causes mental illness or how to motivate students to learn. By this point in your college career, you likely have come to learn that many of the questions people ask related to human behavior do not have one definitive, universal answer. Thus, an appreciation for the values underlying science can help you better understand the strengths and limitations of scientific research as you approach your own research and research conducted by others. One of the first questions to ask when considering information is, “What method of inquiry was utilized to obtain this information?”

Scientific Method

As mentioned previously, there are various methods of inquiry. The scientific method typically presented in psychology describes a special system of critical analysis used to study a wide range of phenomena as objectively as possible in order to obtain reliable and valid results. When results are reliable and valid, independent investigators separately attempting the same experiment should be able to obtain the same outcomes. Here we see a linear representation of a scientific method consisting of the following systematic steps:

1. Identify a research question. Refine ideas based on a thorough review of relevant scholarly literature. (Question: Is exercise an effective treatment for depression?) 2. Develop a hypothesis. A research hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. (Hypothesis: Exercise will be effective in

reducing symptoms of depression.)

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"The most erroneous stories are those we think we know best—and therefore never scrutinize or question." —Stephen J. Gould (1996)

3. Design the method. When formulating how to test a hypothesis, determine the number and types of participants needed, how they will be assigned to different groups, and what types of observations you will make. (To test the current hypothesis, we would need subjects with clinically significant levels of depression to assign to at least two groups: one group to receive exercise as an intervention and a control group which will receive no treatment.)

4. Collect data/make relevant observations. Depending on the research question and hypothesis, data collection techniques might include questionnaires, interviews, direct observation, administering psychological tests, recording physiological responses, reviewing archival files, or examining data from previously published studies. (In this study, participants will complete the Beck Depression Inventory-II before the study begins and again after eight weeks.)

5. Test the hypothesis. Analyze the data using procedures to summarize the findings so they can be presented clearly and logically. This may involve using statistical analyses to determine whether observations are statistically significant. Statistical analyses aid in determining the probability that results are due to factors other than chance. (Is there a difference in the depression ratings of those who received exercise as an intervention when compared to the control group receiving no intervention?)

6. Draw conclusions. A conclusion is an informed opinion about the meaning of the data obtained from the study. (Exercise is effective in reducing the depressive symptoms in subjects with mild-to-moderate depression.)

7. Report the findings. For science to progress, the results of well-designed research must be shared. It is important to communicate findings accurately whether or not they support the hypothesis. Reporting research findings others allows others to continue the research (Landrum, 2012).

Compare and contrast the sequential presentation of the scientific method with the cyclical representation in Figure 1.4, which incorporates both sequential and simultaneous elements. What are some commonalities and differences of each representation?

Figure 1.4: The scientific method as an ongoing process

The scientific method can be imagined as a cyclical process, as pictured here.

How to Scientifically Evaluate a Claim

Consider the methods through which we acquire knowledge. Our ways of knowing, or methods of gaining knowledge, influence our interpretations and beliefs, and relying on one way of knowing can put a person at risk of having incomplete information on which to base conclusions and decisions (Jacobs, 2014; Peterson & Peterson, 1997). Pause for a moment and think about something you believe to be true. For example, what are your beliefs about each of the following?

Why do some individuals exposed to extreme trauma develop post-traumatic stress disorder and others do not? What do you believe about cognitive functioning in older adults? What are effective treatments for mild to moderate depression? Are people with intelligence scores in the genius range likely to have average, above average, or below average social skills? Is punishment a highly effective means of changing behavior long-term?

As you reflect on each question, consider how you arrived at your beliefs. Which beliefs did you learn through personal experience? Which beliefs are based on what you have been told by others? To what extent are your beliefs influenced by the media, your cultural values, your generational experiences, and your gender socialization? Which beliefs did you develop after doing scholarly research and applying logical reasoning? How do your feelings impact your beliefs and how do your beliefs impact your feelings? What type of evidence would it take to change your beliefs? How might people who have

different beliefs on these topics make different decisions based on those beliefs?

To have an accurate understanding of psychological knowledge it is important to understand scientific research methods and scholarly research publications. Even those who do not plan to pursue a career in research need to be educated consumers of research in order to make intelligent personal and professional decisions. Intuition, emotions, personal experience, and the opinions of people we respect can provide useful information and are not to be completely discarded or dismissed. However, adding scientific thinking to your repertoire will be an asset in both professional and personal contexts. While internet access affords great opportunities to obtain quality information quickly, the world is also rife with misinformation, pseudoscience, and half-truths that are passed off as fact. For example, despite substantial evidence to counteract this approach, educational decisions continue to be based on the myth that students learn best when teaching styles are matched to their learning styles (Curry, 1990; Doyle & Rutherford, 1984; Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003; Kampwirth & Bates, 1980; Riener & Willingham, 2010; Stahl, 1999). Therapists push clients to talk about traumatic experiences based on the false premise that people who have experienced a trauma must fully “process” the trauma in order to recover (Bonanno, 2004; Moor,

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Psychology is both an art and a science.

2007). Parents, grandparents, and teachers fail to respond effectively to distressed teens because of the belief that adolescence is inevitably a time of psychological turmoil (Côté, 2014; Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, & Beyerstein, 2011; Oldham, 1978). Imagine some of the consequences that have resulted from people acting on these and other myths, and imagine how things might have been different had they done their research and acted on evidence instead.

To avoid being misled by false claims or misleading others, think like a scientist. In his publication “Critically Evaluating Scientific Claims in the Popular Press” (1998), environmental biology professor Bob Ford identified five steps for critically evaluating scientific claims in the popular press:

1. Clearly identify the claims. 2. List the evidence. 3. Evaluate the quality of the evidence. 4. Evaluate the claims. 5. Critique your evaluation.

When evaluating claims from both scientific and popular press sources, it is important to look for alternate explanations for the claim, consider the credibility of the source, watch for exaggerations of small results, and look closely at the numbers (What are the actual numbers and what do they mean?). Think of a recent commercial or advertisement you have seen marketing a weight loss pill with testimonials. Have you ever purchased such a product based on the advertised claims alone? What would be a more scholarly and scientific approach to evaluating the product before making a decision about purchasing it? Where would you go to find valid and reliable research studies on the efficacy of the product? Was the research conducted by the company or by an independent lab? What are the ingredients in the product? What do valid and reliable research studies indicate about the usefulness of those ingredients in healthy weight management? What are the risks of taking the product? How can you discern if any weight lost by participants was due to the product versus other lifestyle choices (e.g., healthy diet, exercise)? It is also important to explore how your own biases and emotional responses influence your readiness to believe the claims, and always keep in mind that correlation is not the same as causation. For an example, see Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Correlation vs. causation

Although a strong positive correlation was found between the marriage rate in Kentucky and the number of people who drowned after falling out of a fishing boat between 1999 and 2010, it would be absurd to conclude that either of those events were caused by the other.

Source: Spurious Media. (2015). Spurious correlations. Retrieved from http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations (http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations)

It is easy to see that the coincidental correlation between the two variables in Figure 1.5 are spurious and that no one should base their decisions regarding marriage or taking a fishing boat excursion on this research. But sometimes it is harder to make that distinction, and people misinterpret data and draw erroneous conclusions (for instance, that a certain supplement will make you lose weight faster).

Just like three people looking at the same painting may have different interpretations, three researchers studying the same topic, even using the same data, can come to different conclusions. Some look at nonsignificant findings and see a dead end, while others become inspired to refine the theory or write a different hypothesis and keep looking. If psychology is a science that employs a precise scientific method, how can we have different interpretations of the same data which, in turn, lead to different conclusions and decisions?

Is Psychology an Art or a Science?

The field and subfields of psychology comprise an expansive arena of programmatic research and professional practice. Like the “nature versus nurture” debate, the “art versus science” debate has a longstanding history in psychology. The most accurate answer is that it’s both (Bardon, 1976; Eisner, 2003; Knight & Camic, 2004; Malterud, 2001; McAdams, 2015; Sarbin, 1941). To many, psychology is first and foremost the science of behavior and mental processes. Psychological scientists are dedicated to increasing our knowledge about mental and behavioral phenomena through rigorous empirical research. According to Eisner (2003), ideas and ideals born in the mid-19th century continue to serve as foundational principles for conducting psychological research. As a result, in many settings, quantitative, empirical research, or “real science,” continues to be held in higher esteem than arts-based psychological research methods such as those associated with qualitative research. At the same time, human beings engaged in psychological research and applied practice frequently combine empirically supported psychological practices with qualitative evidence, preferred theories, professional experience, personal style, intuition, personal judgment, and creativity. Creativity comes into play in psychology in a number of ways, such as when articulating a new theory, designing an innovative

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intervention program, modifying an existing paradigm, developing a new method to test a hypothesis, or synthesizing known information from different research studies to construct a new model for understanding behavior.

We live in a time where strategic innovation is valued and often necessary for businesses and organizations to survive and remain relevant. Being able to utilize knowledge and tools associated with both the art and the science of psychology will provide you with complementary skills applicable to a wide range of real-world problems. When Deforia Lane decided she wanted to become a music therapist, there was no such degree program at her institution; however, she found a way to combine her bachelor’s degree in vocal performance with graduate degrees in music education and gain the practical experience needed to become certified by the American Music Therapy Association. Dr. Lane’s work has been instrumental for bringing music therapy programs into medical settings. While grounded in the literature and scientific reasoning, she clearly works from an integrated, innovative approach that incorporates both practice-based evidence and evidence-based practice. As a result of her documenting and following up with research on her work, interventions that were initially based on her artistic strengths have come to be evidence-based practices (TEDx Talks, 2016). To learn more about Dr. Lane, watch this video, http://youtu.be/LGnWyS2Y4r8 (http://youtu.be/LGnWyS2Y4r8) , in which Dr. Lane talks about three of her cases and presents music therapy as an evidence-based practice. Whether your psychology degree takes you to a graduate degree in mental health, to juvenile probation or teaching, to sales or human resources, or to owning your own business or creating an entirely new profession, challenge yourself to think scientifically and creatively.

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Effective writing is an important skill for any career in psychology.

1.4 What Does It Mean to Write Like a Professional? Written communication skills are required in almost every career you are likely to pursue as a psychology graduate. The ability to write like a professional shows the reader that you are competent, capable, credible, and intelligent. Effective writing includes the ability to produce work free of distracting spelling and grammatical errors. It also includes the ability to write in a work-appropriate tone. Even if you do not see yourself writing research reports in your career, you still might spend a significant amount of time engaging in written communication through emails, memos, letters, notes, newsletters, social media posts, or electronic presentations (O’Farrell, 2018).

From the very first application and cover letter to all written products created on the job, the quality of your writing can advance or impede your career progress. Resumes and cover letters are not just meant to communicate your experience and interest in a specific position, they are also the first samples of your writing that employers see. No matter what you are writing, it is important to take the extra step to proofread. Check for typos and for unfortunate autocorrect substitutions. From the reader’s point of view, there is a big difference between “im interested in ths job” and “I’m interested in this job.” If sending an email, make sure you are sending it to the correct recipients.

Every communication with your instructors should be viewed as an opportunity to practice and improve your writing. If you are already employed, you should be familiar with the level of writing quality needed to be effective in your job and to position yourself for advancement when the opportunity arises. While it should be everyone’s goal to write everything correctly 100% of the time, this may not be absolutely necessary for everyone’s jobs. According to O’Farrell (2018), while some mistakes are glaring and easy to avoid, such as subject-verb agreement errors and confusing “their” and “they’re,” smaller errors, like confusing “who” and “whom,” may be less important in some work settings.

Effective professional writing is not just about mechanics, it is about making sure the content in your communications demonstrates higher order critical thinking. Writing is often judged by others as an indicator of the quality of your thinking and problem solving. The skills mentioned earlier in this chapter should come together to inform your writing. For example, before you can effectively prepare a report or summary, you need to be able to use your critical reading skills to comprehend and evaluate your sources (e.g., reports, journal articles, scholarly books). Some may be tempted to take shortcuts when reading journal articles and only read the abstract or the conclusion/discussion sections. However, in doing so, you put yourself at the mercy of the authors’ interpretations and you may miss very important information that would have led you to make a more intelligent decision about how to use the information in the article. Before sharing knowledge based on any author’s work, we should do our due diligence in obtaining full and accurate information in order to make sound decisions and communicate with others with clarity and precision.

Once you have a solid foundation of content about which to write, you will need to attend to formal guidelines about how to format your written communications. In a business setting, this may mean sticking to a professional tone. In psychological writing, it means using APA style. While there are other writing style guides, such as The MLA Style Manual and The Chicago Manual of Style, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the style manual of choice for writers in psychology and most professions in the social and behavioral sciences (APA, 2010b). Since your first psychology class, and in many of your early writing classes, you have had opportunities to write using APA style and format. Writing that uses APA style strives to communicate objectivity and credibility, and to give proper credit to any sources used to compose the work.

Many students view APA style as simply a list of rules to be followed to avoid getting points deducted from their grades on written assignments. However, APA style includes a wealth of useful information which can help to develop effective writing skills. In addition to providing guidelines for organizing papers and citing sources, many other topics are covered in the manual. Topics include writing clearly and concisely, reducing bias in language, displaying results, crediting sources, understanding the role of ethics in publishing, writing for the social and behavioral sciences, and the mechanics of style. APA Style CENTRAL (http://www.apastyle.org/ (https://www.apastyle.org/) ) includes information about where to access the manual, as well as quick answers to questions about references and formatting. There is even an APA style blog where you can find answers to common questions as well as an up-to-date APA style Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/ (https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/) .

You will have many opportunities to practice your APA writing style skills throughout your applied project course. It’s true that there are an enormous number of details to APA format, but don’t let it overwhelm you. Be patient and persistent and take advantage of the resources provided here and in the professional resources section at the end of the chapter. The keys to mastering any professional writing standard, including APA style, are focus, attention to details, and the conscientiousness and self- discipline to double check your format against an accurate resource on APA style.

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Ethical codes determine the appropriate behaviors and values for professionals in any field. What are the primary ethical concerns of the field you are interested in?

1.5 Are You Prepared to Be an Ethical Professional? In psychology, ethics refers to the rules of conduct professionals should use to govern themselves. As you have learned in previous courses, APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (the Ethics Code) addresses behavior related to clinical practice, education, research, and publication (APA, 2017c). The preamble to the Ethics Code clearly communicates that psychology students and professionals are held to a high standard of ethical behavior.

Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s understanding of themselves and others and to the use of such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Psychologists respect and protect civil and human rights and the central importance of freedom of inquiry and expression in research, teaching, and publication. They strive to help the public in developing informed judgments and choices concerning human behavior. In doing so, they perform many roles, such as researcher, educator, diagnostician, therapist, supervisor, consultant, administrator, social interventionist, and expert witness.

This Ethics Code provides a common set of principles and standards upon which psychologists build their professional and scientific work. This Ethics Code is intended to provide specific standards to cover most situations encountered by psychologists. It has as its goals the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work and the education of members, students, and the public regarding ethical standards of the discipline. (APA, 2017b)

The Ethics Code covers a wide range of areas, such as clinical, counseling, and school practice of psychology; research; teaching; supervision of trainees; public service; policy development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; conducting assessments; educational counseling; organizational consulting; forensic activities; program design and evaluation; and administration. Activities under the scrutiny of the Ethics Code include interactions occurring in person, by postal mail, telephone, Internet, and other electronic transmissions. The full text for Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct is available at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ (https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/) .

What types of potential ethical dilemmas do you anticipate might occur in your chosen profession and where will you turn for advice and guidance when you face these dilemmas? Most professions have professional standards or codes of ethics (e.g., social work, counseling, business, paralegal work, education, insurance, human resources, family childcare), and those related to psychology are no exception. If you are considering professions other than psychology, take a moment to locate the ethics code for one or more professions you are considering and look it over. Compare and contrast that ethics code with the APA Ethics Code. For example, as a psychologist, providing clinical services to your child or spouse would be an ethical violation; however, as a daycare worker, you could serve your child in your own daycare. Despite such differences, even if you are not planning to become a psychologist, you will find that many of the principles communicated in the APA Ethics Code represent values that can be guiding principles in many fields (e.g., only delegate work to those who have the education, training, or experience to perform competently; do not unfairly discriminate based on age, disability, socioeconomic status, religion, national origin, ethnicity, culture, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, or any basis proscribed by law). Each chapter in this text includes a section exploring the ethical issues unique to some of the psychology-related disciplines associated with the chapter’s subject matter.

Take the following quiz to determine your level of interest in graduate school.

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Summary

We began the chapter reflecting on the fact that there are a number of career paths you might chose to pursue as a psychology major. Having a clear understanding of your interests and options will help you decide if it is to your advantage to pursue a graduate degree, and if so, what type of graduate degree. If graduate school is in your future, you will need to do some research to find out what the admissions requirements are and if a standardized admissions test is required. This information will also be important as you explore the career development information throughout your applied project course. Regardless of your plans after completing your current psychology degree, knowledge and skills obtained from studying psychology will aid you in a wide variety of professional and personal contexts. Being able to think, read, and write critically and to present yourself in a professional and ethical manner will give you advantages in many areas in life. Understanding tools like statistics and research methods will assist you in studying any topic in psychology as well as many other fields of study. Mark Twain popularized the saying, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics” (Twain, 1906, p. 471). Thinking critically about statistical data and how research is conducted can help you avoid allowing pseudoscientific claims to mislead you and others. As we proceed through the remainder of this book, we will review a variety of content areas important in psychology and related fields. The book is designed to complement the readings and assignments in your applied project course. Enjoy a heightened level of professional confidence as you continue to learn, practice, utilize, and apply the methods of psychology to personal and professional situations in ways that will benefit you and those around you.

Concept Check 1. In his class introduction, Joe posts that he intends to obtain his master’s in psychology in order to become a licensed clinical psychologist or psychiatrist. His

professor, Dr. Xu, informs Joe that he will need more than a master’s degree for both of those professions. He also reminds Joe that a psychiatrist and a psychologist represent two very different career paths, with psychology requiring graduate degrees, typically a PhD or PsyD, and psychiatry requiring an MD or DO in medicine. Dr. Xu explains to Joe that there are other professions that will allow him to practice with only a master’s once licensed in those disciplines (e.g., counseling, social work, marital and family therapy) and that many colleges will hire graduates with master’s degrees in psychology to teach. In addition, if Joe is truly committed to one of those career paths, he will need to do additional research in order to find out which of the following?

a. what type(s) of degree(s) or coursework each career requires b. which admissions requirements and types of exams are required for a career in both professions c. which universities offer the degree(s) he would need d. all of the above

2. Tammy writes a paper on premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PDD) and includes the diagnostic criteria for PDD from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. She also includes the following statement “Psychologists should educate themselves on premenstrual dysphoric disorder because most women’s moods are significantly worse during their premenstrual periods.” She cites a blog post on a dot-com website which stated, “Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) impacts many women of childbearing age and includes notable changes in mood.” The remainder of her paper is primarily focused on providing educational campaigns and materials to increase awareness about PDD, which she equates to having PMS. Tammy has failed to (select all that apply)

a. use any scholarly sources. b. scientifically evaluate the claims in her source. c. read, think, and write critically. d. identify a valid scholarly topic.

3. Dana writes a brief discussion post response that lacks specificity and a clear application of critical thought. Her instructor asks, “Tell me more about your thinking when you wrote, ‘I would use an objective test.’ Which objective test would you use? Explain your reasoning using at least one scholarly source. What does the research indicate about the validity and reliability of the test you selected?” Dana’s professor’s questions are intended to help Dana improve her proficiency in the use of which intellectual standards?

a. Purpose, implications, and consequences b. Clarity, precision and accuracy c. Breadth and relevance d. Question at issue and logic

4. Which of the following is NOT one of the values of science as discussed in this chapter? a. Science values the ability to predict future behavior based on scientific data. b. Science values the ability to generate new ideas. c. Science values critical thinking and open mindedness. d. Science values unquestioning devotion.

5. APA style is a. the only professionally approved writing style. b. a professional style only used by psychologists. c. the preferred writing style for many scientific fields of study. d. complicated and impossible to master.

6. The APA Ethics Code a. applies to the work of psychology professionals in many roles. b. only applies to psychology counselors and clinical therapists. c. governs all types of professionals who provide counseling and other mental health services. d. is intended to be a basis for civil liability.

Answers

1. d. The answer can be found in Section 1.1. 2. b and c. The answers can be found in Section 1.2. 3. b. The answer can be found in Section 1.2. 4. d. The answer can be found in Section 1.3. 5. c. The answer can be found in Section 1.4. 6. a. The answer can be found in Section 1.5.

Questions for Critical Thinking

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1. You and a colleague at work have been assigned to craft a slideshow on some of your recent work to present to your supervisor and other colleagues. Your supervisor will also incorporate aspects of your presentation into a larger presentation to be presented to the board of directors. Your colleague is responsible for gathering data related to the population your company or organization serves, while you are responsible for transforming the data into presentation slides. You are scheduled to give the presentation on Monday morning and your supervisor will present to the board on Tuesday afternoon. You and your colleague complete the presentation Friday afternoon and forward it to your supervisor. To celebrate and recover from the completion of an assignment that took several weeks of extra work, on top of your regular duties, you make out-of-town reservations to spend the weekend with your family. To get the best rate possible, you make nonrefundable reservations on a website requiring you to prepay your hotel. Less than an hour after you submit the presentation to your supervisor, who has been waiting for you to complete your work so she can complete her work, you discover that your colleague collected data from an inaccurate source which caused you to produce 30 inaccurate slides in the middle of your presentation. The conclusions drawn from the information your colleague used do not apply to your clientele. You based three of your eight recommendations on faulty information. Some of the information is from sources that are not credible, and some of the information is from scholarly sources that are outdated or do not apply to your population. What do you do?

2. You are in the waiting area at the mechanic while your car is being serviced. You overhear a conversation between another customer and the automobile repair shop owner. The owner has twin boys who are 18 months old. The customer is a woman who appears to be in her 50s or 60s. She makes are comment about the twins and cautions the owner to be prepared for the “terrible twos”—a stereotype about two-year-olds you learned in your developmental psychology class to be inaccurate. Do you say anything? Why or why not? If so, what do you say and to whom do you say it?

3. You and your partner attend a dinner party at an acquaintance’s house. You find the host to be cold and rude, completely different from your previous memories of her. Your partner looks at you puzzled and asks what gave you that impression. You give three examples from the evening. Your partner remembers the exact same conversations but perceived the host to be warm, friendly, and outgoing, with a bit of an eccentric sense of humor. In fact, your partner had such a good time that your partner tentatively invited the host to have dinner with you two soon and to contact you to decide on a time and place. Apply the elements of thought to this scenario and describe how you would proceed in communicating with your partner and the host about the current evening and potential future invitations.

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the definition.

APA style (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The writing style utilized for social science research results as outlined by the American Psychological Association.

cognitive psychology (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A psychological perspective based on the assumption that human behavior is determined by cognitive (thinking) processes (e.g., attention, memory, or perception).

critical listening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A mode of monitoring how we are listening so as to maximize our understanding of what another person is saying.

critical thinking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Self-disciplined, autonomous thinking that is appropriate to subject matter and discipline, exemplifies mastery of higher order intellectual skills and abilities, and makes use of metacognition (or the ability to reflect on one's thinking in real time).

critical reading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

An active, intellectually engaged process in which the reader applies the elements of thought to understand the point of view of the writer.

critical writing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Writing in which wellreasoned conclusions are presented based on an evaluation and analysis of evidence from several sources representing different points of view.

elements of thought (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A model of thinking developed by Dr. Richard Paul to explain the different parts of thinking: point of view, purpose, question at issue, information, interpretations and inferences, concepts, assumptions, and implications and consequences.

intellectual standards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Standards applied to thinking to determine the quality of one's reasoning.

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scientific method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A series of systematic steps researchers use to plan, conduct and report research in order to ensure data is valid and reliable.

Professional Resources APA Style CENTRAL: http://www.apastyle.org/ (https://www.apastyle.org/)

APA Style Blog: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/ (https://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/)

APA Style Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/ (https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/)

Careers in Psychology: http://www.apa.org/careers/index.aspx (https://www.apa.org/careers/index.aspx)

Divisions of the American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/about/division/ (https://www.apa.org/about/division/)

Common Graduate School Admissions Tests The Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) is a standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many graduate schools. Graduate programs which accept the GRE typically require the General Test (https://www.ets.org/gre/revised_general/about/?WT.ac=grehome_greabout_a_150213 (https://www.ets.org/gre/revised_general/about/?WT.ac=grehome_greabout_a_150213) ), and many also require one of the Subject Tests (https://www.ets.org/gre/subject/about/? WT.ac=grehome_gresubject_150213 (https://www.ets.org/gre/subject/about/?WT.ac=grehome_gresubject_150213) ). For more information, visit https://www.ets.org/gre (https://www.ets.org/gre) .

The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is typically used as an admission requirement to graduate management programs, such as MBAs. Some business graduate programs will accept either the GRE or the GMAT. For more information, visit http://www.mba.com/us (https://www.mba.com/us) .

The Miller Analogies Test (MAT) is used for graduate school admissions. For more information, visit http://www.pearsonassessments.com/postsecondaryeducation/graduate_admissions/mat.html (https://www.pearsonassessments.com/postsecondaryeducation/graduate_admissions/mat.html) .

The Law School Admission Test (LSAT) is an integral part of the law school admission process. For more information, visit https://www.lsac.org/jd/lsat/about-the-lsat (https://www.lsac.org/lsat) .

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

Describe the eight stages of the human lifespan.

Identify the theoretical perspectives most commonly associated with human growth and development.

Discuss socioemotional development in children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly.

Elaborate on the importance of lifestyle choices throughout the lifespan.

Analyze ethical dilemmas one might face in the lifespan development field.

Discuss career options in the field of lifespan development.

Dr. Vela is a developmental psychologist with a private practice in San Diego, California, who counsels families and children. Dr. Vela focuses on how thoughts, emotions, and behavior can change throughout an individual’s life. She pulls from a variety of developmental theories related to biological, social, emotional and cognitive processes. Her goal is to help each client optimize his or her development.

Earlier in the week, Debra Green, a 20-year-old college student, came in to see Dr. Vela for the first time. She arrived at the office with her boyfriend, Matt. In her first session, she described how her apartment was recently broken into by her neighbor’s teenage son. Debra was not at home during the burglary, but it has had a large impact on her. Debra told Dr. Vela that she wants to move far away from her current neighborhood, stating, “I will never trust anyone again.” Matt stays with Debra every night, but recently told her he needed to be back at his place for a while to take care of a few things. This caused Debra to become distraught. She described being afraid to leave her apartment and blamed her fear on Matt for not staying with her.

Dr. Vela asked Debra about her childhood and discovered that Debra’s parents were very loving and made sure she had whatever she needed. Debra described her father as generous and described Matt as being “just like my father,” stating, “he can’t say no to me.” Matt buys most of Debra’s clothes, food, and gas, and pays her rent. Dr. Vela begins to theorize that Debra has transferred her desire to be taken care of by finding a boyfriend who would support these needs as her parents did.

After speaking to Debra at length, Dr. Vela used Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to determine that, due to the burglary, Debra’s security needs are no longer being met. Furthermore, the perceived lack of emotional support on the part of Debra’s boyfriend adds to Debra’s feelings of insecurity.

Dr. Vela begins by validating Debra’s terrible experience and thanking her for her courage in seeking help. She discusses Debra’s relationship with her parents and explains how this can transfer to adult relationships. Dr. Vela explains to Debra that in order for her relationship to remain healthy, it is essential for her to support Matt’s

2Lifespan Development Yvonne M. Lozano, PhD—Ashford University

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needs as he supports hers. In closing the session, Dr. Vela recommends that Debra return for further sessions to help deal with her insecurities.

What led Debra to retain the same persistent, determined disposition throughout her life? How does the timing of events—for example, Debra’s early experiences with her parents—affect development? What factors led Debra to have a strong sense of insecurity?

These are essential questions often asked in developmental science, a field of study devoted to identifying components that influence differences in individuals from conception to death.

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2.1 Lifespan Perspective The lifespan perspective describes development as a lifelong process during which no specific stage controls another. Lifespan psychologists study the biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors that form the foundation of lifespan development. Early theorists believed that development occurred through childhood and adolescence but reached a plateau once a person reached adulthood. Although Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory in the late 1950s posited that development extended into adulthood, empirical studies that connected the various aspects of the lifespan did not begin until the early 1970s.

People go through physical, cognitive, and emotional changes throughout their entire lives, each of which intersect and interact with one another. These changes are dependent on life events and adjust according to individual challenges. A life event can be anything that changes the course of a person’s life. The impact of life events is ever-changing and unpredictable.

Development occurs quickest in the early years of life, but growth and development occur throughout a human’s life. The lifespan perspective involves constant growth and change throughout an individual’s biological, social, and cognitive domains (Baltes, 1987; Baltes & Smith, 2003; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006). Paul Baltes, a German psychologist practicing in the 1980s, recognized that individuals change throughout the entirety of their lives. According to Baltes (1987), there are a variety of working premises that form the lifespan perspective:

Development is lifelong. Development involves many dimensions, including physical, cognitive, and socioemotional. The body, mind, and emotions are evolving at all ages. Development is multidirectional. For instance, the ability to learn a new language peaks in childhood and diminishes with age. As adults, knowledge increases over time, however, the ability to process new information diminishes in old age (Ardelt, 2011; Staudinger & Gluck, 2011a). Development is plastic. Plasticity is defined as the capacity for change. For example, studies have revealed that older adults can improve their cognitive skills through utilization and coordination of certain strategies (Schaie, 2011; Stine-Morrow & Basak, 2011). Development is connected to one’s background. Everyone’s background is different, and includes family, neighborhoods, communities, friends, religious affiliation, and country (or countries) of residence. According to Kitayama and Uskul (2011), each of these contexts is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. Development involves an individual’s growth across and within a variety of domains. For example, an elderly man may not be too concerned with creating new memories if he is more concerned with recalling the memories that he presently has. Development is a combination of various factors, including one’s culture, biology, and individuality (Baltes, Reuter-Lonrnez, & Rösler, 2006).

Throughout this chapter we will discuss stages of the human life such as early childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood; each of these stages has an approximate age range that will be used for the purposes of this chapter. See Table 2.1 for the approximate age range of each period of life.

Table 2.1: Major stages of the human lifespan Period Approximate age range

Prenatal Conception to birth

Infancy and toddlers Birth–2 years

Early childhood 2–6 years

Middle childhood 6–11 years

Adolescence 11–18 years

Early adulthood 18–40 years

Middle adulthood 40–65 years

Late adulthood 65–75 years

Elderhood 75 years–death

While categorizing these stages is useful for the purpose of a textbook, understand that they are not set in stone. Everyone moves through life at their own pace; for some, adolescence extends into their early 20s. According to the lifespan perspective, no period impacts the life course more or less than the next. Instead, life events in each period equally influence one’s physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development.

A DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGIST SPEAKS

Dr. Koraly Perez-Edgar, PhD Developmental Psychologist

As a developmental psychologist, Dr. Koraly Perez- Edgar attempts to understand lifespan development at all stages of life. The goal—to help people overcome developmental challenges and recognize their full potential.

Reading Early Signs

Many people experience shyness but some people are so fearful of social situations that it impairs the quality of their lives. These people have social anxiety disorder, which is defined by the National Institutes of Health as overwhelming and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social or performance situations.

According to developmental psychologist Koraly Pérez-Edgar, PhD, social anxiety disorder often develops in early childhood.

"Some children are born at risk of anxiety — it's just their biology," says Pérez-Edgar, an associate professor of psychology at Penn State University, where she leads the Cognition, Affect and Temperament Lab. “However, only a subset of these children actually develop anxiety. I study why this minority stays anxious. I look at their genetics, their social interactions and their temperament. I also focus on attention bias to threat, which is a tendency to notice and process things that are potentially threatening.”

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A portrait of Dr. Koraly Perez-Edgar.

One trait that Pérez-Edgar examines is called behavioral inhibition — defined as the tendency to display signs of fear and wariness in response to unfamiliar stimuli — which can lead to fear of social circumstances, isolation and clinical levels of anxiety. According to Perez-Edgar’s research, it is a trait that can be identified as early as 4 months old.

Biology, Meet Psychology

Pérez-Edgar uses multiple methods of analysis to examine behavior, cognition and biology in children.

“For behavior, I look at how they interact with their peers and their parents. For cognition, I monitor attention, memory and performance monitoring, sometimes using simple computer tasks that capture some aspects of it,” she says. “In the case of infants as young as 4 months of age, I use infrared eye tracking to see what they are paying attention to.”

To study human biology, Pérez-Edgar analyzes genetics and monitors brain activity with electroencephalography and magnetic resonance imaging. The information she gathers, such as changes in brain activity, heart rate and stress hormones, help her identify children at risk for anxiety and determine ways to prevent its onset.

The Puzzle of Human Behavior

Pérez-Edgar describes her research as a puzzle, where she uses scientific methods to figure out which ideas and theories work and which do not.

“Every now and then, we get a picture of what is actually happening — whether it’s a piece of data or a brain image or a video that captures the essence of what we’ve been studying,” says Pérez-Edgar. “When we’re able to get this little glimpse, it’s one of the most magical things that science can do. That’s what keeps it interesting and sustainable, that piece of beauty.”

Source: Reproduced with permission from APA. (2017). Koraly Pérez-Edgar, Phd: Developmental psychologist. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/action/careers/improve-lives/perez-edgar.aspx (https://www.apa.org/action/careers/improve-lives/perez-edgar.aspx) . Copyright © 2017 American Psychological Association.

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Sweet sixteen parties are a custom meant to celebrate a teenage girl's transition into a new stage of maturity.

2.2 Human Development In this section we will take a look at the process of development from birth to death. There are many components involved in this process and each is impacted by a variety of factors. To understand the effects of these various influences, researchers in this area ask questions such as the following:

To what extent do environmental and hereditary factors affect psychological development individually, and how do they interact to affect development? What social pressures contribute to suicide in adolescents and older adults? At what age do children begin to ask questions? How does divorce impact children’s social and emotional development?

The answers to these questions provide knowledge that can be applied in everyday life and can lead to a better understanding of the impact of social pressures on human development. Consider the case study from the beginning of the chapter. Debra’s perception of others was influenced early in life by her relationship with her parents. Because she always had people taking care of her needs, she always depended on others to care for her. These factors affected her psychological development and interpersonal relationships. Let’s review further factors that influence human development.

What Factors Influence Development?

The lifespan perspective identifies a variety of components that influence development, including age-graded influences, history-graded influences, nonnormative influences, biological and environmental influences, and social and community support. Each element works together and creates each person’s individual life course.

Age-Graded Influences

Age-graded influences are predictable events related to age. Some of these are influenced by biology, such as when a child learns to walk, when an adolescent begins to go through puberty, and when an older woman begins to experience menopause. Other age-graded influences are social customs, such as when a child starts school, when a teenager is old enough to get a driver’s license, and when it is normal for an older person to retire from work. Influences such as these often are aimed at helping younger people learns the skills needed to participate in society.

History-Graded Influences

Development is significantly affected by forces unique to specific historical times. Examples include wars, terrorist attacks, economic depressions, technological advances like the introduction of computers and the Internet, and changes in cultural values such as the advancement of women in the workplace. These history-graded influences can explain commonalities in a group of people of similar age, also called a cohort, and can set one cohort apart from those born in different historical circumstances.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Identify a history-graded influence in your life and think about its impact on people your age. Then ask someone a generation or two older or younger than you to identify a history-graded influence in his or her life and to reflect on its impact.

Nonnormative Influences

Age-graded and history-graded influences are normative—meaning typical, or average—because each can affect many individuals in the same way. A nonnormative influence is a life event that is not typical or average, for instance, winning an Olympic medal or surviving a plane crash.

Since, by their very nature, nonnormative events are irregular and unpredictable, they are a difficult topic for researchers to study effectively (Baltes et al., 2006). Everyone experiences nonnormative events at some point in their lives, and they affect everyone differently. As children age and grow into adults, nonnormative influences become more powerful and age-graded influences have less influence. This adds to the fluid nature of lifespan development.

Biology and Environmental Influences: Nature Versus Nurture

Is development influenced by an individual’s genetic background (nature) or an individual’s environment (nurture)? This debate has been argued for decades. Some scholars put forth that genetic predisposition is passed through generations and controls all aspects of life. As examples, nature proponents bring up diabetes, drug or alcohol addiction, and Alzheimer’s disease, all of which have genetic components. Others argue that genetic disposition is not final in determining health conditions or behaviors. These individuals believe that living a positive and healthy life can help someone avoid these conditions; for example, a person may exercise regularly to help prevent diabetes or heart disease (Kreman & Lyons, 2011; Grusec, 2011). This debate is ongoing and continues to be a main component of current research in human development.

Familial, Social, and Community Support

Research has often found that children show high levels of resilience, meaning they are able to manage life’s stressors and adapt to a large variety of changing circumstances (Furman & Rose, 2015). Research shows that the support of a competent, caring adult helps build this resiliency (Furman & Rose, 2015). A child who does not have a close relationship with a family member or a teacher will have difficulty developing resilience (Masten, 2013). Developing relationships with strong, rule- following peers who are focused on academic achievement is also linked to resilience (Furman & Rose, 2015).

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Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced the world to the theory of evolution, which was widely accepted as fact soon after.

Access to community resources, including neighborhood adults, high-quality childcare centers and public schools, convenient and affordable healthcare and social services, libraries, and recreation centers, fosters both parents’ and children’s well-being (Furman & Rose, 2015). Access to these services can supplement the care families provide and increase the learning and development opportunities children have. A lack of these resources can negatively impact development (Furman & Rose, 2015).

To further understand human development, let’s take a closer look at some of the major theories of human development used by psychologists and by others to do research and make decisions about their own and others’ children.

Theories of Human Growth and Development

Let’s start by recalling what a theory is and how it functions. Theories are designed to provide a framework for the way in which we observe and understand phenomena. Scientific research validates theories and provides a guide for the application of what has been learned. There are many theories within the field of human development that seek to explain how people become themselves. Applying these theories helps professionals in the field understand and develop programs to improve methods of caring for children and adults.

The Theory of Evolution

Charles Darwin (1809–1882), a British naturalist, studied plant and animal species, observing that no two individuals of any species were exactly alike. After years of research, Darwin published the theory of evolution in 1859. Darwin’s theory helps us to take a closer look at how differences in human development are related to our individual genetic differences. The theory of evolution described the principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest. Together, these principles proposed that specific species thrived in specific environments due to animals’ abilities to adapt to their surroundings. In any given environment, animals that meet or surpass the requirements of their situation will live long enough to survive and reproduce and pass these skills to future generations. Those who do not survive, die before reproducing, thus removing their particular set of adaptations from the gene pool. Over time, nature selects for specific characteristics, and the best adaptations survive. Darwin believed humans’ physical and behavioral characteristics were also related to their ability to adapt to different circumstances over time (1859).

This belief in human growth and adaptability became an origin point for some theories of human development, and continues to be applied in developmental circles today. For example, evolutionary developmental psychology is a contemporary application of the theory of evolution that proposes that natural selection is at work throughout the lifespan. It explores the interactions between a person’s genetics and a person’s environment and how these two factors interact to create a distinct individual (Machluf, Liddle, & Bjorklund, 2014).

Psychoanalytic Perspective

In the mid-twentieth century, the study of human development expanded into a legitimate discipline. More individuals were seeking assistance from mental health professionals to manage emotional difficulties. More mental health professionals were asking how and why people develop in specific ways. A variety of theories emerged, each of which continues to have followers today. These theories contrast concern with individuals’ inner thoughts and feelings against an academic focus on scientific precision and concrete, observable behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory assesses factors that motivate an individual’s behavior and focuses on the unconscious. According to Freud, as individuals progress through life, they must repeatedly choose between their own biological drives and social expectations (Freud, 1920). The way a person manages these conflicts shapes their coping and interpersonal skills. Psychoanalytic theory is one of the most utilized theories of human development. Most modern counseling and psychotherapy theories have been influenced by or are a reaction to psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson were foundational theorists who supported and helped to develop the psychoanalytic approach. Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic and psychosexual theories of development in the 1890s. Erikson developed the theory of psychosocial development in the 1940s and 1950s. Let’s take a closer look at these theorists.

Sigmund Freud and Psychosexual Theory Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a Viennese physician who believed that the key to helping emotionally troubled adults was through encouraging them to open up about traumatic events in their childhoods. Freud assessed his subjects’ recollections and examined their unconscious motivations. His research led him to develop the psychosexual theory of human development. In Freud’s theory, three parts of the personality—id (primal instincts), ego (desires tempered by societal expectations), and superego (higher morals)—integrate during five stages, summarized in Table 2.2 (1920). The five stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital; each stage is characterized by a particular area from which (according to Freud) children of that age derived gratification. During the preschool years, according to Freud, crucial relations are established among the id, ego, and superego. These relationships determine large portions of people’s personalities, and their development depends on parents’ management of their children’s sexual and aggressive drives in those first few years (Freud, 1920).

Table 2.2: Freud's stages of psychosexual development

Age Stage of psychosexual development Characteristic of the stage

Birth to 18 months ORAL Gratification or pleasure is derived from the mouth, may include sucking, eating and biting.

18 months to 3 years of age

ANAL Gratification or pleasure is derived from eliminating withholding feces, which coincides with toilet training.

3 years old to 6 years of age

PHALLIC Gratification or pleasure is derived from the genitals.

6 years old to adolescence LATENCY Gratification or pleasure is derived from a particular body part is no longer a focus during this stage.

Adolescence to adulthood GENITAL Gratification or pleasure is reemerging and is once again derived from the genitals. Source: Adapted from Freud, S. (1920). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Boni & Liveright.

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In recent decades, many of the tenets of Freud’s psychosexual theory have come into question. However, the theory was very influential for many years and inspired generations of therapists and theorists after him. Some psychologists developed neo-analytic theories, which kept some aspects of Freud’s theory (such as the importance of the unconscious), rejected others (such as the focus on sexuality), and expanded development to cover the entire lifespan, instead of stopping at age six. One prominent neo-analytic theory developed in the wake of Freud’s work was psychosocial theory.

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a follower of psychoanalytic theory who expanded the process of development to include eight stages: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, ego identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and ego integrity vs. despair (1982; see Table 2.3). This should be familiar from your earlier classes. Erikson’s psychosocial theory, developed in 1959, posited that development continued into adulthood and late life, unlike Freud’s theory, which stopped after adolescence. At each stage in the psychosocial theory, a person faces a fundamental conflict that must be resolved. Erikson believed if an individual could not complete a stage successfully, the chances of completing further steps would be lower. Failure could lead to emotional issues that could compromise one’s personality and sense of self. Erikson did believe, however, that these stages could be resolved later in life (1982).

Table 2.3: Stages of development in psychosocial theory Stage Psychosocial development Age

1 Trust vs. mistrust

Infants either develop confidence in or mistrust of the world around them.

Infancy (0 to 1 ½ years)

2 Autonomy vs. shame

Young children either develop confidence in their abilities to survive in the world or they feel shame and self-doubt due to their dependence on others.

Early childhood (1 ½ to 3)

3 Initiative vs. guilt

Young children’s sense of initiative and purpose is strengthened, or they feel guilt and lose self-initiative due to feelings of embarrassment.

Play age (3 to 5)

4 Industry vs. inferiority

Children develop the belief that they can develop skills, or they doubt their abilities and feel inferior.

School age (5–13)

5 Ego identity vs. role confusion

Adolescents begin to develop identities separate from those around them, or they get confused about the role they want to play and avoid responsibilities and act rebelliously.

Adolescence (13– 21)

6 Intimacy vs. isolation

Young adults enjoy long-term committed relationships, or they feel isolated if they are not able to form intimate relationships.

Young adulthood (21–39)

7 Generativity vs. stagnation

Adults want to give back to society and be productive, or they feel meaningless and stagnant.

Middle adulthood (40–65)

8 Ego integrity vs. despair

At this age, older adults look back on their lives and feel content with their choices, or they feel regret and despair at their lack of achievement.

Older adults 65+

Source: Adapted from Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York, NY: Norton.

Both Freud’s and Erikson’s theories inspired a great deal of research on many aspects of emotional and social development. Some of these include family relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and aggression. Erikson’s extended research of lifespan change provided pivotal documentation of psychosocial growth during each significant period of the life course. However, despite the important research and contributions stemming from this view, the psychoanalytic perspective is no longer at the forefront of human development research.

Behaviorism

At the same time as the psychoanalytic perspective was gaining popularity, the study of development was also becoming further influenced by a view called behaviorism. In behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli and responses—are the focus of research. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s (1849–1934) research into classical conditioning and animal learning in the 1890s was a precursor to later behaviorism research. Pavlov trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a buzzer by sounding the buzzer every time that they were presented with food. The dogs’ behavior was affected by the stimuli; they learned to associate the buzzer with food in a way that produced an automatic response (Bandura, 2002).

John Watson (1878–1958), an American psychologist, was inspired by Pavlov’s research. Watson became one of the earliest advocates of behavioral psychology in the 1910s. He promoted behavioral psychology as an objective science and advocated for the use of the scientific theory (Watson, 1930). His research focused on measurable human behavior, as he believed that this was the only way to obtain objective data with which to further scientific knowledge of the human mind (Watson, 1930). This formed a sharp contrast with Freud and his followers, who focused on internal mental processes.

Another form of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner’s (1904–1990) operant conditioning theory, first published in 1938. Operant conditioning theory holds that specific behaviors could be maintained and increased through reinforcers, such as food, gifts, or a friendly smile, or decreased through punishment, such as any form of disapproval (Skinner, 1947). For example, a child may learn to open a box to get a treat inside or to evacuate a building when a fire alarm goes off. As a result of Skinner’s work, operant conditioning became, and still is, a broadly applied principle in education, child development, and behavior modification, as well as other fields.

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Bandura's BoBo Doll Experiment

Take a moment to review the video below on Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment. In the Bobo Doll experiment, researchers tested whether children learn by observing the behavior of adults.

1. Why might children pick up the behaviors of the adults around them?

2. Are there any factors that the Bobo doll experiment did not account for?

Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory

In the 1950s, in the wake of the approaches led by Watson and Skinner, psychologist Albert Bandura developed social learning theory, which proposed that development could occur through modeling, or imitating, the behaviors of others (2002). Bandura continued to evolve and revise his theory through research, and today it is labeled social cognitive theory, stressing the importance of cognition or thinking (1992, 2001). Bandura showed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate as they grow and learn. Children learn what to imitate and what to avoid by seeing blame and praise attributed to others’ actions (Bandura, 2002). For example, take a child whose mother has high self-esteem and states, “I work hard, and am a committed employee. I know I can get that promotion at work,” and also tells her child, “I know you can learn to ride a bike, you’re smart and strong.” This child is more likely to view herself as strong, capable, and smart, based on the model her mother has set for her. As an adult, this child will seek individuals who model this type of behavior.

Bandura’s work has played a large role in shaping the field of social development, and both social learning theory and social cognitive theory have been the basis of treatment methods for a wide range of adjustment problems (Piaget, 1964). However, many theorists have criticized behaviorism and social learning theory for failing to take into account important environmental influences, saying that they do not offer a complete picture.

Cognitive Theories

The work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) has greatly influenced research on child development. Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and a pioneer in the field of child development; he was publishing from the 1920s through the 1970s. As the influence of behaviorism diminished in the 1960s, researchers paid closer attention to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Piaget did not believe children’s behaviors are dependent on reinforcement. A central component of Piaget’s theory is adaptation and children’s ability to adapt to their environment (Piaget, 1976). He believed children actively construct knowledge as they discover their surroundings. Piaget believed that children are constantly learning and that their minds are filled with structures for creating knowledge.

Piaget’s research showed that a child’s understanding is not the same as that of an adult. His cognitive theory of development laid out several stages of development that children go through (see Table 2.4). From birth through adolescence children progress through the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage. For example, infants in the sensorimotor stage lack object permanence; if an object is presented to an infant and then hidden, the infant will believe the object is gone from existence. According to the cognitive theory of development, by the time a child enters the preoperational stage, his understanding will have grown to encompass the idea that objects exist even when they cannot be seen. Piaget’s stages prompted a great deal of research on children’s belief in themselves and others. They led to the development of discovery learning and educational methods that emphasize an individual’s relationship with their environment.

Table 2.4: Piaget's stages of development Stage Characterized by

Sensorimotor (Birth– approximately 2 years)

Differentiates self from objects. Recognizes self and begins to act intentionally. Example: A child slides a finger across an iPad to activate it.

Preoperational (Approximately 2–7 years)

Learns to use language and to identify objects by images and words. Has difficulty taking the view of others; egocentric. Example: A child draws a picture of her family, but none of the people are to scale or given accurate physical traits.

Concrete operational (Approximately 7–11 years)

Can think logically about events and objects. Example: A child understands that when a glass of water is poured from a wide glass into a skinny glass, the amount of water has not changed, only its appearance.

Formal operational (Adolescence)

Becomes concerned with the future and ideological problems. Example: A child can have discussions about what is morally right and what is morally wrong.

Source: Adapted from Piaget, J. (1976). The grasp of consciousness: Actions and concept in the young child. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

One challenge to Piaget’s work has been the claim that Piaget overlooked the competencies of infants and preschoolers. For example, research has found that infants as young as 3.5 to 4.5 months old show evidence of understanding object permanence, something that Piaget believed occurred after one year of age (Baillargeon & DeVos, 1991). Piaget’s experiments may have been too complex for infants and were therefore not obtaining accurate results. Researchers have concluded that measurement of cognitive maturity is dependent on the complexity of knowledge and the individual’s familiarity with the given task (Miller, 2011).

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Another leading perspective in the field of developmental science is framed by the idea that human development and culture are closely connected (Mistry & Dutta, 2015). The contributions of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) and his followers have played a major role in this area. Vygotsky pioneered a new perspective called sociocultural theory. His perspective focused on how the beliefs, values, customs, and skills of a social group are transferred from adults to children (Rowe & Wertsch, 2002). Vygotsky’s contributions to the study of cognitive development were immense; one of the more lasting concepts is the zone of proximal development.

Bandura's BoBo Doll Experiment From Title:

Inside Out-The Learning Machine: Learning (https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx? wID=100753&xtid=70422)

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Vygotsky (1962) believed that children’s learning takes place within the zone of proximal development, which is defined as a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of an adult or a more skilled peer. Below the zone of proximal development is the level of skill reached by that child independently. Above the zone is only reached when the child is given some assistance from an adult or more skilled peer. The zone of proximal development captures cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing but have not fully matured yet (Vygotsky, 1962). For example, Thaddeus is at school eating a yogurt tube for a snack. He is struggling to get the yogurt out of the bottom of the tube because he does not know to squeeze the bottom of the tube to make the yogurt rise to the top; instead, he keeps squeezing the top of the tube. His teacher says, “Try squeezing it from the bottom,” and then points to the bottom of his yogurt tube. Thaddeus starts squeezing from the bottom and sees the yogurt rise to the top of the tube. He yells out to the teacher, “I did it! I got the yogurt out!” In this example, Thaddeus was in the zone of proximal development and used assistance from his teacher to learn how to get the yogurt from the bottom of the tube. This type of scaffolded learning is often used in early childhood education settings.

Ecological Systems Theory

Developmental psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) is responsible for developing an approach to human development in 1979 that is now at the forefront of the field, offering a sophisticated yet succinct account of relationships, and having a powerful impact on human development (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000). Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships impacted by several levels within an individual’s environment. Those levels are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (see Figure 2.1).

The microsystem consists of the everyday interactions of an individual’s immediate environment. For example, Amelia is a 4-year-old whose microsystem comprises her parents, her friends, and her childcare teachers.

The mesosystem is the connection of an individual’s two or more microsystems. For example, each morning when Amelia’s parents drop her off at childcare, they spend a few minutes talking to her teachers about how her night went, what time she woke up that morning, and whether she has eaten breakfast. These interactions of Amelia’s parents with her childcare teachers are part of her mesosystem.

The exosystem is the connection of two or more systems; however, what distinguishes the exosystem from the mesosystem is that one of the systems does not directly contain the individual. For example, Amelia’s mother, Eileen, was written up for not following company protocol at the end of one workday. When she arrived at Amelia’s school shortly thereafter, she had a short temper and was grumpy with Amelia. Eileen’s work (the system that does not contain Amelia) had an influence on Amelia because after hearing the bad news, Eileen had little tolerance for Amelia’s self-expression and self-reliance.

The microsystem is formed by the broader cultural influences of society on an individual. In this sense, the macrosystem is comprised of the various forms of governments, religions, and values that are part of an individual’s culture. For example, Amelia resides in Chicago, Illinois. Growing up in the United States, Amelia is part of a culture that values education. As a result, Amelia’s parents enrolled her in a prestigious private childcare facility that places the educational attainment of the child at its forefront.

The chronosystem is the underlying influence of time on the individual. The influence of time can include historical events (such as the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001) or timing of environmental changes. For example, the timing of when Amelia’s parents decide to buy a new house and move to a new neighborhood would have an effect on her development.

Figure 2.1: Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory model

All of the systems identified by Bronfenbrenner influence one another, thereby affecting an individual's development.

Source: Adapted from Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Career Spotlight: Crystal G.

Name: Crystal G.

Primary job title: Victim Advocate

Type of employer: Family Violence Women’s Center

How long have you been employed in your present position? For about 3 1/2 years.

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What degrees do you hold? I have a bachelor’s in psychology.

Describe your major job duties and responsibilities. I help support victims of crime. I connect clients with community resources for housing, employment, medical care, or legal assistance.

What do you like most about your job? I love working with clients and their children. I love feeling like I am making a difference in people’s lives.

What do you like least about your job? Sometimes it’s hard to go home at the end of the day and not take my cases with me. Some of the women I work with have had really traumatic experiences.

Beyond your bachelor’s degree, what additional education or specialized training have you received? I have no other degrees besides my BS in psychology. However, my job provides a great deal of training.

What is the compensation package for an entry-level position in your occupation? Well, my job pays around $32,000 per year, and I get health insurance, a 401k, one week paid vacation per year, and two paid mental health days per year.

What are the key skills necessary for you to succeed in your career? I need to be able to communicate, listen, and be empathetic and compassionate. I need to be organized, efficient, and trustworthy. I also need to be a team player and be able to resolve problems in a fair and professional manner.

Thinking back to your undergraduate career, can you think of extracurricular activities (e.g., research assistantships, internships, honor societies, student groups, etc.) that were key to success in your type of career? I didn’t have much time to participate in outside activities, but I made an effort to attend local community events related to psychology. Like seminars on domestic violence or Alzheimer’s disease. It was a great opportunity to meet professionals in the community and learn of any open positions.

What advice would you give to someone who was thinking about entering the field you are in? Know what you want to do; don’t choose a job just to get a job. If you can, network by attending community events. Most community events are free or offer student discounts. Spend time speaking to professionals in the field, maybe even try to shadow them at work and decide which job is the best fit for your life.

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The self-conscious emotions infants experience most often are stranger anxiety and separation anxiety.

2.3 Lifespan Development The journey through the lifespan involves many physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. At the start of life, people grow rapidly from infancy to puberty. Eventually, physical growth slows, but other physical changes may continue to occur as people get older. Cognitive development includes processes that produce changes within an individual’s language, thought processes, and overall intelligence and emphasizes an individual’s ability to actively construct his or her thinking. Throughout a person’s lifespan, his or her way of thinking and ability to process information will change significantly. A person’s ability to comprehend, think, and understand information is dependent on that person’s stage of cognitive development (Bandura, 2002). Socioemotional development describes processes that involve changes among and within an individual’s social environment and progresses throughout the lifespan as social, emotional, and moral development occurs. A person’s ability to interact with others will evolve and change as the person grows. As such, the way that person interacts with others will also evolve and change over time (Bandura, 1986).

Infant and Toddler Years (Birth–2 Years)

In the U.S., the average weight of a newborn is 7 ½ pounds and the average length is 20 inches. (Burns, Dunn, Brady, Starr, & Blosser, 2013; Marcdante & Kliegman, 2014). After the first few days of life, a newborn will lose 5 to 7 percent of their body weight. Infants learn to eat and grow rapidly; by their first birthday they will grow in height by 40 percent. After the second year, growth will slow. By the age of 2, the infant will weigh about four times as much as they did when they were born (26–32 pounds) and will be an average of 32 to 35 inches (Burns et al., 2013; Marcdante & Kliegman, 2014). Children all grow and develop at their own rates. However, regular wellness visits with a doctor in which height and weight measurements are taken help to ensure that a child is developing at a pace within the normal range.

Cognitive Growth in the Infant and Toddler Years

In an attempt to clarify how children adjust and utilize their schemes, Piaget described two concepts: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when a child uses current schemes to manage incoming information or experiences. Think about a toddler who has learned to use the word pad to describe his mother’s iPad. The toddler may start using the word pad to identify any phone or tablet. The child has then assimilated these objects into his current scheme. Accommodation occurs when a child learns to change a scheme to understand new information and experiences. For example, say the same child soon learns that phones and tablets are not the same as the pad that belongs to his mother; he has accommodated the scheme.

Assimilation and accommodation operate even in very young infants. Furthermore, infants use the process of organization. This is a process of grouping common behaviors and thoughts into a higher order of learning. For example, a child learning to use a spoon may also gain a small understanding of how to use other utensils. Eventually, the child learns how to use all utensils and can organize all her knowledge.

Socioemotional Growth and Change During the Infant and Toddler Years

Infants from birth to around the age of one display a wide spectrum of emotions, which can be both primary and self-conscious (Muris & Meesters, 2013). Primary emotions are noted in the very early stages of infancy and are universal; people of all cultures understand what these primary feelings are. Examples include joy, anger, sadness, and fear. Self-conscious emotions do not typically emerge until a child is at least 6 months of age; they show that the child has self-awareness. Examples of self- conscious emotions include empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment, which appear first, followed by pride, shame, and guilt. Infants and toddlers also often experience the self-conscious emotions of stranger anxiety and separation anxiety.

Stranger anxiety is defined as an emotional reaction marked by caution and wariness when an infant encounters an unfamiliar person. Between the ages of 6 and 9 months, an infant spends a considerable amount of time attempting to understand his or her surroundings. This often includes trying to anticipate and predict events. In addition, infants are able to separate people into two groups: people they know and people they do not know. When something happens that they cannot predict (such as meeting a stranger), they display fear, which marks the beginning of stranger anxiety (Ainsworth, 1973). Although all infants around the world display stranger anxiety at about the same age, the intensity of the fearful reaction varies from child to child and even from culture to culture (Otto, Potinius, & Keller, 2014).

Separation anxiety is a fear and distress reaction displayed by infants when their primary caregiver leaves their side. Separation anxiety appears to be universal in the cultures that have been studied (Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978). However, the intensity of the experience appears to differ across cultures, which may be attributed primarily to different parenting practices (Essau, Sakano, Ishikawa, & Sasagawa, 2004). It usually appears around 7 to 8 months, peaks around 14 months, and then gradually decreases as the toddler grows.

Early Childhood (2–6 Years)

During the preschool years, children are still experiencing radical advances in their physical abilities. By the time children are 6 years old they weigh around 55 pounds. A 2- year-old child and a 6-year-old child differ not only in terms of height and weight, but also in body proportions. During the preschool years, boys and girls will both slim down, particularly in the torso area (McMahon & Stryjewski, 2011). Their arms and legs lengthen and the relationship between the size of the head and the rest of the body becomes more adult-like, although both preschool-age boy’s and girl’s heads are still somewhat large for their bodies.

There are small differences in growth between boys and girls. Girls are, on average, smaller and lighter than boys. Girls have more fatty tissue than boys; boys have more muscle tissue. By the time girls and boys reach the age of 6, their body proportions are similar to those of adults (McMahon & Stryjewski, 2011). Every child has a unique growth pattern. Some children will be thinner, some shorter, some heavier, some stronger, and some weaker. These differences are due to heredity, growth hormone levels, maternal conditions during pregnancy, emotional difficulties, and environmental factors (Wit, Kiess, & Mullis, 2011).

Middle Childhood (6–11 Years)

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Middle childhood spans, approximately, ages 6–11. In elementary school, children in the United States grow on average 2 to 3 inches each year. By age 8, both girls and boys are, on average, 4 feet 2 inches tall and weigh 56 pounds. This growth is attributed to an increase in size of both skeletal and muscular systems and the size of internal organs. Lastly, head and waist circumference and leg length double in size (Burns et al., 2013).

Emotional development in middle childhood is marked by an increased ability to control and understand emotions. As such, children at this age are better able to cope with the various emotional highs and lows that accompany everyday life (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Sadovsky, 2006; Rothbart, Posner, & Kieras, 2006).

Adolescence (11–18 Years)

During adolescence, which spans approximately 11–18 years of age, people tend to experience large gains in both height and weight. Many adolescents experience a growth spurt, a period of very rapid growth in both height and weight. Adolescents may grow as much as 5 inches in a single year (Caino, Kelmansky, Lejarraga, & Adamo, 2004). Adolescence can be broken into three separate periods:

1. Early adolescence (11 to 14 years): This is a period of rapid pubertal change. 2. Middle adolescence (14 to 16 years): Pubertal changes are now nearly complete. 3. Late adolescence (16 to 18 years): Full adult appearance is achieved with anticipation of becoming an adult.

Differences in self-perception become quite evident in this stage. This is often attributed to puberty, the period when sexual organs mature and the brain signals other glands to start producing sex hormones (including estrogen and androgen). Girls tend to begin puberty earlier than boys, between the ages of 11 and 12, and boys begin between the ages of 13 and 14 (Caino et al., 2004). During puberty, adolescents develop a desire to attain autonomy and make their own decisions. Also, hormonal changes lead to an increase in sex drive (Best & Fortenberry, 2013). In response, adolescents are focused on managing sexuality in social relationships. Adolescent sexuality is impacted by the young person’s social context. The more supportive the social environment is for young people, the better chance they have of becoming successful adults and developing abilities to adapt to new situations and manage responsibilities. As everyone matures in a different social environment, some people will develop at different rates than suggested by the age ranges mentioned previously for early, middle, and late adolescence. These age ranges are flexible. Recent research suggests that for many, adolescence extends into the mid-20s (Bennet & Baird, 2006), both physically and mentally. It was shown recently that neurological development is still occurring into a person’s mid-20s (Knapton, 2015). Some claim that a late mental adolescence is due to young people in the western, developed world putting off milestones such as marriage and having children until they are older, allowing them to remain in adolescence for longer (Knapton, 2015).

Early Adulthood (18–40 Years)

Early adulthood includes individuals between the ages of 18–40 years of age (although as explored in the previous section, this stage could begin later or earlier for specific individuals). This age group will experience changes in both physical appearance and bodily functioning. In general, at this point, the decline in bodily functions is so slow that it is unnoticeable. Later in life this process will speed up (see Table 2.5).

Table 2.5: Physical changes of aging Organ or system Timing of change Description

Vision From age 30 Visual acuity, or fineness of discrimination, decreases, with a sharp drop between ages 70 and 80.

Hearing From age 30 Sensitivity to sound declines, especially at high frequencies but gradually extending to all frequencies.

Taste From age 60 Sensitivity to the four basic tastes—sweet, salty, sour, and bitter—is reduced.

Smell From age 60 Loss of smell receptors reduces ability to detect and identify odors.

Touch Gradual Loss of touch receptors reduces sensitivity on the hands, particularly the fingertips.

Cardiovascular Gradual As the heart muscle becomes more rigid, maximum heart rate decreases, reducing the heart’s ability to meet the body’s oxygen requirements.

Respiratory Gradual Under physical exertion, respiratory capacity decreases and breathing rate increases.

Immune Gradual Impaired immune response.

Muscular Gradual Tendons and ligaments (which transmit muscle action) stiffen, reducing speed and flexibility of movement.

Skeletal Begins in the late thirties, accelerates in the fifties, slows in the seventies

Cartilage in the joints thins and cracks, leading bone ends beneath it to erode.

Reproductive In women, accelerates after age 35; in men, begins after age 40

Fertility problems (including difficulty conceiving and carrying a pregnancy to term) and risk of having a baby with a chromosomal disorder increase.

Nervous From age 50 Brain weight declines as neurons lose water content and die, mostly in the cerebral cortex, and as ventricles (spaces) within the brain enlarge.

Skin From age 35 Epidermis (outer layer) is held less tightly to the dermis (middle layer); fibers in the dermis and hypodermis (inner layer) thin; fat cells in the hypodermis decline.

Hair From age 35 Hair grays and thins.

Height From age 50 Loss of bone strength leads to collapse of disks in the spinal column, leading to a height loss of as much as 2 inches by the seventies and eighties.

Weight Increases to age 50; declines from age. Weight change reflects a rise in fat and a decline in muscle and bone mineral. Source: Berk, L. E. (2018). Development through the lifespan, 7e, Table 13.1, p. 441. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson. Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of publisher and author.

One major physical change undergone in early adulthood is pregnancy. For most people, the ideal time for pregnancy is in their 20s, due to reduced risk of miscarriage and chromosomal disorders. It also requires a large amount of energy to care for newborn and active children, and younger people tend to have higher energy levels. For some,

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Jane Fonda—Life's Third Act

Due to advances in medicine and healthcare, people are living longer lives than ever before. Actress and political activist Jane Fonda believes more needs to be done to remove the stigma from old age and to increase the appreciation and understanding of the last three decades of life. Take a look at this video to understand what Jane Fonda describes as life’s “third act.”

it is essential to wait until they are older, to ensure their lives are established financially and socially. Nonetheless, the capacity to reproduce declines with age (Chandra, Copen, & Stephen, 2013).

Declines in motor performance begin in early adulthood, caused by declines in heart and lung functioning under conditions of exertion and gradual muscle loss. In examining the motor skills of most people, it is difficult to distinguish between the impact of biological aging and a decrease in frequency of practice. For example, a 30- year-old man who is less active than he was in his 20s may attribute a loss in running ability to both aging and lack of training.

Cognitively, adulthood is a time of acquiring advanced knowledge in a particular area; success in this area can impact information processing and creativity. Research is ongoing in the area of analyzing diverse mental abilities and whether they remain intact or change during the adult years.

Middle Adulthood (40–65 Years)

Midlife physical changes are gradual; though the rate of these changes is different for all individuals, nobody is immune from aging. The speed of these changes is conditional upon lifestyle habits, genetics, and the onset of chronic diseases. Middle age is a glimpse into later life and a time to choose behaviors that can prevent rapid decline in functional abilities. Some physical and mental changes are unavoidable.

In midlife, some individuals will lose weight while others will gain weight. Some people start to lose height at this time as well. Men lose about one half of an inch in height between the ages of 30–50, and they lose three quarters of an inch between the ages of 50–70 (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Women lose about two inches in height between the ages of 30–50 and up to three inches after age 80 (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). In adolescence, body fat is about 10% of body weight; this number rises to 20% in middle age for men, and 30% for women (before menopause; Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Aging becomes more visually apparent for individuals in their 40s and 50s as skin begins to wrinkle and sag due to loss of collagen and fat in underlying tissues (Pageon, Zucchi, Rousset, Monnier, & Asselineau, 2014). As individuals grow older they experience the added stress of accepting the inevitable natural process of growing older and are faced with adjusting both psychologically and emotionally. Some individuals have a difficult time managing and accepting the fact that they are getting older and experience depressive symptoms and anxiety (Kakko, Korkalainen, Lyyra, & Feldt, 2013). However, we are now living a society that has a rapidly growing population of older adults who are both physically active and mentally strong.

Late Adulthood and Elderhood (65+)

People technically enter the later adulthood stage once they reach 65 years old. Many older adults remain active, agile, and maintain their physical capabilities, and people are living longer than ever before. People over the age of 85 are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population. In the last two decades, the size of this group has almost doubled. By 2050, there will be between 4 and 18 million Americans over 85 (Sargent-Cox, Anstery, & Luszcz, 2012). However, aging is inevitable, and beginning in middle age the body experiences physical changes that are irreversible.

There are two types of ways in which individuals age. First—primary aging, defined as irreversible changes due to genetic programming (Parker et al., 2013). Second— secondary aging, defined as changes due to lifestyle choices, illnesses, environment, and other factors. Physical and cognitive changes that are part of secondary aging are common for most individuals, but can be avoided or even reversed (Parker et al., 2013).

Aging manifests externally and internally. While visible signs of aging are experienced by most individuals, the rate and onset of these changes is different for everyone. For example, hair turns gray and eventually white and thins out; some may start to experience this in their 20s, while others will only find their first gray hairs in their 50s. Similarly, wrinkles and loss of height set in for everyone at different times and progress at different rates (Parker et al., 2013). Internal signs of aging include hardening of the arteries and decreased blood flow to the brain (Yildiz, 2007). Additionally, muscle fibers decrease in size, and their efficiency also decreases due to lower oxygen levels (Morley, 2012).

Although it’s something so fundamental and intrinsic to our experience of human life, no one scientific theory adequately explains all aspects of aging and death. We do know that aging is a complicated, multidimensional process, and this is one of the reasons why it’s difficult to understand it completely. Older adults, as a group, are not all the same. There is a lot of variability in the aging experience. Part of it stems from a decline in the body’s physiologic reserves, the ability of the organs and biological systems to keep up with bodily functions. We are born with excess capacity built in to our organs and systems, and that capacity diminishes over time. Disease, whether chronic or acute, can also heavily influence an older person’s quality of life. Some people become very ill and need to be institutionalized in settings such as nursing homes, while at the other end of the spectrum, some people remain vibrantly healthy and, perhaps, even continue careers as competitive athletes.

These changes are a natural part of life, but they can be delayed with a healthy lifestyle. All of the choices that we make influence our aging process; often, it’s in older adulthood when we reap the fruits of a lifetime of these choices. Lifestyle factors include diet, amount of sleep, level of hydration (sometimes an issue in older adults), level of physical activity, level of social engagement, outlook on life, and tobacco use. For example, someone in late adulthood who swims three days a week and practices weight training will maintain muscle quality and delay the loss of physiological reserves longer than someone who is sedentary. Physical fitness has also been shown to improve mental stamina and prevent loss of brain tissue (Elder, De Gasperi, & Gama Sosa, 2006; Kramer, Erikson, & Colcombe, 2006). Don’t come away from this feeling that aging is a pathology or a disease. This is not a discussion about death but about potential. There is a significant part of growing older we can do nothing about; however, some aspects of aging we can impact by the choices we make throughout the life course.

Socioemotional and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood and Elderhood

Even through late adulthood, people’s minds are evolving and changing. Fluid intelligence, the ability to reason abstractly, is noted to decrease in middle and late adulthood (Horn & Donaldson, 1980). Crystallized intelligence, associated with accumulated information, and verbal skills are known to increase during this same time period. Cognitive mechanics, which has a biological foundation and is linked to brain development, is theorized to decline in middle and late adulthood. Cognitive processes linked to cognitive mechanics include processing speed, attention, and some aspects of memory. Cognitive pragmatics, connected to one’s culture and personal experiences, can improve in middle and late adulthood. Examples of cognitive pragmatics can include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, professional skills, and wisdom (Lovden & Lindenberger, 2007).

Emotional development also continues throughout adulthood (Carstensen et al., 2011). During this stage of development, adults integrate experiences into their lives to ensure the success of interpersonal relationships and a sense of satisfaction (Thompson & Goodvin, 2007). Older adults report a stronger sense of satisfaction and positive emotions as they move and transition to the end

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1. What are your preconceptions about growing older? How and when did those ideas form?

2. Why are scientists and researchers taking a closer look at the “third act” of life?

3. Why is it important to look at age as potential and not pathology?

of life (Carstensen, 2009; Charles & Carstensen, 2010). Overall, older adults report more positive and less negative emotions than younger adults and, in fact, positive emotions even appear to increase with age during later adulthood (Carstensen, 2009; Charles & Carstensen, 2010).

Death, Dying, and the Grieving Process

Medically, once death is near, an individual goes through three phases:

1. The agonal phase. The person will exhibit rattled breathing sounds; this is often due to fluid buildup in the throat. The heartbeat disintegrates, causing muscle spasms (Manole & Hickey, 2006).

2. Clinical death. This takes place a short time after the heartbeat, breathing, brain functioning and circulation stop; however, resuscitation is still possible (Manole & Hickey, 2006).

3. Mortality. This is permanent death. Within three to four hours, the body will look shrunken, and begin to go through rigor mortis (Manole & Hickey, 2006).

Rarely does death come in the way in which an individual or loved one may choose. People often experience an initial shock upon being diagnosed with a terminal illness; many go on to gradually confront the reality and learn to accept it, while others never come to terms with it. Every individual approaches the dying process differently, and there’s no right way to go through death. Therefore, in an attempt to bring dignity to the dying, the best that can be done is to ensure the life that precedes death completes in a way that brings integrity to the dying person. The perspective of conscious dying suggests that people should accept death and use their dying experience to engage with themselves and their loved ones emotionally and spiritually, for a more fulfilling end-of-life experience. Organizations like the Conscious Dying Institute offer conscious dying coaching to help people in their final transition (Conscious Dying Institute, 2018).

Here are a few steps to consider:

Maintain support and respect for both the physical and the psychological distress of the patient and the family of the patient (Keegan & Drick, 2011). Be honest about all that is occurring, including the certainty of death and honoring last wishes. Medical staff should provide information and support to the family and the patient about the dying person’s condition. When the person’s condition does not allow a quiet and painless death, it is important to ensure the person is provided with pain management, comfort care, compassion, companionship, and honesty.

Bereavement is the experience of losing a loved one due to death, an experience that is an inevitable part of every person’s lifespan. Someone who is grieving can go back and forth between a variety of emotions. It is important for the bereaved to have an understanding of the grieving process and the steps they can take to potentially overcome their grief. In the early 80s and mid-90s, a small group of researchers believed that bereaved people maneuvered through three phases of grieving—avoidance, confrontation, and restoration—each identified by a different set of reactions (Bowlby, 1980; Rando, 1995). However, the most familiar model of grief is still the one developed in 1969 by psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. She developed the five stages of grief (as seen in Figure 2.2): denial and isolation, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Kübler-Ross, 1969).

Figure 2.2: Kûbler-Ross: Five stages of grief

The five stages of grief are overlapping and can occur in any order.

While Kübler-Ross believed that every person went through each of these five stages in order, further research has shown that this is not the case. Each stage can overlap, and they do not necessarily occur in order. Some individuals remain in one stage for a longer period of time and others may experience two or three stages at the same time. The stages of grief can impact people in any age group during the course of their life, such as after the loss of a loved one or a family pet, a divorce, a breakup, a terminal diagnosis, or even a move to a new city.

TEDTalks: Jane Fonda—Life's Third Act

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Many contemporary theories offer alternative explorations of how humans experience grief, including the four tasks of mourning, developed by Dr. William Worden in the early 2000s. According to Worden, these four tasks must be accomplished in order for a person to resume life after loss: accepting the reality of the loss, working through the pain of the grief, learning to live without the person, and reinvesting the emotional energy of grief into life (Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors, 2014). Every individual experiences grief differently and may find a different model of grief to be applicable to him/her.

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Developmental psychology research requires clear ethical guidelines to ensure the physical and psychological safety of its participants.

2.4 Ethical Issues Faced by Developmental Psychologists Understanding the connection between childhood development and outcomes later in life is a main goal in developmental psychology. Research is a crucial piece in further understanding how the mind develops. This research often includes children and adolescents, a population considered vulnerable to physical or psychological harm during the research process. People of all ages can be impacted by many factors in a study and it is the responsibility of anyone choosing to work in the field of human development to ensure their physical, emotional, and mental safety.

Developmental psychologists must implement their professional ethics and moral responsibility to ensure that all participants, whether children, adults, or nonhuman animals, are protected from any type of harm. For example, the following is a sample of the American Psychological Association’s (APA’s) ethical principles for working with couples or families.

10.02 Therapy Involving Couples or Families

(a) When psychologists agree to provide services to several persons who have a relationship (such as spouses, significant others, or parents and children), they take reasonable steps to clarify at the outset (1) which of the individuals are clients/patients and (2) the relationship the psychologist will have with each person. This clarification includes the psychologist’s role and the probable uses of the services provided or the information obtained. (See also Standard 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality.)

(b) If it becomes apparent that psychologists may be called on to perform potentially conflicting roles (such as family therapist and then witness for one party in divorce proceedings), psychologists take reasonable steps to clarify and modify, or withdraw from, roles appropriately. (See also Standard 3.05c, Multiple Relationships.)

Copyright (c) 2017 American Psychological Association. Reproduced [or Adapted] with permission. The official citation that should be used in referencing this material is American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, Amended June 1, 2010 and January 1, 2017). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx (https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx) . No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association.

The full ethical guidelines of the APA can be accessed at https://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx (https://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx) .

These and many more ethical guidelines apply to people outside of research situations as well. As you move forward in your careers, whether in the field of developmental psychology or in adjacent fields, it is imperative to take the time to understand the responsibilities of your chosen profession. For instance, you may choose to work with the adolescent population or older adults in a geriatric psychiatric facility. In either line of work, you will be faced with the necessity of maintaining client–patient confidentiality. When working with private medical records and interacting with people, you need to remember that the patient is placing a great deal of trust in you to keep their information private and not to bring their stories home to your friends and family.

Some of you may wish to work with adults with addictions or women who are victims of domestic violence. In professions like this, it is important to remember the importance of impartiality; refrain from choosing sides or showing favoritism toward certain clients while neglecting others. Additionally, it is important to maintain a professional relationship with your patients or clients and fully understand your role as a counselor or psychologist at all times.

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2.5 Career Applications in Human Development Knowledge of lifespan development provides you with additional tools to enhance your professional skills and abilities. You may choose to work with a variety of populations across the lifespan. In order to be a developmental psychologist, you need a doctorate, but there are many options in developmental psychology and related areas that you would be qualified to apply for with a bachelor’s degree. The following are some common jobs that fall into this category:

Child and Youth Program Assistant

Child and youth program assistants plan, coordinate, and conducts activities for program participants based on observed needs of individual children and youth ranging in age from 6 weeks to 18 years.  They may coordinate and lead creative and therapeutic individual and group recreational activities such as basketball, hiking, fishing, visiting the YMCA, and other community events. Program assistants can work in a variety of settings, including in community centers, schools, nonprofits, and the military. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology.

Protective Service Investigator/Caseworker

Protective service investigators can work with child or adult cases. Child protective service investigators and caseworkers investigate claims of child abuse and neglect. Adult protective service investigators investigate claims of abuse of the elderly, adults with disabilities, and adults experiencing neglect. In both child and adult cases, the investigators have the difficult task of figuring out what happened and predicting what will happen in the future., They must be comfortable assessing situations and making decisions. Investigators make recommendations to a regulatory organization regarding what action should be taken—for example, whether a child is to be taken from her parents or a retirement home is to be disciplined for failing to meet certain standards. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology. 

Research Scientist Associate

Research scientist associates use their knowledge of scientific theory to plan and perform experiments in support of research projects in the lab or field. They also assist with interpreting and analyzing the results. This position plays a key role in ensuring project activities are implemented with integrity and quality, are completed on time, and meet client needs. Research scientist associates can work in academic settings, government settings, or for organizations. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology.

Psychology Technician

Psychology technicians provide inpatient and outpatient non-skilled nursing for psychiatric patients. They assist in the daily care and treatment of patients under the direction of physicians and psychiatrists. They may work in hospitals, clinics, or specialized treatment centers. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology.

Elder Rights Advocate

Elder rights advocates offer residents of long-term care facilities and members of the older population in general a way to have their complaints and concerns heard, helping them to feel empowered and ensuring that they live in dignity and respect. Elder rights advocates may be involved in government policy creation, or they may work with medical facilities to help them improve their elder care, among other possibilities. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology. 

Domestic Violence Advocate

Shelter advocates provide support and advocacy to victims of domestic violence and their children in women’s shelters and other places where women can seek safety from domestic abuse. Advocates work directly with incoming women and children and also work on behalf of victims to change policy and implement domestic violence awareness programs. Requirements include a bachelor’s degree in psychology. 

A day in the life of two professionals who work in lifespan development careers. Answer questions to determine which career you prefer.

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Life's Project

http://www.nshd.mrc.ac.uk/nshd/about-nshd/douglas-children/ (http://www.nshd.mrc.ac.uk/nshd/about-nshd/douglas-children/)

This video discusses a long-term human development study conducted in Great Britain. Scientists recorded the birth of thousands of children in 1946, 1958, 1970, 1990, and 2000. Every few years, researchers have gone back to these people and collected more information, resulting in the most comprehensive study of lifespan development ever. Many researchers in the field of human development continue to use the data that have been collected over all these years.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Do you think that the number of parents a child had impacted their life outcomes? 2. How did generational differences affect the outcomes of children born in 1946 and 2000? Do some research and find out for yourself.

Life’s Project

This video discusses a long-term human development study conducted in Great Britain. Scientists recorded the birth of thousands of children in 1946, 1958, 1970, 1990, and 2000. Every few years, researchers have gone back to these people and collected more information, resulting in the most comprehensive study of lifespan development ever. Many researchers in the field of human development continue to use the data that have been collected over all these years.

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1. Do you think that the number of parents a child had impacted their life outcomes?

2. How did generational differences affect the outcomes of children born in 1946 and 2000? Do some research and find out for yourself.

The Douglas Children: National Survey of Health and DevelThe Douglas Children: National Survey of Health and Devel……

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Summary

In this chapter, we learned that lifespan development is lifelong. We have taken a look at the process of becoming human beings from a physical, social, and cognitive perspective. This chapter outlined the processes that underlie human development and the order in which it occurs. Human development involves complex factors that include biological, psychological, and environmental processes. This chapter provided a review of essential contributors to the field of human development, who provided us with theories still used today in understanding the process of development. We reviewed each stage of life, from birth to death. Having a basic understanding of each stage of life provides each of us with an appreciation for the entire lifespan. We learned of how genetics and environment shape our growth. Recognizing that lifespan development begins at birth and ends at death will be essential for your chosen career and will also help you recognize these changes in your own lives.

Concept Check 1. All of the following are premises of the lifespan perspective, EXCEPT:

a. Development is plastic. b. Development is lifelong. c. Development is linear. d. Development is multidimensional.

2. Which stage of the psychosocial crisis primarily affects elders who are 65+? a. Autonomy vs. shame b. Industry vs. inferiority c. Identify vs. role confusion d. Ego integrity vs. despair

3. Which of the following is not one of Piaget’s stages? a. Sensorimotor b. Preorganizational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

4. ____________ is defined as an emotional reaction when an infant encounters an unfamiliar person. a. Separation anxiety b. Separation depression c. Stranger anxiety d. Stranger experience

5. ____________ is associated with accumulated information. a. Crystallized intelligence b. Fluid intelligence c. Emotional intelligence d. Connected intelligence

6. Which one of the following is not one of Kübler-Ross’ five stages of grief? a. Denial b. Anger c. Fear d. Depression

Answers

1. c. The answer can be found in Section 2.1. 2. d. The answer can be found in Section 2.2. 3. b. The answer can be found in Section 2.2. 4. c. The answer can be found in Section 2.3. 5. a. The answer can be found in Section 2.3. 6. c. The answer can be found in Section 2.3.

Questions for Critical Thinking 1. You are talking with a friend in a park one day about adulthood, and he says “I don’t understand why some of my friends are still living with their parents.

They’re in their 20s now, and they should be more independent.” Considering that development is highly individual and contextual, what would you say to your friend? Do you agree that everyone should be fully independent by age 25, or would you argue a different viewpoint? Can anyone ever be fully independent? Explain your reasoning, and pull from the theories discussed in this chapter.

2. Suppose that you are a grief counselor at a hospital, and you are assigned to work with the family of an older woman who is dying to help them come to terms with the process and fact of her death. How would you explain, first to the woman’s adult daughter and then to her eight-year-old granddaughter, what the dying woman is going through and what to expect from the grieving process?

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the definition.

accommodation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A concept developed by Piaget that involves adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.

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assimilation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Piagetian concept in which children use existing schemes to incorporate new information.

chronosystem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The underlying influence of time on the individual.

cognitive development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Processes that produce changes within an individual’s language, thought processes, and overall intelligence and emphasize an individual’s ability to actively construct his or her thinking.

cohort (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A group of people who are approximately the same age.

exosystem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The connection of two or more systems, including one system that does not directly contain the individual.

lifespan perspective (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A view that emphasizes that development is lifelong and involves simultaneous growth and change within and throughout an individual’s biological, social, and cognitive domains.

macrosystem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The broader cultural influences of society on an individual.

mesosystem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The connection of an individual’s two or more microsystems.

microsystem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The everyday interactions of an individual’s immediate environment.

nonnormative influence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The type of influence that accounts for the unique experiences that have major implications for a person’s life.

organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A process of grouping common behaviors and thoughts into a higher order of learning.

plasticity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The capacity for change.

primary aging (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

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The universal and irreversible physical and cognitive changes caused by genetic programming.

puberty (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The period when sexual organs mature and the pituitary gland in the brain signals other glands to start producing sex hormones, androgen or estrogen, at adult levels.

resilience (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The ability to manage life’s stressors and adapt to a large variety of changing circumstances.

secondary aging (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The avoidable or reversible physical and cognitive changes that occur due to lifestyle choices, illnesses, environment, and other factors

separation anxiety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A fear and distress reaction displayed by infants when their primary caregiver leaves their side.

socioemotional development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A process that involves changes among and within an individual’s social environment and progresses throughout the lifespan as social, emotional, and moral development occurs.

stranger anxiety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

An emotional reaction marked by caution and wariness when an infant encounters an unfamiliar person.

Professional Resources Alzheimer’s Association Diversity Toolbox: Caring for Diverse Populations Provides resources for working with African-American, Chinese, Latino, and Korean communities. https://www.alz.org/national/documents/aoagrant_kits_resources.pdf (https://www.alz.org/national/documents/aoagrant_kits_resources.pdf)

Implementing a Community-Based Program for Dementia Caregivers: An Action Guide Using Reach Out

Evidence-based caregiver support system designed to promote the well-being of persons with dementia. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and University of Michigan Institute of Gerontology. http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.chronicdisease.org/resource/resmgr/Healthy_Aging _Critical_Issues_Brief/ReachOutActionGuide.pdf? hhSearchTerms=%22Reach%22 (https://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.chronicdisease.org/resource/resmgr/Healthy_Aging_Critical_Issues_Brief/ReachOutActionGuide.pdf? hhSearchTerms=%22Reach%22)

Cultural Competency and Health Literacy Resources for Healthcare Providers Includes information about specific populations, organized by race and ethnicity, gender, age, and other groups. From the Department of Health and Human Services Health Resources and Services Administration. https://www.hrsa.gov/cultural-competence/index.html (https://www.hrsa.gov/cultural-competence/index.html)

Schools’ Resources Important for Helping Children of Immigrant Families Succeed in the Classroom This press release from the APA discusses a study of immigrant families and the factors that determined whether the children of immigrants were successful or not. http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/11/immigrant-families.aspx (https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/11/immigrant-families.aspx)

Resolution on the Psychological Needs of Children Exposed to Disasters

A resolution from the APA setting out their commitment to do more to help children who have been exposed to disasters. http://www.apa.org/about/policy/children-disasters.aspx (https://www.apa.org/about/policy/children-disasters.aspx)

End of Life Issues and Care A compilation of resources on palliative care and end-of-life issues. http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/programs/eol/index.aspx (https://www.apa.org/pi/aging/programs/eol/index.aspx)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

Explain why learning psychology is a complex field of study.

Identify variables that may affect successful processing of information.

Evaluate the applicability of evolving frameworks to foundational learning theory.

Understand ethical considerations associated with applied learning psychology.

Identify careers that apply learning psychology.

James Maddox is the lead case manager for the county department of human services. A new platform for documenting client cases is about to be implemented across the department and James must train all of his case managers to successfully use the system. As he brainstorms training ideas, he recalls the psychology of learning class he took when he was earning his bachelor’s degree in psychology. He knows that the training must communicate the crucial components of the new platform, but he also knows that how he communicates these components, that is, the design of the training, may be even more important. It is essential that the training be effective and engaging. He knows that there are many variables that can affect effective knowledge acquisition and that individuals have complex and diverse learning preferences. He also recalls the different theories that suggest best practices for helping one’s self, as well as others, to learn more effectively. Based on this, he designs what he hopes will be an engaging training that will appeal to many different types of learners and result in long-term knowledge acquisition.

James’s situation reminds us that learning is a part of our everyday lives, whether personal or professional, and also reminds us of the importance of knowing how to effectively support learning opportunities for ourselves and for others. Consider the following questions that might guide James in developing a more successful training event:

What theories of learning can support the development of training materials? What strategies could be utilized to encourage successful learning? How can James learn more about his case managers to better design the training? How might the diversity of his team create stumbling blocks during the training? How might it enhance the training process?

3The Psychology of Learning Michelle Rosser-Majors, PhD—Ashford University

Weedezign/iStock/Thinkstock

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Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock

Research suggests that we are less likely to retain new information that does not align with our current knowledge and experience.

3.1 Introduction to Learning Psychology The questions posed in the introductory scenario are typical of the variety addressed by those who are applying strategies in the domain of learning. Learning psychology is devoted to understanding how people learn as well as how people learn most effectively (Rosser-Majors, 2017). People can apply the theories and models of learning psychology to support increased learning opportunities for themselves and others, whether they are in the learning psychology field or in another career (e.g., sales, teaching, or caregiving). The development of personal goals can also be supported by an understanding of how people learn (e.g., through self-improvement, playing games, or life experience).

Throughout the history of psychology, people have studied different aspects of learning, and the research clearly substantiates one fact: understanding how people learn is a complex task. As scholars began to better understand learning behaviors in the early-mid 1900s, it became apparent that behaviorism, a theory that suggested all learning was a nonconscious response to a stimulus, did not fully explain the complexities of this domain. In response, the cognitive revolution, beginning in the 1950s, suggested that people’s minds were active participants in learning and that how the mind processes knowledge is important (Baars, 1986; Bruner, 1990; Gardner, 1985; Watrin & Darwich, 2012; Sperry, 1993). Research into this perspective has been driven by advancements in technology and the demands of an increasingly competitive world and has offered new, innovative strategies that support more effective learning (Sternberg, 2015; Wicks, Nakisher & Grimm, 2016). Although helpful, the advances in research have only made it more apparent how complex learning is, and often the strategies suggested by researchers can be difficult to address in traditional and evolving learning settings. Hence, scholars and educators continue to dedicate themselves to understanding how to create the most effective learning opportunities for all, based on foundational knowledge of human behavior and the mind.

As you have learned throughout your psychology courses, behavior (and therefore learning) is affected by all aspects of the person: biological, psychological, physiological, neurological, experiential, and emotional. With so many considerations, understanding which approach will be the most advantageous for one’s own context can be daunting. But it is this complexity that continues to inspire us to understand how learning takes place.

In addition, as you have also learned, cultural myopia encourages the tendency to judge learning experiences based on only one’s own experiences, without full acknowledgment of their complexities. For example, have you ever been presented with a new concept, whether in a course at school or in conversation with friends, and totally rejected it as false or impossible without doing any further research? This may be because the new concept does not support what you think you already know based on past experience. Unconsciously, you do not accept the new knowledge, and research suggests you do not effectively move it to long-term memory (LTM)—the storage area for information that has been processed through working memory. In addition, myths or misguided representations about one’s ability to learn based on demographic or other attributes (e.g., the falsehood that specific races are less intelligent than others) may also effect one’s ability to process information effectively. Simply put, if you believe you are not good at math, you are less likely to succeed in that subject. If you believe someone else will not be good at math, you may be less likely to support their learning opportunities adequately. Our cumulative experiences create our culture and can affect our approach to learning. Therefore, misguided notions, as mentioned in these examples, alluding to what intelligence and learning are and are not perpetuate conscious and unconscious perceptions that may lead to bias, bigotry, and intolerance of others, as well as ineffective learning.

Psychologists who study learning and memory have found that experiences, emotions, and foundational human needs affect what, how much, and the accuracy of what people can store in working memory (WM)—a limited capacity, short-term cognitive system for processing and storing information—and LTM. This concept is important to understand, as WM capacity has been linked to the ability to strategize and effectively process tasks (Gathercole, Durling, Evans, Jeffcock & Stone, 2007; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). Research suggests that LTM can store unlimited information; however, the accuracy of what knowledge is stored and how it is organized within this area of the mind varies. Research is now suggesting that humanistic variables (e.g., emotions and needs) may also affect one’s ability to sustain attention during the information collection and storing process, making these factors an important consideration in the learning process (Butts, 2017).

But how does the multifaceted nature of effective knowledge acquisition affect scholars as human beings with hopes to improve themselves and their personal circumstances? How does it affect future professionals?

As we will discuss, learning psychology is applicable in our everyday lives, both professionally and personally. It can support us in our ability to work with others, in advancing our careers, in becoming increasingly self-actualized (Aanstoos, 2016, 2017), and in helping others achieve their goals. In addition, understanding how humans learn is directly associated with performance, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. Understanding this area of psychology allows people to have more autonomy to pursue their goals, both professional and personal.

Career Spotlight: Makayla B.

Name: Makayla B.

Primary job title: Behavior Interventionist

Current employer: Love 2 Learn Consulting LLC

How long have you been employed in your present position? I've been with Love 2 Learn for 1 1/2 years.

What year did you graduate with your bachelor's degree in psychology? I graduated in 2015.

Describe your major job duties and responsibilities. I implement behavior programs designed by a board-certified behavior analyst to assist students in improving their learning performance. Basically, I work with parents and educators to support the development of children in the area of learning. My current work

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takes place in the local schools, although I have also worked with clients in their homes. This is a field position, which means that I work on-site with many clients throughout my day.

What elements of your undergraduate training in psychology do you use in your work? On a daily basis, I am applying numerous areas of behavior modification recommendations, so, yes, a substantial number of my psychology courses have supported me in being able to do this. Having knowledge about learning psychology has supported me in better understanding the variables that may affect poor school performance, which is often what initiates our company's work with the child. In addition, I have to keep accurate records for each client; thus, an understanding of behavior-oriented situations is needed so that I can more effectively communicate with my team, the clients, and other stakeholders. In particular, the courses in abnormal, developmental, and personality psychology have been extremely helpful to me. Truth be told, even my statistics course has come in handy as I work to advance my knowledge for future professional licenses.

What do you like most about your job? I love being able to help children to be the best them they can be. I also love the autonomy my company offers me, as well as working with divergent behavioral situations and contexts. It keeps me on my toes, and I love it.

What do you like least about your job? Sometimes figuring out how to actually hear and discover what the child needs can be difficult. It is not always easy for a child to communicate what they are going through. Sometimes they don't even really know. In addition, it is not uncommon for some of the home environments to be less than healthy, which can be tough on the heart strings.

Beyond your bachelor’s degree, what additional education or specialized training have you received? I have no other degrees besides my bachelor's in psychology. I am currently working on my board certified assistant behavior analyst (BCaBA) certificate. I am also hoping to go back to school at some point to become a board-certified behavior analyst. I'll need my master's degree for that.

What is the compensation package for an entry-level position in your occupation? Right now my salary is around $35,000, but once I am certified I'll get a big raise, so I should be making closer to $50,000. I also receive ongoing paid training. That's how I am getting my BCaBA certification. I have excellent medical, dental, and vision plans. We also have flexible spending accounts, paid time off, paid drive time, mileage reimbursement, and a 401k plan.

What are the key skills necessary for you to succeed in your career? Being able to feel competent with the other many professionals I deal with has been a great benefit. Knowing domain-specific words in both educational and behavioral psychology has helped me to feel more competent and respected.

Thinking back to your undergraduate career, can you think of extracurricular (e.g., psychology club, Tau Upsilon Alpha, etc.) that were key to success in your type of career? I really enjoyed being in the Ashford online psychology club. It was actually one of my fellow students that mentioned this career in one of our meetings. I had no idea it existed and would probably have never known if it hadn't been for my involvement with that group. I also got to meet many of the full time professors, which was really a great way to connect with them in a different way. It helped me to realize how much they really are there to help us.

As an undergraduate, do you wish you had done anything differently? If so, what? I wish I would have managed my time better. There were so many interesting things to learn about in all of my classes. I wish I had taken the time to dig deeper than I did in the beginning. As I advanced in the program, this started to really click for me, but I think I would have done better in my early courses if I had been more self-regulated back in my introduction class.

What advice would you give to someone who was thinking about entering the field you are in? I would definitely tell them to start out strong, take ownership of the learning opportunity, and stay engaged by asking questions and connecting with instructors. Get as much knowledge as you can with the opportunity you've accessed. Time will fly, and it is much easier to interview for jobs if you really understand what you are talking about when it comes to learning and behavior management.

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There are multiple definitions of intelligence. What is yours, and how does it compare to the interpretation of intelligence as the ability to process and organize information?

3.2 Foundations of Learning Understanding how people learn serves as a foundation for both personal and professional development. Two key learning theories regarding how we learn are cognitivism and behaviorism. According to cognitivism, learning is demonstrated by the successful retrieval of information from LTM. However, according to behaviorism, learning is only demonstrated by observable change and is simply a response to a stimulus. Both of these theories provide foundations for developing an understanding of learning and enhancing the effectiveness of one’s own learning and that of others. Both foundational theories have components that can be applied to the same scenarios, which can increase our purposeful inquiry into our own understanding of learning.

For example, if a child takes a bite of hot pizza and it burns the top of his mouth, it could be argued that the child has just learned, by way of a response to a stimulus, that pizza right out of the oven is too hot to eat. This follows the principles of behaviorism. However, does this new knowledge apply to only pizza or could it be extended to anything that is taken out of an oven? Cognitivism would argue that this memory was absorbed into sensory memory, processed in WM, and stored in LTM, to be later retrieved when a similar situation arises. Thus, the child has learned that anything that has just come out of an oven is too hot to eat. Both behaviorism and cognitivism present valid explanations of how learning takes place and can be associated with different contexts.

What if someone cannot recall a piece of information? Was that information learned? Cognitivism offers numerous explanations that may explain why the knowledge is not effectively retrieved, yet may still exist in a person’s mind. And if one does not change their behavior based on new information, does that mean the new information wasn’t learned? According to behaviorism, if there is no change in behavior, the knowledge was not learned; but does this theory fully explain situations when someone knows something but does not accommodate it into their behavior? It is questions such as these that require psychologists to dig deeper.

To fully understand the foundations of learning, one must have an understanding of the diverse variables that may affect learning, such as intelligence. But what is intelligence? There are multiple definitions. Current research suggests that the knowledge one processes and does not process may have little to do with whether that person is intelligent or not. Additionally, intelligence does not necessarily require a strong memory, but it is supported by an ability to process and organize information effectively so that retrieval is increasingly fluent (Briggs, 2014). The concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ) was originally created to determine whether a child had a learning disability and is now used to compare the level of intellect among those in the same age bracket (Nisbett et al., 2012, as cited in Rosser-Majors, 2017, p. 228). Although being smart is often associated with a high IQ, the numerous concepts associated with intelligence (e.g., crystalized [gC], fluid [Gf], general [g], emotional [EI], and multiple intelligence [MI]) point to the fact that being smart is an ambiguous construct reflective of whether one can or cannot learn effectively and is often misconstrued and inaccurately represented.

Adding to the complexities of the psychology of learning is that research and theoretical frameworks offer numerous variables that can explain learning. Inaccurate and inefficient memory development is suggested to be affected by one’s motivation and ability to successfully accept knowledge as important. For example, if a person does not think that learning how to change a tire on their car is very important, they may be less likely to move a tire-changing lesson effectively to LTM. In addition, if content seems boring to the learner, they may be less likely to pay attention to the instruction. In a learning context, even feelings of not fitting in (belonging) can create a barrier to learning success (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Many variables can affect the learning process, and it is crucial for an expert in this domain to keep this in mind when evaluating others.

Information Processing and Working Memory

As previously stated, early in the study of learning, scholars (notably behaviorists) believed that all learning was an automated response to external sources (stimuli) and was not associated with internal mechanisms (Pierce & Cheney,

2004; Watrin & Darwich, 2012). During the latter half of the 20th century, amid the cognitive revolution, people were less able to explore whether or not learning had taken place, since the mind could not be seen and thus could not be studied. Since then, with advancing technologies, scientists have a greater ability to more thoroughly study the brain.

Researchers now know that knowledge can be produced through introspection or examination of prior knowledge (Butts, 2017). Information processing theory claims that information enters the mind, is organized, and is then stored and retrieved by the learner; it suggests that attention is a key variable in successfully moving and organizing information into LTM (Brosch, Scherer, Grandjean, & Sander, 2013). As knowledge develops, many of the same questions remain: What is learning? Why is learning not always effective? What determines successful knowledge development? As suggested by cognitivism, information processing—or the process by which information enters through sensory memory, flows through WM, and is then organized and stored in LTM—is foundational in understanding how the brain organizes, retains, and retrieves information (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Information processing system

This figure broadly depicts how information makes its way into sensory, working, and, finally, long-term memory.

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Schemas help develop existing knowledge. Variables that affect schema development include personal experiences, emotions, and physical health.

Working memory plays a critical role in most higher-level cognitive tasks, such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Just & Carpenter, 1992). Often, variables can negatively affect the ability to effectively process information. For example, the amount of attention placed on information once it is in WM has been found to be of vital importance (Butts, 2017). One factor that affects this attention is that fact that humans can only process limited amounts of information at one time; the amount of knowledge that can be processed in WM is called the cognitive load. When a person is given too much information to process at one time, or there are too many distractors, effective processing of the necessary information can be difficult (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). In addition, research suggests that an individual’s perception of information (Brosch et al., 2013) and emotional status at the time of taking in information (Samsonovich & Ascoli, 2006) can affect their success in acquiring knowledge accurately and effectively. Although LTM can house unlimited information, the brain cannot process and send unlimited information from WM to LTM.

Thus, whether or not people can develop or manipulate their working memory capacity is an important consideration for those seeking a deeper understanding of how people learn. Can a person train their brain to process more information at one time? Research says yes. Scholars once thought WM was strictly defined by genetics, but research now suggests that WM is a developmental process and can be manipulated by how people organize and attend to the information they are trying to learn (Sweller et al., 1998). Research has also found that WM develops over time as a person ages (Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002) and can also be cultivated through the use of strategies or cognitive training (Gathercole & Alloway, 2007). In 2001, researchers McNamara and Scott studied how the use of strategies, such as chaining (breaking a task down into sequential parts), could affect WM performance, including procedural tasks (e.g., reading, riding a bike, baking a cake). Their findings suggested that purposefully applied strategies do in fact positively influence effective acquisition and retrieval of knowledge.

Variables Affecting Knowledge Acquisition

Whether they affect the level of attention one has available to successfully manage the formation of memories or the amount of input being processed within WM, outside variables can have both positive and negative effects on how efficiently and accurately one learns information. For instance, chronic high levels of stress hormones can damage areas of the brain that affect learning (McEwen, 2000). It is believed that learner experiences, physical health, emotions, and false (inaccurate) memories, as well as other variables, affect schema development. You may recall that schema are categorical representations within the mind that can help facilitate successful learning. Schema development, then, is the process of building new knowledge (in WM) on previous knowledge (in LTM). Take an infant, for example. When an infant cries and the parent picks them up, they learn that this behavior has a consequence and begin to structure schemas that then will be applied to differing contexts, such as the schema that crying leads to getting food.

The following summarizes some of the potential factors (but should not be considered the only affecting factors):

Personal experiences: Socioeconomics, culture, and other factors can affect the learner’s ability to process information. This may affect motivation and cognitive load, among other aspects of learning. Without information gained from previous experience to link new information to, it is difficult to successfully process the new knowledge to LTM. For example, if a person has lived in a culture where education was not an important factor, they may have difficulty understanding the importance of schools in American culture. False memory development: When inaccurate information is believed to be truth, this may affect the acceptance of new knowledge associated with it. For example, in the 1700s Europeans believed tomatoes to be poisonous. In this context, anyone teaching that tomatoes were a healthy addition to one’s diet would have been ignored or considered a liar. Emotions: When one experiences emotion, the brain responds as if it is processing knowledge. Emotions can assist a person in better understanding their own needs as well as the needs of others; however, when emotions become extreme, the brain can become overwhelmed and distract the learner from the knowledge he or she may be trying to accommodate. Physical health: The brain processes every feeling, both emotional and physical. Thus, when one is in pain, tired, or hungry, WM may be negatively affected. For example, when a person has the flu, it is unlikely they will be able to successfully attend to outside tasks, including new knowledge development.

As previously stated, numerous factors affect successful knowledge development, so how does intelligence fit into the equation? This is an additional area of learning psychology that can be complicated, but it is an important facet to consider when forming a comprehensive understanding of learning.

Types of Intelligence

Although scholars have suggested that there are different types of intelligence, such as general (g), crystallized (Gc), fluid (Gf), multiple (MI), and emotional (EI) intelligences, each area is associated differently with how people learn. IQ is a well-known standard for measuring intelligence, yet general intelligence (g), which is a measure of an individual’s ability to process information with cognitive complexity, is suggested to predict variables such as academic achievement, life outcomes, and group differences more clearly than IQ due to its correlations with biological measures. In fact, numerous researchers in the field of intelligence are adhering to g as a more reliable assessment for success than IQ (Gottfredson, 1997, 2011). Crystallized intelligence (Gc) measures a person’s stored and retrievable knowledge about “the nature of the world and learned operations such as arithmetical ones that can be drawn on in solving problems” (Nisbett et al., 2012, as cited in Rosser-Majors, 2017, p. 229). Fluid intelligence (Gf) measures the ability to solve problems using spontaneous learning, reasoning, and problem solving rather than stored knowledge. Some scholars have found Gf to be related to WM capacity, and some believe that it is the most influential variable in learning (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, & Perrig, 2008).

Multiple and emotional intelligences are evolving frameworks that suggest diverse definitions of intelligence that may affect performance. Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences (MI) suggests that individual learning varies from person to person based on biopsychological and cultural factors, such as genetics, mood, personality, and socioeconomics, that can affect skill development. Emotional intelligence (EI) suggests that factual knowledge is not the only area that can be developed to increase performance; emotions and emotional control can also be developed. EI is the ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others.

The growing acceptance of alternative intelligence constructs, such as MI and EI, too often takes away from the importance and validity of IQ and g. That is, a person who has accepted MI or EI as valid might state that humans all learn differently. However, research suggests that human brains process information similarly (Butts, 2017) and that it is preferences, emotions, and potentially learning strategies that may determine the effectiveness of cognitive processing.

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For firewalkers, the concept of "heat" takes on a different meaning.

3.3 Developing Theories in the Field of Learning Psychology Learning psychology offers additional theoretical frameworks that support the development of knowledge. As you discover ways to apply your knowledge in your personal and professional lives, it is important to consider the vast scope of evolving perspectives that can be applied to help explain and support more effective learning for yourself and others.

Individualized Construction of Knowledge

As puzzling as understanding the mind and how it influences learning is, the research associated with effective knowledge acquisition has also encouraged some researchers to look at variables other than information processing. Construction of individualized knowledge and its influence on effective learning is one of the areas explored by constructivism.

According to constructivism, learning involves meaning, but meaning itself cannot be fully explained by what one knows or what one believes they have learned. For example, believing something to be true does not guarantee its validity. Constructivists seek to explain the association of meaning with learning by considering whether knowledge is truly knowledge if it has no meaning within one’s constructed reality (i.e., one’s culture). And if it is not knowledge, then how can one say it was learned? For example, if an American learns that Saka Dawa lasts for a month, is this even knowledge if the person does not know what Saka Dawa is or have any way to apply the fact that it lasts for a month? This piece of information has no meaning in the American’s cultural context. Does it become knowledge and gain meaning when that person learns that Saka Dawa is a period of time celebrated by Tibetan Buddhists?

The research lens for constructivism also asserts that learning includes numerous constructs, and these constructs affect everything from the simplest of tasks to the most complex of algorithms. It is important to understand that constructivist-based theories do not disprove cognitive or behaviorist theories. Instead, previous theories are used in conjunction with the foundational concept that learners should be the center of the process, organizing knowledge that is based on their own reality. Earlier in this chapter we considered how a child learning about how food is too hot to eat right out of the oven could be explained both by behaviorism and cognitivism. A constructivist would ask “what if the construct of ‘hot’ was not relevant to someone?”

For example, fire walking rituals are practiced across the globe. Hot does not necessarily mean the same thing to people that walk across fire-heated coals as it does to those that do not. Thus, if a fire walker was to be told that it was too hot outside to walk barefoot across a sunbaked, sandy beach, that person might consider that to be trivial and inaccurate knowledge; as such, would this information be learned by this individual? This analogy describes the principles of constructivism as a basis for understanding knowledge acquisition.

According to constructivism, everyone’s reality is individualized and self-constructed; hence, one person’s reality, and what learning is for that person, may differ from the reality of another person (Dalgarno, Kennedy, & Bennett, 2014). Constructivism also suggests that experiences, diversity, and culture affect knowledge acquisition, specifically in the area of schema development. The schema development process cannot be easily defined. Given this, the meaning of knowledge within each individual’s LTM becomes a crucial consideration. For example, the schema of communication can differ across cultures, genders, and generations. A young American girl’s schema for effective communication with a friend might be a text message. However, her Italian grandfather’s schema for effective communication is a one-to-one, face-to-face conversation. Thus, when the grandfather asks his granddaughter to “stay in touch,” and she agrees, they might have very different ideas of what that entails. The key to constructivism is the understanding that while two people might assume they both have the same understanding of a concept, what one person associates with that concept may differ greatly from what a person from a different background associates with that same concept.

To elaborate, sociocultural theory (SCT), a subset of constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) that is focused on dialect development, provides a good example of the ideologies of this proposed framework. SCT poses that learning depends greatly on the culture in which it takes place. As individuals learn to speak, to write, and to communicate, they assign meaning and association to words. For example, the word biscuit refers to a flaky bread product in the United States, but refers to a cookie in the United Kingdom. Each culture has associations that may differ from one to the next, therefore, how knowledge is constructed may also differ based on one’s schema.

However, it is very difficult with current technology to study how someone constructs knowledge inside their mind. The inability to substantiate this process supports researchers who suggest that constructivism is purely subjective (Phillips, 2000). One theoretical perspective at odds with constructivism is logical positivism. Logical positivists believe that answers to questions about the process of learning should only be based upon empirical research (Gross & Levitt, 1994; Matthews, 1992), and if it cannot be seen or measured, it cannot be accepted as fact. According to this perspective, developed in the early 20th century, any statements that cannot be verified should be dismissed from consideration. This clashes with constructivism’s tenet that knowledge is socially constructed and not always verifiable.

It is important to understand the push and pull between various theories, even those that are less well-known or less widely accepted, when developing an understanding of learning psychology.

Humanism

Another learning theory that has had less mainstream acceptance is humanism, posing that effective learning should be based on development of the self—including one’s skills, values, and beliefs. Humanism in learning is founded on the ideology that development of the whole person through the discovery of self and self-actualization is crucial to successful performance in learning contexts. Humanism, an old ideology, was reignited by Carl Rogers (1902–1987) in the 20th century due to his focus on person-centered therapy. Humanist ideologies promote even further that effective learning is conditional upon numerous variables, and that personal motivation is a necessary part of the learning process. Some academics and scholars suggest that any focus on the development of the whole person—emphasizing the importance of the learner, including his or her thoughts, feelings, and emotions—is to be classified as a humanistic approach (Gage & Berliner, 1991; Lei, 2007; Maples, 1979). Hence, many different theories, both motivational and strategy based (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-determination theory, experiential learning, and transformational learning), embody the humanist philosophy.

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According to humanism in learning, it is crucial for learners to become more aware of why they are or are not having success and to purposefully develop the needed components to increase their opportunity for success. Two motivational theories that align with this approach are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943) and self- determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs supports the idea that humans have certain needs that must be met before they can fully attend to other things. Without this increase in the meeting of needs, one’s motivation to learn may be negatively affected. Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that motivation is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic sources, including the intrinsic factor of self-regulation. Therefore, a person’s level of self-regulation may also affect his or her willingness to attend to the learning experience. These motivational theories can be directly applied to support a person’s success in the learning process.

For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can support cognitivism, as attention to stimuli is a major factor in successful learning. Consider a student who has not had breakfast sitting in her morning class. Her working memory may be filled with thoughts of survival—of sustenance. Thus, cognitive load limitations might suggest that she is too distracted by thoughts of hunger to attend to the new knowledge that must move successfully from WM to LTM.

Self-determination theory suggests that the negating of three key variables, autonomy, competence, and belonging, can affect the level of self-regulation individuals apply to their behaviors, including learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985). If a person does not believe they can learn a new language (competence) and their Spanish class does not provide the support necessary to create more positive beliefs, the learner may not have the self-regulation to continue to do the homework for the Spanish class, and less successful learning will take place.

Humanism also offers learning philosophies that encourage strategies to support more successful learning, such as experiential and transformational learning. Experiential learning is founded on the ideology that learning success is increased in environments that include student-centered curriculum and instruction (Weinstein, 2015). Transformational learning proposes that learning should be founded on the development of critical inquiry that supports the assimilation and adaptation of meaning. Each focus on the development of one’s beliefs and values as the primary function of learning.

Humanism, as a theory that suggests that human life and learning are about the development of the whole person, can be challenging to apply in our performance-based society. For example, in any given course at school, is the average person more concerned with how much she has learned or the grade she receives? According to humanism, if a person neglects the importance of learning for mastery and instead focuses on performance, the idea of learning gets left behind and personal motivation is reduced. Hence, with a holistic understanding of the importance of the human spirit, the mind, and the potential factors that can affect learning success, there is an opportunity to improve effective learning and to develop the tools to help others improve as well.

Although some evolving frameworks can be controversial, failing to consider the complexity of learning can limit the understanding of and the ability to support successful learning opportunities. Thus, as we apply learning psychology to the contexts of our personal and professional lives, it is important to keep in mind the numerous theoretical frameworks offered about learning and that it is a complex domain that is still growing. Technological advances and the evolution of human society may make possible important discoveries that further elaborate on the current understanding of how people learn, so it is important for psychologists to stay informed of new and evolving findings.

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An ethical consideration for teachers may be to ensure that students of all backgrounds feel equally represented.

3.4 Ethics in Learning Psychology As an undergraduate of psychology, having a strong code of ethics can support your career and personal development. Whatever field you choose, if it involves learning psychology, there are certain ethical considerations to keep in mind. It is essential that you apply current learning theory accurately when communicating and interacting with those who seek your help, whether that be students, patients, or clients.

For example, a person that seeks to work in education, geriatrics, special needs, or child development (to name a few) should keep in mind that these are vulnerable populations and behave accordingly. It is important to be conscious of bias when working with others, especially children, who are still developing their sense of self and can be greatly impacted by the words of a person in authority. For example, a second-grade teacher should make sure to present children with stories and examples that highlight that men and women of all races and ethnicities are equally capable. Similarly, social workers should avoid making assumptions about the families they work with based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status and treat everyone with respect and kindness.

Another ethical guideline to consider is the importance of evidence-based practice. No matter what your career path is, make sure to validate your work with evidence and not simply rely on what you believe to be true. A personal dedication to continual intellectual self-development will be crucial, since knowledge about how people learn is constantly advancing.

Those who choose to specialize in learning psychology must adhere to all of the ethical principles applied to general psychology. Section seven in the American Psychological Association’s “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (2016) specifically addresses educating and training others:

7.01 Design of Education and Training Programs

Psychologists responsible for education and training programs take reasonable steps to ensure that the programs are designed to provide the appropriate knowledge…

7.03 Accuracy in Teaching

(a) Psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that course syllabi are accurate regarding the subject matter to be covered, bases for evaluating progress, and the nature of course experiences…

(b) When engaged in teaching or training, psychologists present psychological information accurately.

These guidelines set standards for conduct among psychologists who are involved in teaching others. Notice the emphasis on providing accurate and evidence-based information. The full description of these ethical practices can be accessed at https://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx (https://apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx) .

An additional ethical consideration, as you get closer to graduating, is your future employer. When seeking employment, knowing the ethics of the organization you choose is important. Many companies have a code of ethics or values listed on their website and in employee handbooks; you can also ask about this in your interview. Do your ethical goals and beliefs match those of the organization you are applying to? Whether volunteering for your community or working full-time for an organization, as a person with a degree in psychology, consider how you will share with those around you the importance of ethical decision making.

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Grocery stores are arranged with ergonomics in mind. What other spaces might an ergonomist work on?

3.5 Career Applications in the Field of Learning Psychology As a graduate, it will be important to be able to communicate to your professional contacts the skills that a major in psychology has given you, such as a better understanding of behavior, performance, and motivation. There are many professions that list a degree in psychology as a requirement, since it is understood that a psychology degree is accompanied by a certain type of learning and thinking.

How does having knowledge about learning psychology benefit you as a soon-to-be graduate? Learning psychology is applicable to both a person’s personal and professional lives. With an increased level of applied metacognition, more purposeful learning can occur. This can support career advancement, better parenting, self- development, skill building, and many more skills that can lead to positive life outcomes.

With an understanding of learning, a person can better prepare more effective training materials, support the learning styles and preferences of coworkers or customers, and effectively learn new material presented on the job. This person will also have the ability to successfully support both their own and others’ performance and needs through an adaptive, personalized, and motivational application of learning strategies designed to improve information processing and attention. In one’s personal life, one can also more successfully encourage his or her children, support personal learning opportunities, engage with educators, and get more deeply involved in volunteering opportunities (e.g., boys and girls clubs and summer learning programs).

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

The field of psychology offers numerous opportunities for career advancement, community service, and personal development. Here are a few ideas to get you started on a career search when you graduate with a bachelor’s in psychology supported by the field of learning psychology.

Human Resources Specialist

There are often numerous areas of expertise within the human resources (HR) department. Some HR specialists train individuals within their organization, manage communications to employees, disseminate benefits information, and assist in the recruiting process for an organization. Having a background in learning psychology prepares people to create successful employee trainings based on learning theory. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018b), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 7%.

Instructional Designer

Using content from experts, some instructional designers create training that supports diverse employee groups. Others work with teachers to create classes that will be engaging and support successful learning. Knowledge of learning psychology prepares those in this career to more purposefully consider the organization and presentation of content to support learner success.

Health Educator/Professional

People in this job work with organizations (including schools, government agencies, businesses, etc.) to disseminate knowledge about health issues. For example, they may hold a workshop to teach employees about heart disease and how to prevent it. With an understanding of learning psychology, those in this profession are equipped to communicate health information, which can sometimes be confusing and full of jargon, in a way that makes it easy for non-experts to grasp. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018a), this field is expected to grow by 16% through 2026.

Behavioral Interventionist/Applied Behavior Analyst/ Substance Abuse, Behavioral Disorder, and Mental Health Counselors

This professional often works with children, and sometimes adults, to improve their ability to learn in school, develop social skills, and mature inappropriate behaviors. An understanding of learning psychology enhances skills in this career due to the discipline’s focus on the variables that affect people’s behavior and motivation. It also supports one’s ability to encourage and guide the client through appropriate reinforcements. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018h), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 23%.

An Ergonomist/Human Factors Specialist (or Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians)

An ergonomist uses design to influence the performance of people in a specific space, most often the workplace. Ergonomists do this by designing layouts that people will interact with in certain desired ways (think about the way the grocery store entices you to buy certain foods and makes it difficult to find others). This job also refers to people who work with manufacturers to design anything that is associated with improving the wellness of people. This career field applies the principles of psychology to design products, equipment, and contexts (e.g., office chairs/tables, environmental layouts, and computer-adaptive software). Cognitive ergonomists (more specifically aligned to learning psychology) focus on the improvement of technology to improve performance, such as by making software more user friendly or redesigning tasks to even out the cognitive workload. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018e), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 8%.

Market Research Analyst

Knowing what people will buy is a valuable skill for anyone trying to sell something. The psychology most associated with this is consumer psychology. However, with an understanding of how humans learn, a market research analyst may be better equipped to study the trends and data that drive product buying. Applying the understanding of how people learn may make more effective marketing campaigns possible. The BLS predicts that this career will grow 23% between 2016 and 2026 (2018c).

Graduate Degree in Psychology

An undergraduate psychology degree can also prepare you for graduate school. Often, in graduate school, psychology is broken down into several specializations. One such area of expertise is learning or educational psychology. With the successful completion of a graduate degree in learning or educational psychology, students can consider the following types of positions. The BLS does not always break down the differing fields of psychologists. For general psychology career growth, see https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm (https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm) .

Educational Psychologist

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Educational psychologists perform educational research that may focus on learning context, types of instruction, teaching methods, assessment techniques, or educational resources. They may also develop instruction or instructional strategies to be applied within educational settings. In addition, they may focus on creating educational resources such as textbooks, worksheets, lesson plans, tests, or instructional videos.

Many educational psychologists will specialize in specific age groups, such as children ages 4–6 or learners over 65. Some educational psychologists choose a particular learning problem or disability to focus on, such as dyslexia.

Educational Researcher

Educational researchers often work in postsecondary institutions, at research organizations, or for government agencies, researching educational issues and publishing in books or peer-reviewed journals. An educational researcher may specialize in studying and reporting about areas such as motivation, information processing, performance, or curriculum effectiveness, to name a few.

School Psychologist (Elementary, Middle, and High School)

School psychologists work at schools with students to improve their ability to learn. This may include one-on-one behavior counseling with a single student or addressing potential learning stumbling blocks that affect a wider, more diverse range of students. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018g), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 13%.

College/University Professor

A college professor of learning or educational psychology works with various levels of students interested in learning more about, or attaining, a degree in that area of expertise. This includes teaching courses and giving lectures, but many professors also do research and publish papers and books, as well as consult for companies seeking their expertise. To teach undergraduate students one must earn a master’s degree, and to instruct graduate students one must have an earned doctorate. According to the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2018f), the job predicted growth from 2016–26 is 15%.

Career Counselor

Career counselors advise people about their career options. These counselors often work in both the secondary and post-secondary educational contexts. They try to help people figure out what career path is right for them. An understanding of learning and cognition can help a career counselor better understand what careers may be more suitable for a client, based on her learning styles/preferences and motivating interests. The BLS estimates that job growth for school and career counselors will be 13% between 2016 and 2026 (2018g).

A day in the life of two professionals who work in learning psychology careers. Answer questions to determine which career you prefer.

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Summary

Learning psychology is an ever-advancing field of study, and there are numerous psychological theories which propose explanations for the process by which humans learn and methods by which humans can learn more effectively. These theories are applicable in a wide range of personal and professional contexts. From the stimulus- response theory of behaviorism to the internal-state focus of cognitivism, theories advance the understanding of how to support one’s self as well as others in the process of knowledge advancement. Other theoretical models such as constructivism and humanism look at learning from a person-centered, variable-associated perspective and seek to enlighten us to why we do and do not attend to information successfully. Theories, models, and frameworks based in constructivist and humanist ideologies offer plausible explanations for how the information people process may, due to both external and internal variables, be manipulated, misrepresented, and inaccurately stored into LTM.

Understanding how people learn and how we they learn more effectively is an area of psychology that is a part of daily life; it is all-encompassing. As you begin making decisions about your career and future, consider the skills that learning about learning has taught you. Whether it is how to consider the diversity of learning preferences when addressing a crowd, how to engage in working memory development as you age, or how to effectively employ aspects of instructional theory, the foundations of this area of psychology will be vital as you market yourself and your skills to the world.

Concept Check 1. The cognitive revolution introduced the notion that

a. behaviorism is outdated and doesn’t apply to modern times. b. how the mind processes knowledge is important. c. cognition cannot occur without a stimulus. d. cognition cannot be measured.

2. Which form of intelligence indicates the ability to solve problems without using stored knowledge? a. general intelligence b. emotional intelligence c. crystallized intelligence d. fluid intelligence

3. What is one of the primary distinctions between constructivism and logical positivism? a. Constructivism emphasizes social constructs and logical positivism emphasizes mental constructs. b. Constructivism emphasizes mental constructs and logical positivism emphasizes social constructs. c. Constructivism emphasizes subjective experience and logical positivism emphasizes empirical observation. d. Constructivism emphasizes empirical observation and logical positivism emphasizes subjective experience.

4. An understanding of learning psychology can be successfully applied to a. careers in psychology. b. careers outside of psychology. c. one’s private life. d. All of the above. e. Only a and b.

5. A paper company by the name of Filo, Inc. is looking to reorganize their office space to improve productivity and engagement among employees. The head of this initiative is looking to contract a professional who can weigh in on the design of the new office space. Which professional with a background in learning psychology would be best for the job?

a. Toya, the ergonomist b. Lydia, the behavioral interventionist c. Dylan, the market research analyst d. Shareef, the human resources specialist

Answers

1. b. The answer can be found in Section 3.1. 2. d. The answers can be found in Section 3.2. 3. c. The answer can be found in Section 3.3. 4. d. The answer can be found in Section 3.5. 5. a. The answer can be found in Section 3.5.

Questions for Critical Thinking 1. A recent psychology graduate named Kaylynn is currently seeking a career position with the local community college as a marketing director. How can her

understanding of learning support this position, and how can she express these acquired skills most clearly in her interview? 2. The retail department store that Nikky, a psychology graduate, works for is changing how they address customer service, and over the next several weeks the store

will be requiring all sales personnel to attend training sessions. As a sales manager, Nikky has heard her employees make comments reflecting their frustration with this requirement; they believe they do an adequate job, so why change what they are currently doing. How can Nikky, based on what she knows about the psychology of learning, encourage the employees to be more open to learning the new procedures?

3. Larry is the senior vice president of a lucrative manufacturing company. He recently hired a young man, Jackson, to work in the warehouse. After observing his work, Larry feels that, with some additional training, Jackson has a lot of potential to advance. But Jackson seems disinterested in advancing any of his skills and knowledge to achieve higher pay or stature in the company. Based on learning and motivation theories, if Jackson is required to attend training geared to advancement, how effective might he be at accommodating the new information?

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the definition.

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behaviorism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The learning theory based on the premise that observable environmental variables are the basis of behaviors and that learning is demonstrated by behavioral change.

cognitive load (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The amount of knowledge that a person can process in working memory.

cognitivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A theoretical framework that emphasizes the internal processes of thinking, including the retrieval of information from long-term memory, in explaining behaviors and learning.

cognitive revolution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Cognitivist efforts to restore the mind as a consideration in learning that occurred in the mid-1900s.

constructivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A theory that focuses on the way individual context influences learning.

crystallized intelligence (Gc) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A person’s stored and retrievable knowledge (long-term memory) about the world, including experiences and learned operations.

cultural myopia (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The tendency to judge learning experiences based on only one’s own experiences, without full acknowledgment of experiences outside one’s own.

emotional intelligence (EI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others.

false memories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Memories that are built around an event that never happened, or recollections of real events that include details that are inaccurate.

fluid intelligence (Gf) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The ability to evaluate and solve problems using spontaneous learning, reasoning, and analysis rather than stored knowledge.

general intelligence (g) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The measure of an individual’s ability to process information with cognitive complexity.

information processing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The process by which information enters through sensory memory, flows through working memory, and is then organized and stored in long-term memory to be retrieved by the learner at a later time.

information processing theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

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This theory claims that information enters the mind, is organized, and then is stored and retrieved by the learner.

intelligence quotient (IQ) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A concept that was originally created to determine whether a child had a learning disability and is now used to compare the level of intellect among those in the same age bracket.

logical positivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The perspective that answers to questions about the process of learning should only be based upon empirical research

long-term memory (LTM) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The storage area for information that has been processed through working memory.

multiple intelligences (MI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Theory suggesting that individual learning varies from person to person based on the biopsychological and cultural factors that can affect skill development.

schema (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Categorical representations within the mind that can help facilitate successful learning.

schema development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The process of building new knowledge (in working memory) on previous knowledge (in long-term memory) to create a more effective understanding and retrieval of the new information.

self-determination theory (SDT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A theory of human motivation that posits that motivation is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic sources, including the intrinsic factor of self-regulation.

sociocultural theory (SCT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A theory that emphasizes the importance of society or culture in the learning process.

working memory (WM) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A limited capacity, short-term cognitive system for processing and storing information.

Professional Resources The psychology of learning has many dimensions. The following links should help you remember all that you have learned about this field of psychology as you prepare to market yourself to the professional community.

American Psychological Association The educational psychology division of APA: http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx (https://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.aspx)

Journals

Peer-reviewed journals focused on behaviorism and behavioral analysis:

Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19383703) Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19383711) Journal of Organizational Behavior: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1099-1379 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10991379)

Peer-reviewed cognition-focused journals:

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International Journal of School and Cognitive Psychology: http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/school-cognitive-psychology.php (https://www.omicsonline.org/school-cognitive-psychology.php) Advances in Cognitive Psychology: http://www.ac-psych.org/en/home (http://www.ac-psych.org/en/home) Applied Cognitive Psychology: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-ACP.html (https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Applied+Cognitive+Psychology-p- 9780JNRL00037) Journal of Cognitive Psychology: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cognitive-psychology/ (https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cognitive-psychology/)

Peer-reviewed constructivist-supportive journals (predominantly education focused):

Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences: http://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/latiss/latiss- overview.xml (https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/latiss/latiss-overview.xml) Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages: http://www.blue-ap.org/j/Journal_of_Social_Sciences,_Literature_and_Languages/ (http://www.blue- ap.org/j/Journal_of_Social_Sciences,_Literature_and_Languages/) Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/procedia-social-and-behavioral-sciences/ (https://www.journals.elsevier.com/procedia-social-and-behavioral-sciences/)

Peer-reviewed humanistic-supportive journals:

The Journal of Humanistic Counseling: http://afhc.camp9.org/JHC/ (https://afhc.wildapricot.org/JHC/) New Directions for Higher Education: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1536-0741 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15360741) Journal of Individual Psychology: https://utpress.utexas.edu/journals/journal-of-individual-psychology (https://utpress.utexas.edu/journals/journal-of-individual- psychology)

Learning Theories/Models Cognitivism

Cognitive Science Society, journal website: http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/cognitive-science-journal/ (http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/cognitive- science-journal/)

Cognitive Load

“Cognitive Load Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,” a journal article about cognitive load theory: https://cld.pt/dl/download/c8a79c90-1ce5- 44a8-85fe-f060968e1dd4/biblioteca%20MATEAS/psic.%20cognitiva/Sweller_1994.pdf (https://cld.pt/dl/download/c8a79c90-1ce5-44a8-85fe- f060968e1dd4/biblioteca%20MATEAS/psic.%20cognitiva/Sweller_1994.pdf)

Constructivism

“Vygotsky’s Philosophy: Constructivism and its Criticisms Examined”: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf)

Emotional Intelligence

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Publishing Group.

Experiential Learning

“Experiential Learning” applied to instructional design: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/experiental-learning.html (http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/experiential-learning/)

Information Processing

“The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information”: http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/ (http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/)

Memory Development

“Emotion and Autobiographical Memory,” an article about the role of emotions in autobiographical memories: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852439/ (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852439/)

Motivation

“Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations”: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/ (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/)

Schema Theory

“Gender Schema Theory and Its Implications for Child Development: Raising Gender-Aschematic Children in a Gender-Schematic Society”: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173685?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173685?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents)

Fun Facts Did you know that . . .

Forgotten memories are not “gone” (Loftus, 1993). They are just more difficult to retrieve. Just because we think someone has lied to us that may not be the case. False memory development is a normal occurrence in times of stress. Emotion and suggestion play large parts in a human’s recollection of an event. Research suggests that playing frightening and violent video games may actually help children have more control over their fears in real life (Olson, 2010).

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Chess increases learning performance habits, including increased attention and concentration, the use of precise thinking, the use of inductive and deductive reasoning, problem solving practice, and the recognition of complex patterns. (Tudela, 1984). It is also a part of the educational curricula in nearly 30 countries (Linder, 1990). Research suggests that those who are the most innovative adult thinkers, were children who were given the opportunity to play and manipulate their environments (Thomas & Thorne, 2009). Learning how to rap can increase mathematical concept understanding (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1997).

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

Discuss the main areas of research in social psychology.

Explain social thinking.

Understand social influence.

Analyze social relations.

Recognize ethical considerations in social psychological research.

Identify applications of social psychology.

Jen nervously awaits her turn to take the stand. She is a key witness in a trial that has garnered much attention in the media. One evening, as she was jogging along a park trail, she passed a few rowdy adolescents congregating near the basketball court. At first, she ignored the group, not really noticing anything unusual. As she passed by again on her second trip through the park, she stopped to tie her shoelace. At that point, she heard various voices making hateful slurs. When she looked up, she saw a few youngsters being roughly jostled about. Unsure what to do, Jen looked around as she ran past and noticed others in the vicinity were watching the youths warily, but nobody was intervening. As she ran, Jen remembered what she had learned in her social psychology class about the bystander effect and how people in groups are less likely to take individual action to stop something like this. For this reason, she continued her run and decided to return for a third lap. As she made her way back through the park, the confrontation was still going on, so she slowed to a walk and gradually made her way over to the vicinity of the congregation. As she drew near, she began shouting, “Hey! What’s going on? Is everything okay?” At the sound of her voice, the raucous group quickly began to disperse. Suddenly, Jen noticed two dark shapes lying on the ground. She rushed to the individuals, who had clearly been viciously assaulted. Today, Jen will testify for the prosecution, who are arguing that this was a hate crime. She will use her knowledge about prejudice and discrimination to explain the events and the motivation behind them from her point of view.

Jen’s story raises a wealth of fascinating questions for social psychology:

What situational variables can account for the defendants’ aggressive actions or the lack of prosocial behavior on the part of onlookers? What factors influence Jen’s eyewitness testimony, including her perception of the crime and ability to identify the culprit? How can the various persons involved in this case (i.e., the plaintiff, defendant, witnesses, and attorneys) enhance their persuasive appeals to the judge and jury? What group processes affect the decision-making process amongst the members of the jury?

These are typical questions addressed by social psychology. Social psychology is a field of study devoted to understanding how the presence of others (real or imagined) impacts our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

4Social Psychology Stephanie L. Anderson, PhD—Ashford University

Zjirousek/iStock/Thinkstock

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Digital Vision/DigitalVision/Thinkstock

Social psychology is relevant to various parts of life. As you read, consider how you utilize the principles of social psychology in your own life.

4.1 What Do Social Psychologists Do? Social psychologists study the impact of the social world—physical, as well as psychological and cultural—on the affective, behavioral, and cognitive responses of the individual. They create hypotheses based on observations. They test their ideas, and they design programs that implement knowledge gained in the field or laboratory to address social problems. Everything social psychologists do is centered on a key premise: the power of the situation. As social beings, humans are influenced not only by internal states (such as personality traits) but also by external factors. Social psychologists seek to understand how situational constraints impact the human psyche and contribute to behavior. For example, research on attraction demonstrates the immensely powerful influence of proximity on liking; that is, the closer someone is to you (physically), the more likely it is that you will form a relationship.

Most social psychologists possess a doctoral degree, although some are able to practice their specialty with a master’s degree (American Psychological Association [APA], 2017d). The majority of these individuals, particularly those with PhDs, teach and conduct research at the college or university level, studying a wide range of topics affecting daily life. They also conduct basic research, in which they test hypotheses regarding human behavior with the goal of gaining knowledge. Other social psychologists work in the private sector or for the government, often as consultants or researchers. Business and education are also prime fields for the application of social psychological insight. Social psychologists practice applied research, using the knowledge gained through basic research to design interventions and solve problems in the world. Think back to the previous example of proximity and attraction. A social scientist might conduct a study in which participants are seated varying distances from each other during a mock speed dating session, measuring and comparing levels of liking on the basis of this manipulation. This is an example of basic research. An applied researcher could subsequently utilize this information (specifically, the finding that proximity leads to liking) to develop a training protocol for use in a business setting or an intervention for use in a school.

As you will see in the remainder of this chapter, social psychological insight is relevant to a variety of fields. In fact, since we are all actors in this social world, you regularly employ principles from this discipline in your everyday life. For example, you are engaging in social thinking when you make explanations for behavior (your own, or that of others); you are utilizing social influence when you attempt to persuade someone; and you are illustrating social relations when you help, or hurt, others. But, if you think you might like to become a social psychologist and advance your skills further, start thinking about graduate school (also, see feature box Career Spotlight: Kay D.). Here is a link to a helpful guide for students:

http://spsp.org/sites/default/files/Student%20Guide%20to%20Applying%20to%20Graduate%20School.pdf (http://spsp.org/sites/default/files/Student%20Guide%20to%20Applying%20to%20Graduate%20School.pdf) .

Career Spotlight: Kay D.

Kay D. is a waitress who works nights and weekends to finance her college education. She is a business major, and she eventually hopes to own her own business. Last semester, Kay took a course in social psychology. She was surprised to learn that many of the principles she studied in the class were relevant to her current job. Kay’s final project required her to apply social psychological insight to some aspect of her daily life. As a waitress, Kay realized that she utilizes many of the principles of persuasion on a regular basis, and she began mindfully incorporating others. For example, the principle of liking suggests that people respond favorably to similar others who also like them back. So, when introducing herself and greeting diners, Kay takes an extra minute to develop rapport, perhaps sharing a compliment or pointing out a similarity (e.g., “What beautiful children!” or “I’m a Packers fan too!”). Kay also learned in her class that the principle of reciprocity suggests that people are inclined to return a favor. So, when she delivers the check, Kay includes extra mints. Kay noticed an increase in her tips since purposefully employing the knowledge she gained in her social psychology course. In fact, she now plans to add a psychology minor to her degree, as she is convinced this will be a valuable asset to her as an entrepreneur.

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Research shows that the benefits of high selfesteem and the drawbacks of low self-esteem have each been overstated. What, in your experience, are some pros and cons to having either low or high self-esteem?

Jane Elliot's Race Experiment

In one of the most famous experiments on prejudice, third- grade teacher Jane Elliot split her classroom into blue-eyed children and brown-eyed children, and told them that blue- eyed people were better than brown-eyed people. Watch this video to see the results of this classroom activity.

4.2 How Do We Perceive Ourselves and Others? One key theme in social psychology concerns social thinking. This topic is relevant to a number of careers. For example, educators and others who work with children may be particularly interested in the process whereby individuals come to know themselves. Those employed in the legal system might find a more clear understanding of attributional processes helpful to prevent bias, such as the fundamental attribution error, from clouding their judgment. The study of attitudes is relevant to every area of social life.

Introspection and Attribution

Social psychology addresses both our self-definition as well as our perception of others. Self-concept refers to the beliefs that people have about themselves. Sociologists assert that we see and know ourselves through others, incorporating our imagined perceptions of what they think of us into our own views (Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934). Although we may come to know ourselves through introspection, or looking inward and examining our own thoughts and feelings, we may also learn by observing our own behavior and interpreting it (Bem, 1972). Furthermore, we engage in a variety of practices to enhance our own self-image and esteem (e.g., the better-than-average effect, which has shown that most people think themselves above average, even though this is statistically impossible).

To make sense of the social world, we explain behavior through attributions; that is, we attribute others’ behaviors to specific reasons. Sometimes we make internal attributions based on someone’s disposition, while other times we make external attributions based on a specific situation. When we explain the behavior of others, we tend to underestimate the impact of the environment and overestimate the role of personal factors in a phenomenon known as the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977). For example, if an employee is late to work, his boss might blame that individual’s poor work ethic (internal), rather than recognizing potential mitigating circumstances such as traffic (external). This error can lead to negative attitudes or actions toward others due to preconceived (and often faulty) notions.

Fact or Fiction: Is Low Self-Esteem to Blame for Unhealthy Behaviors?

For decades, it was assumed that low self-esteem was the root cause of a myriad of social problems amongst adolescents, such as juvenile delinquency; as a result, parents and teachers of more recent generations were advised to be generous with praise in an attempt to boost children’s self-esteem and thus enhance their life outcomes (Pocock, 2017). Recent research, however, has called into question the underpinnings of this popular movement. The consequences of low self-esteem are not as universally detrimental as assumed (Emler, 2001), nor are the benefits of high self-esteem as impressive as touted (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003). Very low self-esteem is a risk factor for depression, but—contrary to popular belief—young people with low self-esteem are not more likely to commit crimes or use or abuse drugs or alcohol. On the contrary, though high self-esteem is associated with feeling good and demonstrating greater resilience and initiative (Baumeister et al., 2003), young people with very high self-esteem are more likely to hold prejudiced attitudes toward ethnic minorities and engage in physically risky pursuits (Emler, 2001). To help children develop healthy self-esteem, psychologists have lately begun to suggest that parents and educators should encourage, rather than praise, their children, fostering confidence rather than narcissism (Hitz & Driscoll, 1988).

Attitudes

An attitude is an evaluation of a person, place, event, or thing; it is often rooted in belief and exhibited in behavior. Attitudes are composed of affective (feeling states), behavioral (tendencies toward action), and cognitive (beliefs) elements. These “ABC” components can be applied to any attitude. For example, consider your attitude toward education. Do you feel happy when you are learning and enjoy the challenge your classes provide? This illustrates the affective component, or associated feelings. Do you support education, perhaps by voicing your opinion or supporting and encouraging others in their quest for knowledge? This illustrates the behavioral component, or a tendency to act. Do you think education is important? Are you attending school because you believe more, and better, education will provide you with better opportunities in life? This illustrates the cognitive component, or associated beliefs. Social psychologists study many different types of attitudes, but one major focus concerns our attitudes toward others.

Let us consider another example in regard to intergroup attitudes. Imagine young Jack has a negative attitude toward girls. Jack might believe the stereotype that girls are not as smart as boys. Stereotypes are the cognitive component of an attitude, and usually they involve generalized beliefs about a group of people. Note that stereotypes can be positive or negative. In addition, although stereotypes may be based on “a kernel of truth,” they are not necessarily true, and may in fact be entirely misguided. Prejudice is the affective, or emotional, component of an attitude; it is a preconceived judgment. In the case of Jack, he might feel uneasy or awkward around girls, or perhaps even downright hostile. In this case, Jack’s prejudgment of girls is negative, though some prejudices are positive in nature. If Jack chooses to treat girls differently than boys, he is discriminating against them. Discrimination is the behavioral component of an attitude; it is differential treatment on the basis of group membership. Discrimination might be intentional or unintentional and, like prejudice, can work against or for an individual.

How are our attitudes formed? Let us consider possible explanations for the development of intergroup attitudes. Although we may be biologically or cognitively adapted to favor those who are like us, to fear uncertainty, and to think in a manner that simplifies the world, the specific manifestation of our attitudes can be explained by social and motivational sources. Social sources of prejudice include competition and conflict (e.g., unequal status), socialization (e.g., being raised in a prejudiced household), and institutional support (e.g., prejudiced legislation). Motivating factors include frustration, which can lead to hostility toward others, while a desire to maintain status or identity may result in favoring those in our ingroups (Aronson, 2012; Nelson, 2002).

The effects of prejudice can be devastating, but fortunately social psychological research grants insight into a key factor in combatting these negative evaluations: contact. Allport (1954) proposed four conditions under which interaction between groups will foster positive relations:  all parties must be members of equal status (condition 1) cooperating (condition 2) toward a common goal (condition 3) with the support of social institutions (condition 4). These conditions were illustrated convincingly in the Robbers Cave experiment, in which two groups of boys were transported to a Boy Scout camp in Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma and encouraged to compete against each other and see the other group as rivals (Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961). In order to then reconcile the two groups, tasks were created that required cooperation, such as fixing a broken

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1. What do you think the intended lesson of this exercise was?

2. What do the students responses to this exercise demonstrate about the nature of predjudice in society?

"Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time of the environment, although their relative importance is different in different cases." —Kurt Lewin, founding father of modern social psychology (1936, p. 12)

water pipe. After working cooperatively toward these common goals, the two groups of boys began to see each other as equals and become friends again. More recently, Pettigrew and Tropp’s (2006) meta-analysis suggested that nearly any contact will reduce prejudice between groups.  

Many of our evaluations are explicit attitudes; that is, we are aware of and can easily describe them. In contrast, implicit attitudes are automatic, unconscious reactions. If we cannot easily identify implicit attitudes, even in ourselves, eradicating harmful negative views poses a challenge. So how would one determine whether he or she holds unconscious negative attitudes toward a particular group of people? One measure developed by social psychologists is the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). (You can take a version of the IAT here: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/index.jsp (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/index.jsp) .) Schools, workplaces, and law enforcement agencies have implemented training seminars and workshops designed to reduce implicit bias in an attempt to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. Cultural psychologist Glenn Adams suggests a particularly social-psychological approach of focusing on the situation rather than the individual (Nordell, 2017). It may be too early still to determine the effectiveness of these strategies (Weir, 2016), but interventions designed by social psychologists appear promising (Devine, Forscher, Austin, & Cox, 2012). For example, Dasgupta and Greenwald (2001) showed participants pictures of “good” and “bad” famous White and Black Americans (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr. versus O.J. Simpson, John F. Kennedy versus Jeffrey Dahmer), reasoning that media portrayal of negative stereotypes may explain some of the bias. They found that exposure to positive Black exemplars diminished the magnitude of the IAT effect. In other words, showing people pictures of admirable Black people lessened their automatic preference of White people. Perhaps this shift in focus from the bias located in individual minds to bias embedded in the sociocultural world will ultimately prove effective in affecting change.

From Basic to Applied: Turning Theory into Practice

In the early 1970s, Elliot Aronson, a researcher at the University of Texas, was contacted by a former student turned school superintendent desperate to find a solution to intense intergroup hostility following recent desegregation (Gilbert, 2001). In response, Aronson, along with his graduate students, designed the “jigsaw classroom” technique (Aronson, 1978; Aronson & Bridgeman, 1979). This technique, based on principles of the contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954; Amir, 1969; Pettigrew, 1998), divides students into groups of equal-status members who work together to achieve a common goal that is supported by the normative conditions of the classroom (see Figure 4.1). For more on this technique, explore www.jigsaw.org (http://www.jigsaw.org/) .

Figure 4.1: The jigsaw classroom

The jigsaw classroom approach is designed to promote cooperative learning.

A Cultural Perspective

One contemporary approach to the study of social psychology attempts to provide insight into human thought, feeling, and action based on a cultural perspective. This view asserts that many of the differences we see in the world—in fact, eight cultural conflicts: gender, race/ethnicity, religion, class, workplace, U.S. region, hemisphere, and global region (Markus & Conner, 2013)—can be explained by one fundamental divide: independence versus interdependence. This distinction references the understanding of relationships as primarily the result of voluntary choice (e.g., choosing a friend or a spouse based on personal preference) versus relationships that are primarily the result of circumstantial factors (e.g., elaborate kinship networks that dictate interaction patterns). This fundamental divide shapes values and norms, which in turn influence the self (see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Independence versus interdependence

Those who view themselves as independent see relationships as separate and voluntary. Those who view themselves as interdependent feel connected to and integrated with the relationships around them.

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Source: From Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224– 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224 (http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.98.2.224) Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

Voluntaristic Independence

On the top half (a) of Figure 4.2, you can see a representation of voluntaristic independence, also known as an individualist worldview. People in relatively affluent, mobile, and urban and suburban spaces (like the United States) tend to view the self as separate and distinct from others  and  relationships as voluntary, tenuous arrangements. Note that the “x” marks (which indicate personal characteristics) are located within bounded, self-contained individuals (the circles) in this figure, illustrating the uniqueness of each individual.

Embedded Interdependence

On the bottom half (b) of Figure 4.2, you can see a representation of embedded interdependence, also known as a collectivist worldview. People who occupy rural or village settings, characterized by less affluence and limited mobility (like the West African nation of Ghana), tend to view the self as inherently connected to others. Note that the boundary of the self (i.e., where “I” end and “you” begin) is depicted with a dashed line that overlaps with others, indicating the fluidity and connectedness of all individuals.

Mutual Constitution

Consider these constructions not merely as a set of ideas about the world, but rather as realities that are reflected in various practices and artifacts (Anderson, Adams, & Plaut, 2008). For instance, the reality of life in a small African village is such that marriage may be arranged as a social contract. Many generations and extended families may live together in close quarters. People may share communal meals, eating the same food from the same dish. All of these practices both reflect and support a notion of the self as interdependent, demonstrating that culture and the individual psyche both create and feed off of each other. This is known as mutual constitution. In the U.S., individuals “friend” each other on Facebook, spend time “finding themselves,” and make choices based on their own individual preferences, illustrating an entirely different worldview that operates more on independence and self-reliance. As you continue to read about social psychology in this chapter, consider whether the beliefs or practices you see in your immediate environment might illustrate independence or interdependence and the implications of this for various career trajectories (e.g., negotiating a business deal across cultures or counseling an individual from a different cultural background).

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A common form of normative social influence is social drinking, where those who do not typically drink do so during social gatherings.

4.3 How Do We Influence Others? A second theme in social psychology concerns social influence. This topic is particularly relevant to the business world and careers such as marketing or human resources, but it is also evident in education, healthcare, and other pursuits. For example, an individual working in advertising may utilize the social psychological principles of persuasion in designing a commercial or a print ad. In any role, and indeed in the job search and interviewing process, the ability to convince others to act or think in a desired manner is a beneficial skill.

Social Influence and Persuasion

Social influence refers to the ability to affect others’ thoughts, feelings, or actions. There are two types of social influence: normative and informational. In a classic example, research participants viewed a straight line and were tasked with determining which from a series of three comparison lines was closest in length (Asch, 1955). Despite glaring inconsistencies, participants most often chose the same option that all previous “participants” (actually, secretly confederates) had voiced. Why? Did they truly believe that the others in the unanimous group were correct and thus change their mind, or were they hoping to avoid disapproval for breaking status quo and gain acceptance from their peers?

When a person goes along with the crowd (or listens to a voice of authority), he or she is said to be conforming (or complying/obeying). For example, Taylor loves country music, but all of her friends listen to rap, so she changes the radio station when they climb into her car. Nothing has changed about her personal preferences, though, as she switches back to country music as soon as they are gone. This compliance (which resulted in changed behavior despite a stable belief) would be an example of normative social influence. This type of social influence is illustrated by peer pressure, or going along with others in order to be liked.

Sometimes, though, the words or actions of others might lead us to change our own values/beliefs and act in accordance with them. For example, Dale likes to drive fast, and he believes that it is safe to speed on the roads in his neighborhood. However, one winter day, as he is speeding down a local road, he notices everyone else is slowing down. So, he too steps on the brakes, figuring that if everyone else is driving carefully the  streets might be slick from ice and perhaps going fast is unsafe. In this case, his behavior changes, as do his beliefs about the road conditions and appropriate driving. This acceptance (which resulted in changed behavior and belief) would be an example of informational social influence. This type of social influence is not motivated by a desire to be liked, but rather by a desire to be right.

One obvious application of social influence concerns persuasion. All of us utilize persuasive appeals, from convincing children to eat their broccoli to swaying our friends’ opinions on our favorite movies. Cialdini (2001) outlines six principles that underlie most persuasive appeals: reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and consensus. The principle of reciprocity suggests that we feel obliged to give back when we have received something from another. For example, if your coworker filled in a shift for you last week and this week asks to borrow your truck to move a couch, you will likely agree. The principle of scarcity suggests that we seek scarce resources, as they are viewed as more valuable. Spending soars on Black Friday, in which special prices are available only for a limited time, on limited items, or to a limited number of customers. The principle of authority suggests that we are more likely to be persuaded by experts. For example, if you are looking to buy athletic shoes, an advertisement featuring Michael Jordan (a famous basketball player) would be more convincing than an advertisement featuring Paris Hilton (a famous socialite). The principle of consistency suggests that we are likely to behave consistently with previously stated beliefs or actions. For example, an educator might ask students to sign a pledge not to cheat in the hope that they will behave more ethically as a result of expressing this commitment. The principle of liking suggests that we prefer saying yes to those we like. For example, a manager may cultivate rapport with his employees, discussing similar interests or offering sincere compliments, in order to increase the likelihood that they will comply with a request to work late. The principle of consensus (or social validation) suggests that we look to the behavior of others around us when determining our own course of action. For example, politicians may point out their approval ratings to convince voters that others believe they are the right person for the job and therefore deserve to be elected to a particular role. For additional examples of these principles in action, visit https://www.influenceatwork.com/principles-of-persuasion/ (https://www.influenceatwork.com/principles-of- persuasion/) or watch the following video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFdCzN7RYbw (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFdCzN7RYbw) .

While these principles are especially useful for those in marketing and management, they can be applicable to a wide variety of fields. For example, educators routinely utilize social influence to persuade students to join them in learning, while those in medicine strive to convince patients to practice healthy habits.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE: PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION

Gloria is considering the purchase of a new car. She sees a commercial for the new model of a car by the brand that she currently drives. Which principles of persuasion account for whether Gloria ultimately purchases that vehicle she saw in the commercial?

Group Dynamics

One of the founders of modern social psychology, Kurt Lewin, focused much of his research on group theory, and it remains a relevant topic in social influence research (Kravitz & Martin, 1986). For instance, if you have ever been assigned to a group you have probably observed that, although the presence of others can enhance performance on easy or well-learned tasks (social facilitation; Triplett, 1898), people tend to exert less effort when their efforts are pooled toward a common goal than

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when held individually accountable for their contributions (Kravitz & Martin, 1986). This phenomenon, in which some group members do not carry their weight, is known as social loafing.

Individuals in a group may also behave differently than they would alone, abandoning some individual identity and demonstrating increased responsiveness to crowd norms (a state of deindividuation; Festinger, Pepitone, & Newcomb, 1952). Although the value of brainstorming in a group is lauded, many real-world fiascos (such as Pearl Harbor, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the Vietnam War) resulted from the poor decisions of small groups of people who were insulated from dissent and acting under very stressful conditions; this is known as groupthink (Janis, 1971).

Although groups have enormous influence on individuals, individuals can sway the group too. Minority influence occurs when the voice of the minority opinion is consistent and persistent (Moscovici, Lage, & Naffrechoux, 1969). Leadership may be considered an example of minority influence in that certain individual members of the group guide the overall trajectory.

These many insights into group dynamics are relevant to any life or career setting in which individuals work in collaboration with one another. To consider a specific example, think back to the opening scenario of this chapter. How do group influences affect juries? Research has identified a “two-thirds-majority” rule, in which the group verdict is usually the alternative that was favored by at least two-thirds at the outset (Davis, Kerr, Atkin, Holt, & Meek, 1975); and, after deliberation, initial inclinations toward a guilty verdict may even lead to a harsher verdict (Hastie, Penrod, & Pennington, 1983). In other words, social influence prevails.

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Do you agree with social scientists that "birds of a feather flock together" or with the old adage "opposites attract"?

4.4 How Do We Relate to Others? A final theme in social psychology concerns social relations. This topic is relevant to the workplace in general, as nearly every career requires some form of collaboration. For example, an individual working in education may utilize social psychological insight regarding prosocial behavior to foster more positive interactions among students in the classroom, while an individual working in criminal justice could utilize social psychological insight regarding antisocial behavior to mitigate the circumstances that foster aggression. An understanding of the factors that contribute to the development of relationships and support prosocial behavior, while discouraging antisocial behavior, can foster more effective interpersonal interactions in any field.

Attraction

Human beings are inherently social. In fact, some researchers have dubbed our drive toward connection, the need to belong, as a primary human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Loneliness and a lack of social support can lead to a variety of negative outcomes. The single best predictor of attraction (acquaintanceship, friendship, or romantic relationship) is proximity, or geographical nearness. Even something as simple as a random seating arrangement among college freshman resulted in higher initial attraction ratings and later friendship intensity between those who sat in neighboring seats and even simply the same row (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2008). Likewise, mere exposure—to words, items, or people—typically results in increased liking (Zajonc, 1968). In addition, humans prefer physically attractive others. People generally agree on who is and is not physically attractive, both within and across cultural and ethnic groups (Cunningham, Roberts, Barbee, Druen, & Wu, 1995). Attractive individuals are perceived as possessing a host of desirable qualities (the “what-is-beautiful-is-good” stereotype; Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972), and they benefit from more positive life outcomes too (Langlois et al., 2000). Reciprocity also plays a role in connection, in that people like others who like them back (Curtis & Miller, 1986). There are many different theories and myths about attraction, and research is continually advancing our knowledge in this area.

Fact or Fiction: Do Opposites Attract?

Although there are exceptions, social psychologists have found much more evidence to support the notion that “birds of a feather flock together” than the popular “opposites attract.” Research indicates that people actively seek out others who are like them in terms of values and beliefs (Bahns, Crandall, Gillath, & Preacher, 2017).

How might this information be applicable to various careers? Understanding the factors that drive interpersonal connection is relevant to most situations. After all, everyone needs to get along with his or her coworkers. Perhaps the most obvious career context, though, is the service industry, since forming positive relationships with customers is a very valuable step toward building a loyal clientele. By finding areas of common ground, service industry employees can improve the likelihood that their customers will respond positively to speaking and interacting with them.

Prosocial Behavior

Imagine that you are walking down a busy street and you see a woman drop her purse; the contents spill all over the sidewalk. Why do some people stop to help and others pass by? While we may be tempted to attribute helpful, prosocial behavior to a helpful personality, research has found that many social and environmental factors contribute to whether a person helps or keeps walking. When presented with a situation in which assistance is necessary, the witness must first notice the situation. Then the witness must next interpret the situation as an emergency. If the circumstances are even slightly ambiguous, normative social information will determine whether or not the witness perceives this event as urgent (Latané & Darley, 1968). Finally, the witness must decide to offer assistance. Research has revealed that individuals are actually less likely to provide assistance when in a crowd than when alone (bystander intervention), in part due to diffusion of responsibility, in which individuals perceive the responsibility for helping as being distributed among the group members (Darley & Latané, 1968). This leads to people thinking that someone else will step in, and there is no need for them to act themselves. Subsequent research has revealed additional situational constraints. For example, in one study, researchers manipulated the degree to which participants were in a hurry (Darley & Batson, 1973). Participants—seminary students—passed a “victim” (actually, a confederate who was part of the study), who lay slumped in a doorway, coughing and groaning but not moving. Only 40% offered any form of aid to the victim.

What are some potential applications of research on prosocial behavior? Organizations and individuals who rely on the support of others (e.g., via funding or time commitments from volunteers) might be able to use this information to encourage maximum contributions, particularly if implemented in conjunction with the principles of persuasion described earlier in the chapter.

Panel Debate: Do Violent Video Games Cause Aggression?

In 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold executed the Columbine High School massacre, one of the most deadly school shootings in American history. This deadly attack sparked a heated public debate regarding the impact of violent video games, as the two reportedly enjoyed playing first-person shooter games. In fact, many mass murderers have been avid gamers: Adam Lanza (Sandy Hook Elementary), James Holmes (Colorado movie theatre), to name just a few. Evan Ramsey, who was responsible for killing two people at his Alaska high school in 1997, made this claim after the shooting: “I honestly believed that if you shoot somebody, that they would get back up. I didn’t realize that you shoot somebody, they die” (Avila, Holding, Whitcraft, & Tribolet, 2008). Did the hours Ramsey spent playing video games lead him to commit this crime, or was this a ploy to avoid responsibility for the deaths he caused?

Although both the American Psychological Association (APA) and the American Academy of Pediatrics discourage children and teens from playing violent video games, some suggest that not only are these games relatively benign, but also they might actually result in a decrease in crime (Cunningham, Englestatter, & Ward, 2016). The principle of catharsis suggests that expression of anger (“venting” or “blowing off steam,” for example by playing violent video games) will release pent-up anger and frustration, thereby preventing aggression. Although popular belief favors this view, research has not provided consistent support (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999).

Social psychologists explain aggression through a number of different perspectives. Consider the following:

Is aggression innate?

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Evolutionary perspectives suggest that men are more aggressive because they must compete with each other to obtain resources and attract mates (Smith, 2007). Biological perspectives consider the value of genetics (i.e., aggressive personality traits), the hormone testosterone, and the neurotransmitter serotonin in predicting aggression (Simon & Coccaro, 1999).

Is aggression learned? Social learning theory suggests people learn by observing the behavior of others (in real life, or as portrayed in the media; Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961), constructing aggressive schemas that may guide behavior in future settings.

Is aggression the result of situational factors? The frustration–aggression hypothesis explains aggression as a reaction to a blocked goal (Berkowitz, 1989). Repeated exposure to violence might lead to desensitization, in which emotional responses to real-life violence are muted (Bushman & Anderson, 2009). Some point out that a lack of self-control in response to situations that might provoke aggression could be due to the presence of aggressive cues, such as guns (Berkowitz & LePage, 1967). Cultures vary in their acceptance and encouragement of aggression. For example, men from the Southern United States are more likely to endorse aggression or violence in response to an affront or to protect their family or honor (Cohen & Nisbett, 1994; Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle, & Schwarz, 1996; Nisbett, 1993). 

Which of these perspectives contribute relevant insight to answer this question? Or does a combination of factors best address the issue? Evan Ramsey’s case provides an excellent opportunity to consider the various factors that could begin to explain his aggression. Ramsey’s father went to prison for a gun crime, his mother became an alcoholic, and he spent time in abusive foster homes; he was a loner who played video games, he was bullied in high school, and he was the victim of prejudice (Demer, 2017). Given the complexity of human behavior, does any single theory suffice to explain aggression? Or, might a more complete and overarching theory encompass multiple elements? For instance, the general aggression model (Anderson, Anderson, & Deuser, 1996) utilizes elements from each of the above theories (see Figure 4.3). In the general aggression model, both personality traits and situational factors are taken into account when considering a person’s internal state and that person’s likelihood of taking either thoughtful or impulsive action.

Figure 4.3: The general model of aggression

A flowchart depicting the general model of aggression. This is one of several potential models scientists have put forward to describe aggression. In it, a person in a particular situation, based on his or her current internal state, acts either thoughtfully or impulsively.

Source: From Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 27–51.

Understanding debates such as this one can broaden your perspective and potentially help you in your career. For example, educators might be interested in understanding aggression in order to prevent bullying; social workers or those in the criminal justice system could benefit from a better understanding of the cases like Ramsey’s; and politicians could utilize this information to craft policies that take these various factors into account.

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"The social psychology of this century reveals a major lesson: often it is not so much the kind of person a man is as the kind of situation in which he finds himself that determines how he will act." —Stanley Milgram (1974, p. 205)

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Stanley Milgram utilized deception in his famous obedience study by leading volunteers to believe they were administering real electroshocks to other volunteers when in actuality there were no shocks at all and these participants were actors.

4.5 Ethics in Social Psychology In terms of ethical considerations, research in social psychology is critiqued most often for its use of deception, or the purposeful misleading or withholding of information about a study. Several well-known studies in social psychology that utilized deceptive methods, such as Milgram’s obedience study (1963) and Zimbardo’s prison experiment (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973), have been criticized for the potential emotional anguish participants may have experienced upon realizing their potential for harming others (Cheng-Tek Tai, 2012).

When might deception be necessary? Particularly for sensitive topics on which clear social norms exist, participants’ behavior is likely to vary as a function of observation; that is, people might act differently when they know a researcher is watching. In such cases, misleading or distracting participants can help researchers get a more clear picture of what the participants would actually do or say under certain conditions (rather than what the participants think they are supposed to be doing or saying). For example, if a researcher collected data on racism by simply asking people whether or not they considered themselves racist, is she likely to get honest answers? Maybe, maybe not.  Consider a scenario in which the same researcher asks participants to imagine that they are responsible for hiring a new employee and presents them with a series of candidates, including demographic data or pictures along with résumés. If the candidates are equally qualified but there are differences in terms of how frequently those of a particular race are selected, this may be an indication of bias.

As you can see from the previous example, deception need not be blatant. Even so, studies  involving deception require serious consideration to be sure that participants are not harmed unnecessarily. They are evaluated carefully by institutional review boards prior to being approved. Researchers must create a cover story, or a plausible alternative explanation for their methods, to tell the participants. Debriefing (fully revealing all aspects of the study) after the study is completed is also a requirement. Awareness of the risks and benefits of deception can assist a researcher in determining the necessity of this method.

Ethics on the Job

Deception holds particular applicability to professionals that utilize research methods that may involve handling people’s personal data, such as marketing analysts. Beyond scientific research, though, ethical principles are at play in every workplace. For example, a teacher applying social psychological insight by employing positive labels in the classroom may be upholding APA principles concerning beneficence and nonmaleficence. A nurse taking precautionary measures to protect patient information would be demonstrating fidelity and responsibility. A journalist, aware of the potential for bias, asking non-leading questions while conducting an interview would be illustrative of integrity. An admissions counselor employing measures to mask identifying information on incoming applicants to avoid potential stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination when evaluating applicants would be upholding APA principles concerning justice. A politician taking steps to protect underprivileged or vulnerable groups would be upholding APA principles concerning respect for people’s rights and dignity (APA, 2010a). Understanding the breadth of ethical standards that guide psychological inquiry and practice lays a solid foundation so that employees can make ethical decisions and protect the welfare of those with whom they are working in any capacity.

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A background in social psychology can lend itself to careers in fields like healthcare, law, and business.

4.6 Career Applications in Social Psychology The study of social psychology provides a foundation that can be put to work in a number of fields, including health, the law, and business. Although the title of social psychologist requires an advanced degree, there are many disciplines in which social psychological insight can be effectively applied by an individual with a bachelor’s degree. Because social psychology is relevant to every aspect of life, understanding social thinking, harnessing social influence, or improving social relations will be beneficial in any role you pursue as a psychology graduate. Below are some options that may allow you to more fully utilize the insight you have gained in social psychology.

Social Psychology and Health

Health psychologists conduct research on a variety of topics relevant to the impact of behavior on health. They might conduct research examining factors that lead people to engage in risky behaviors or that help people cope with stress. In addition, health psychologists work in clinical settings, designing preventative measures and interventions to encourage healthy habits. For individuals who wish to work in healthcare, implementing social psychological insight with a bachelor’s degree, options may include working in a hospital, a clinic, a nursing home, an assisted living facility, in a group home as a nurse or behavioral specialist, or as a designer of recreational programs for the elderly or mentally ill.

Social Psychology and the Law

Psychologists who are interested in the legal system can conduct research on topics ranging from individual factors, such as those relevant to particular crimes or victim status (e.g., personality or social factors), to group processes (e.g., minority group influence, group polarization, groupthink). They might also conduct research on social influence. In addition, forensic psychologists work with those in the legal system to provide training and evaluation of personnel or insight into the criminal mind. Forensic psychologists are also sometimes asked to testify as expert witnesses in trials or participate as a trial or jury consultant. For individuals who wish to work in the legal system, implementing social psychological insight with a bachelor’s degree, options may include working in criminal justice as a police officer, correctional specialist, or probations officer.

Social Psychology and Business

Psychology is applicable to a multitude of business settings. Social psychologists could be employed in management, marketing, or human resources. Insight on social influence (persuasion, conformity, and compliance) is especially relevant for business-minded people trying to reach and retain customers. Industrial-organizational psychology (which focuses on factors that affect personnel and is covered in a later chapter), human factors/engineering psychology (which focuses on the interaction between humans and machines), and even environmental psychology (which focuses on place/space) draw heavily from social psychological research as well. For individuals who wish to work in business, implementing social psychological insight with a bachelor’s degree, options may include working in human resources (e.g., conducting training, designing recruitment strategies, conducting conflict mediation), public relations (e.g., conducting market research, designing advertising campaigns), or management.

A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST SPEAKS

Stephanie Fryberg Associate Professor

Stephanie Fryberg is a faculty member in the American Indian studies department at the University of Washington. She was born and raised on a Native American reservation, and her research focuses on social and cultural psychological insight regarding the impact of representations of indigenous persons on Native Americans, as well as others. For example, she has conducted research that demonstrates the limiting effect of stereotypical and his-torical representations of Native Americans in the media (Leavitt, Covarrubias, Perez, & Fryberg, 2015).

In an interview with the History Channel, Fryberg discusses the controversy over public statues, specifically those of Spanish explorers who decimated indigenous populations. Fryberg points out potential implications of these representations, noting that "for non- Natives, when they only know the sterilized version of history, they don't have accurate empathy or compassion for the plight of Native people" (as quoted in Little, 2017, para. 3). Moreover, she argues, "When [Native American children] get an accurate view of history, then they can see their people as people who have survived, overcome, resisted, and pushed back" (as quoted in Little, 2017, para. 10). Fryberg's research highlights the role of cultural artifacts and practices (such as Native American media portrayals and American Indian mascots) on self-esteem, motivation, and life outcomes of indigenous persons.

One especially critical application of Fryberg's work is to education. For a video in which Fryberg discusses research on the education of indigenous students, see the following: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ax8-iQjWNFk (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ax8-iQjWNFk) . She offers suggestions for teachers to create a more supportive environment, leading to a growth mind-set that dramatically improves outcomes for indigenous students.

A day in the life of two professionals who work in social psychology careers. Answer questions to determine which career you prefer.

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Summary

Social psychologists study the impact of others on people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. Research and theory on social thinking explores self-perception, the attitudes we develop toward others, normative and informational sources that may contribute to conformity and obedience, and the use of persuasion. Research and theory on social relations examine laws governing attraction along with factors that lead to pro- and antisocial behaviors. Although there are various applied fields (e.g., health, law, business) that explicitly utilize these social psychological insights, individuals in any discipline can benefit from an understanding of this topic, as knowledge about human behavior is relevant to every social encounter.

Concept Check 1. A social psychologist would be most likely to study _______.

a. sociopathic personalities b. how personality impacts social interactions c. development across the lifespan d. the impact of social situations on individuals

2. Alberto believes all Germans like sauerkraut. This belief is an example of _______. a. a stereotype b. prejudice c. discrimination d. None of the above

3. Peer pressure, or going along with the crowd in order to be liked or viewed as “cool,” is also known as _______. a. social proof b. informational social influence c. normative social influence d. social validation

4. The single best predictor of attraction is _______ . a. physical appearance b. proximity c. reciprocity d. similarity

5. A _______ psychologist is likely to work in the legal system. a. forensic b. human relations c. industrial-organizational d. health

Answers

1. d. The answer can be found in Section 4.1. 2. a. The answer can be found in Section 4.2. 3. c. The answer can be found in Section 4.3. 4. b. The answer can be found in Section 4.4. 5. a. The answer can be found in Section 4.5.

Questions for Critical Thinking 1. Is it possible to hold stereotypes without prejudices? Is it possible to discriminate without holding stereotypes or prejudices? Give some examples to back up

your reasoning. 2. Dr. Howe is a pediatrician. Although she regularly encourages parents to provide more balanced, varied, and nutritious diets to their children, most of the patients

in her clinic seem to survive on a steady diet of fast food, hot dogs, and macaroni and cheese. How can she incorporate psychological insight regarding social influence to influence parents or provide information to parents that might assist them as they attempt to persuade their children to try new things?

3. Mr. Thompson is a kindergarten teacher in a diverse (consider social categories such as gender, religion, race, ethnicity, etc.) school district. He finds himself frequently calling down children for fighting, name calling, and other poor behavior. What changes to the classroom environment might improve attitudes and social relations?

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the definition.

attitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

An evaluative reaction toward someone or something, often rooted in belief and exhibited in behavior.

attributions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Explanations for behavior.

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bystander intervention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The provision of helping behavior to a person in need.

catharsis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Emotional release or “venting” of negative emotions.

deception (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

In research, deliberate misleading or withheld information about a study’s method or purpose.

diffusion of responsibility (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The negative correlation between the number of bystanders and responsibility any one bystander feels to provide help in an emergency situation.

discrimination (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Differential treatment on the basis of group membership.

fundamental attribution error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Underestimating the impact of the environment while overestimating the role of personal factors when explaining behavior.

groupthink (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A phenomenon in which decision-making groups suppress dissent.

independence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A construction of the self as distinct from others and relationships as voluntary arrangements made on the basis of preference.

informational social influence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Conformity based on a desire to be right.

interdependence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A construction of the self as embedded in complex, preexisting relationship networks.

introspection (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Looking inward to determine one’s own thoughts and feelings.

minority influence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The influence of minority opinions on the majority group.

normative social influence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Conformity based on a desire to be liked, accepted, or gain approval of others.

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prejudice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A preconceived judgment.

proximity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Geographical nearness.

self-concept (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

Beliefs people have about themselves.

social loafing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort on a task when their efforts are pooled toward a common goal.

stereotype (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/books/Harper.5170.18.1/sections/cover/b

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Professional Resources Professional Organizations Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP): http://www.spsp.org/ (http://www.spsp.org/)

Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues: http://www.apa.org/about/division/div9.aspx (https://www.apa.org/about/division/div9.aspx)

Career-Relevant Information

SPSP, Career Resources: http://spsp.org/resources/career-information (http://spsp.org/resources/career-information)

Miscellaneous Social Psychology Network: https://www.socialpsychology.org (https://www.socialpsychology.org/)