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Chapter 08

Human Development

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This chapter covers a lot of ground. This study guide will help focus your reading on the specific domains that will be tested on your next exam. As always, this study guide is not exhaustive; you should take this as a starting point, and read the material in the text for greater depth that will be addressed in the quizzes and exams.

What is Development?

Pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities; different dimensions of personhood will progress in different ways over the lifespan
Psychologists explore the roles of nature and nurture in human development

Nature

A person’s biological inheritance, especially from genes

Nurture

Individual’s environmental and social experiences

People can develop beyond what our genetic inheritance and our environment give us

Exploring Human Development

Different people show different levels of resilience

Person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

Despite encountering adversity, a person shows signs of positive functioning

Domains of Development

Physical processes

Involve changes in an individual’s biological nature

Cognitive processes

Involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language

Socioemotional processes

Involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality

Prenatal Physical Development

Course of prenatal development

Development from zygote to fetus is divided into three periods

Germinal period (weeks 1 & 2)
Embryonic period (weeks 3 through 8)
Fetal period (months 2 through 9)

Be sure to read your textbook’s details of these stages

Prenatal Physical Development

Threats to fetus

Teratogen

Agent that can penetrate the protections of the mother and cause birth defects
Can include chemical substances, such as nicotine, heroin, alcohol
Also include certain illnesses: Rubella, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV

Preterm infant – born before full term of pregnancy

Risk for developmental difficulties

Physical Development

Newborns come with genetically wired reflexes

Sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking, yawning

Motor and perceptual skills depend on each other

Environmental experiences play a role in motor development

Preferential looking technique helps assess abilities of infants before they can communicate with language

Giving an infant a choice of what object to look at

Reflexes

Physical Development

Brain development is at its most accelerated early in life

Infancy

Branching of dendrites (see next slide)
Myelination

Childhood

Increase in synaptic connections
Pruning of unused neural connections
Rapid growth in frontal lobe areas

Dendritic Spreading

Physical Development in Adolescence

Adolescence

Developmental period spanning the transition from childhood to adulthood

Begins around 10 to 12 years of age and ends at 18 to 21 years of age

Characterized by dramatic physical changes

Puberty

Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence

Pubertal Growth Spurt

Physical Development in Adolescence

Adolescent brain changes:

Development of the amygdala

Involves emotion

Development of the prefrontal cortex

Concerned with reasoning and decision making

http://www.teensafe.com/blog/judgement-call-an-infographic-on-the-teen-brain/

Physical Development in Adulthood

Physical changes in early adulthood

Peak physical development during 20s

Physical changes in middle and late adulthood

Many physical changes in the 40s or 50s, involve changes in appearance

Biological Theories of Aging

Cellular-clock theory

View that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times

As we age, our cells become less capable of dividing
Free-radical theory

People age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced inside their cells

Damage done by free radicals may lead to a range of disorders
Hormonal stress theory

Aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease

Telomeres and Aging

Aging and the Brain

Adults can grow new brain cells throughout life

Evidence is limited to two areas of the brain

Hippocampus and the olfactory bulb
Brain has remarkable repair capability even in late childhood

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience

Schema

Mental concept framework to organize/interpret information
Two processes responsible for how people use schemas

Assimilation

Occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge

Accommodation

Occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage

Age (Years)

Major Characteristics

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete operational

Formal operational

2 to 7

7 to 12

12 on

Infant understands world through sensory and motor experiences

Achieves object permanence

Exhibits emergence of symbolic thought

Child uses symbolic thinking in the form of words

and images to represent objects and experiences

Symbolic thinking enables child to engage in pretend play

Thinking displays egocentrism, irreversibility, and centration

Child can think logically about concrete events

Grasps concepts of conservation and serial ordering

Adolescent can think more logically, abstractly,

and flexibly

Can form hypotheses and systematically test them

Birth - 2

Piaget’s 4 Stages

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage

Lasts from birth to about 2 years of age

Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experience
Development of object permanence

Crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Preoperational stage

Lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age

Beginning of limited symbolic thinking
Inability to perform operations, or reversible mental representations
Egocentric and intuitive thinking

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Concrete operational stage

Lasts from 7 to 11 years of age

Involves using operations

Involves replacing intuitive reasoning

Children better able to reason in multiple dimensions

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Formal operational stage

Last from 11 to 15 years of age

Continues through the adult years

Thinking is more abstract and logical

Idealistic

Involves comparing how things are to how they might be

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Developing hypotheses about ways to solve a problem

Evaluating and Expanding on
Piaget’s Theory

Baillargeon’s alternative view of object permanence

Documented that infants as young as 3 months of age know that objects continue to exist when hidden

Infants have expectations about objects in the world that seem quite a bit more sophisticated than Piaget imagined

Evaluating and Expanding on
Piaget’s Theory

Vygotsky’s cognitive development in cultural context

Recognized that cognitive development is an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context

Interactions with others provide scaffolding

Evaluating and Expanding on
Piaget’s Theory

Revisionist views of adolescent and adult cognition

Characteristic of adolescent thinking is egocentrism

Involves the belief that:

Others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is
One is unique
One is invincible

Cognitive Processes in Adulthood

Thinking more reflectively
Becoming more skeptical
Being more realistic
Recognizing that thinking is influenced by emotion

Cognitive Processes in Adulthood

Cognition in middle adulthood

Crystallized intelligence

Individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills

Fluid intelligence

Ability to reason abstractly
Cognition in late adulthood

Number of dimensions of intelligence decline in late adulthood

Some are maintained or may even increase, such as wisdom

Socioemotional Development

Socioemotional processes

Involve changes in an individual’s social relationships, emotional life, and personal qualities

Socioemotional Development in Infancy

Elements of emotional and social processes that are present very early in life

Temperament

Refers to an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding

The easy child generally is in a positive mood

The difficult child tends to be fussy and to cry frequently

The slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level

Attachment

Close emotional bond between an infant and his or her caregiver

Attachment Experiment

Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood

Diana Baumrind studied parenting styles associated with positive and negative developmental outcomes
Read your textbook descriptions of the following:

Authoritarian

Authoritative

Permissive

Neglectful

Erickson’s First Four Stages

0-1 year, Basic trust vs. Mistrust:
Child learns to feel comfortable and trust parents care; or develops a deep distrust of the world that is perceived to be unsafe.

1-3 years, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt:
Learns sense of competence by learning to feed self, use toilet, play alone; or feels ashamed and doubts own abilities.

3-5 years, Initiative vs. Guilt:
Gains ability to use own initiative in planning and carrying out plans; or cannot live within parents’ limits, develops a sense of guilt over misbehavior.

5-11 years, Industry vs. Inferiority:
Learns to meet the demands imposed by school and home responsibilities; or comes to believe that he or she is inferior to others.

Erickson’s Stages

Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development

Development Accomplishments or Failures

Age

0-1 year

1-3 years

3-5 years

5-11 years

11-18 years

18-40 years

40-65 years

65 years on

Stage/Crisis

Basic trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation

Integrity vs. despair

Acquires sense of own identity; or is confused about role in life

Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood

Development Accomplishments or Failures

Age

0-1 year

1-3 years

3-5 years

5-11 years

11-18 years

18-40 years

40-65 years

65 years on

Stage/Crisis

Basic trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation

Integrity vs. despair

Develops couple relationship and joint identity w/partner; or becomes isolated from meaningful relationships

Development Accomplishments or Failures

Age

0-1 year

1-3 years

3-5 years

5-11 years

11-18 years

18-40 years

40-65 years

65 years on

Stage/Crisis

Basic trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation

Integrity vs. despair

Develops a concern w/helping others, leaving children and ideas to future generations; or becomes self-centered and stagnant.

Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood

Development Accomplishments or Failures

Age

0-1 year

1-3 years

3-5 years

5-11 years

11-18 years

18-40 years

40-65 years

65 years on

Stage/Crisis

Basic trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation

Integrity vs. despair

Reaps benefits of earlier stages and understands and accepts meaning of a temporary life; or despairs over ever being able to find meaning in life

Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood

Gender Development

Gender

Refers to the broad set of characteristics of people as males and females

Biology and gender development

Humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged in pairs

23rd pair may have:

Two X-shaped chromosomes, which produces a female
Both an X-shaped and a Y-shaped chromosome, which produces a male

Cognitive Aspects of Gender Development

Gender schema

Mental framework for understanding what it means to be male or female in one’s culture

Children acquire schemas through learning in the social world

Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development

Social experience influences gender development

Gender roles

Involve expectations for how females and males should think, act, and feel

Represent beliefs about appropriate behavior for the sexes

Gender similarities hypothesis

Idea that men and women are much more similar than they are different

Moral Development

Changes that occur with age in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide them

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg used moral dilemma tasks to assess people’s level of reasoning used to make moral judgments

Note, this doesn’t judge their moral behavior

Preconventional level

Based on consequences of a behavior and on punishments or rewards from external world

Conventional level

Abiding by parental or societal standards

Postconventional level

Recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code

Critics of Kohlberg

View does not adequately reflect concern for other people and social bonds

Justice perspective theory of Kohlberg

Focuses on rights of individual
Independent moral decisions

Care perspective theory by Gilligan

Views people in terms of connectedness to others
Interpersonal communication

Death, Dying, and Grieving

Our attitudes toward death and dying are driven by our own ability to look to the future and imagine our own eventual demise
Terror management theory says this awareness creates the potential for overwhelming terror

Research supports the idea that cultural beliefs act as a buffer

Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Dying

Focuses on terminally ill individuals

Denial

Anger

Bargaining

Depression

Acceptance

Bonanno’s Theory of Grieving

Tracked individuals who have experienced bereavement, such as the loss of a spouse, over time
Patterns of grief

Resilience

Recovery

Chronic dysfunction

Delayed grief or trauma