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Mallicoat, Women, Gender, and Crime Core Concepts, Second Edition Chapter 7: Girls, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard (1 of 5)

Development of term juvenile delinquent.

Doctrine of parens patriae.

Development of juvenile court.

New York House of Refuge.

7.1. Discuss the rise of the juvenile court.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard

Development of term juvenile delinquent:

It reflected the idea that youth were “malleable” and could be shaped into law-abiding citizens.

A key factor in this process was the doctrine of parens patriae.

Doctrine of parens patriae:

Parens patriae: originated in the English Chancery Courts; this practice gives the state custody of children in cases where the child has no parents or the parents are deemed unfit care providers.

It became government’s justification for regulating adolescents and their behaviors in the best interests of the child.

Development of juvenile court:

Before this, cases of youth offending were handled on an informal basis.

Dramatic population growth and industrialization made it difficult for families and communities to control wayward youth.

Parens patriae led to a separate system to oversee rehabilitation of youth deemed out of control.

New York House of Refuge:

One of the first reformatories, designed to keep youth offenders separate from adult population.

Juveniles were committed to institutions for long periods of time, often until their 21st birthday.

Practices here were based less on controlling criminal behaviors and more on preventing future pauperism, which reformers believed led to delinquency.

Reformers chose to respond to what they viewed as the “peculiar weaknesses” of the children’s moral natures and “weak and criminal” parents.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard (2 of 5)

Discrimination in reform institutions.

Child-saving movement.

First juvenile court in Chicago.

Age-of-consent campaign.

7.1. Discuss the rise of the juvenile court.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard

Discrimination in reform institutions:

Parens patriae was used to discriminate against children of the poor as these youth had not necessarily committed a criminal offense.

They were more likely to be described as from an unfit home or displaying incorrigible behaviors.

Access to structure and schooling was reserved for white children, while young Black girls were sent to adult institutions which were more punitive.

After a decade of advocacy, the House of Refuge began to accept Black girls, but reform involved training young girls of color to serve in domestic roles for elite class.

Black girls were typically institutionalized for longer periods than their white counterparts.

Child-saving movement:

Progressive era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the movement.

The movement comprised middle- and upper-class white citizens guided by conscience and morality, saw themselves as altruists and humanitarians rescuing the less fortunate.

First juvenile court in Chicago:

Created due to efforts of child-savers movement.

Jurisdiction presided over 3 youth populations: (1) children who committed adult criminal offenses, (2) children who committed status offenses, (3) children abused or neglected by their parents.

Age-of-consent campaign:

Designed to protect young women from men who preyed on the innocence of girls by raising the age of sexual consent to 16 or 18 in all states by 1920.

Parens patriae significantly affected the treatment of girls who were identified as delinquent.

These practices denied young women an avenue for healthy sexual expression and identity.

The laws that resulted from this movement punished displays of sexuality by placing young women in detention centers or reformatories for moral violations with intent to incarcerate them throughout adolescence.

They held women to a high standard of sexual purity, while sexual nature of men was dismissed as normal and pardonable behavior.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard (3 of 5)

Policies based on white ideals.

Emphasis on sexual purity.

Sexual exploitation of white women.

Role of Black women clubs.

7.1. Discuss the rise of the juvenile court.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard

Policies based on white ideals:

The reformers developed their policies based on a white, middle-class ideal of purity and modesty.

Anyone who did not conform to these ideals was viewed as out of control and in need of intervention by the juvenile court.

Emphasis on sexual purity:

Campaigners viewed delinquent acts of young women as inherently more dangerous than acts of their men counterparts.

The emphasis was on sexual purity as the pathway toward healthy adulthood and stability for the future.

Juvenile reformatory became a place to shift focus away from sexual desire and train young girls for marriage.

Sexual exploitation of white women:

This exclusive focus by moral reformers on the sexual exploitation of white, working-class women led to the racist implication that only the virtues of white women needed to be saved.

Reformers in the Black were unsupportive of the campaign to impose criminal sanctions on offenders for sexual crimes, because they were concerned that such laws would unfairly target men of color.

Role of Black women clubs:

Developed and funded institutions specifically for youth of color.

Instead of sending girls of color to adult institutions for minor crimes, schools like Virginia Industrial School for Colored Girls were established.

Intent was to create an environment focused on leadership, education, and responsibility to benefit young Black girls, in contrast to the cycle of trauma and violence in traditional institutions.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard (4 of 5)

Reformatory for moral offenses.

Net widening.

Control of girls’ sexuality.

Blaming victims of sexual assault.

7.1. Discuss the rise of the juvenile court.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard

Reformatory for moral offenses: The increased focus on the use of the reformatory for moral offenses allowed for the practice of net widening to occur, and more offenders were placed under the supervision of the juvenile courts.

Net widening:

It refers to the practice whereby programs such as diversion were developed to inhibit the introduction of youth into the juvenile justice system.

However, these programs expanded the reach of the juvenile court and increased the number of youth under the general reach of the system, both informally and formally.

Control of girls’ sexuality:

Extended to all girls involved in juvenile court, regardless of offense.

Between 1929 and 1964, girls arrested for status offenses were forced to have gynecological exams to determine whether they had had sexual intercourse and contracted any diseases.

These girls were more likely to be sent to juvenile detention than men counterparts and spent 3 times as long in detention.

In the early 20th century, any woman suspected to have a STI was arrested, examined, and quarantined.

Blaming victims of sexual assault:

Young women were often blamed for “tempting” defendants into immoral behavior in cases where they were victims of forcible sexual assault.

Like in consensual sex cases, the girl was labeled as delinquent in sexual victimization cases.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard (5 of 5)

Double victimization of women.

Sexual double standard.

Differential treatment of men, women.

7.1. Discuss the rise of the juvenile court.

The Rise of the Juvenile Court and the Sexual Double Standard

Double victimization of women:

First by the assault and second by the system.

During court hearings, woman’s sexual history was used to discredit her.

No similar information requested about a man as it would unfairly prejudice the jury.

Any nonmarital sexual experience, even rape, resulted in girls treated as offenders.

Young Black girls who acted out in self-defense saw their abusers walk free, while the system failed to see how abuse was a factor in her behavior, regardless of age.

Sexual double standard:

Court system became a mechanism to control women sexuality.

Men enjoy a sense of sexual freedom denied to girls.

In the case of men, the only concern raised by court is centered on abusive and predatory behaviors, particularly toward younger children.

Differential treatment of men, women:

Court officials think about sexuality in different ways for men and women.

For boys, no reference regarding noncriminalized sexual behaviors.

For girls, levels of sexual activity engaged in are used as grounds for identifying them as out of control and in need of juvenile court services.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency (1 of 4)

Increase in arrest of girls.

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR).

Juvenile delinquency.

UCR data on juvenile offenders.

7.2. Describe the nature and extent of female delinquency.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency

Increase in arrest of girls:

Number of arrests involving girls and volume of cases has increased at a dramatic rate.

However, boys’ offending continues to dominate system.

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR):

It reflects the arrest data from across the nation.

This resource also includes information on juvenile offenders.

Arrest data used to assess number of crimes reported involving youth offenders, most serious charge within these arrests, and disposition by police.

Juveniles are often involved in acts that are not serious and nonviolent in nature.

Practices of crime reporting and how data are compiled can have a significant effect on understanding juvenile delinquency.

Despite flaws, UCR remains the best resource for arrest rates.

Juvenile delinquency: the repeated committing of crimes by young children and adolescents.

UCR data on juvenile offenders:

In 1980, girls represented 20% of juvenile arrests.

By 2003, it increased to 27%.

Today, it is 29%.

From 1980 to 2003, juvenile women proportion of violent crime index offenses increased from 10% to 18%, while property offenses increased from 19% to 32%.

Majority of increase occurred during late 1980s to early 1990s with rise of “tough on crime” philosophies.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency (2 of 4)

Percentages vs. actual numbers.

Self-reported studies.

Scaling up factor.

Impact of race, sexual identity.

7.2. Describe the nature and extent of female delinquency.

7.3. Explain the “double standard” for girls in the juvenile justice system.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency

Percentages vs. actual numbers:

Data (2011 to 2020) showing percentages of men and women involved in crimes shows a higher and more dramatic percentage increase for women delinquency.

Comparing actual numbers, increase in number is higher for men.

Example, increase in 9 cases of juvenile homicide for women but 71 for men during this period.

Self-reported studies:

While official statistics provide one picture on delinquency, self reported data provides a different view.

Delinquent behavior was more prevalent than what was portrayed by official statistics, and that the demographic differences in offending were much narrower.

Self reported studies on juvenile delinquency highlight that the rates of delinquent acts are much greater than arrest rates.

Scaling up factor:

The relationship between the number of official arrests to the number of self-reported acts of crime.

For every conviction, boys commit 22 acts and girls commit 5 acts of delinquency.

The younger they are, the less likely they were charged.

Cases of theft less likely to be detected than acts of violence.

Impact of race, sexual identity:

African American girls are 3 times more likely to be formally charged than white women.

Native American girls are more likely to be detained for public order offenses and status offenses than white girls.

LGBTQ youth are overrepresented.

39.4% of all girls in juvenile justice facilities identify as LGBTQ+, compared to 3.2% of boys.

Over 85% of LGBTQ+ youth are also youth of color.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency (3 of 4)

Increased attention on women delinquency.

Impact of formal processing.

Gender differences in detention.

7.2. Describe the nature and extent of female delinquency.

7.3. Explain the “double standard” for girls in the juvenile justice system.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency

Increased attention on women delinquency:

Has affected the handling of these cases by juvenile courts.

Since early 1990s, girls have represented a growing proportion of cases in these courts.

Youth of color also continue to represent a disproportionate number in court even though the percentage of arrests has decreased significantly in recent years.

However, trends may be stabilizing as proportion of girls in juvenile court has stabilized since 2005.

Impact of formal processing:

Formal processing: a petition is filed requesting a court hearing, which can initiate the designation of being labeled as a delinquent.

Increase in arrests and formal processing of juvenile cases has disproportionately impacted girls through practice of up charging by prosecutors and decrease in tolerance for girls who “act out.”

Boys benefit from a greater acceptance of these “unacceptable” behaviors.

Girls who are denied release generally spend significantly greater amounts of time in detention compared to boys.

Girls of color were disproportionately affected by shift to formal processing.

Black and Hispanic/Latino girls are more likely to receive detention.

White girls are more likely to be referred to a residential treatment facility.

Gender differences in detention:

Girls are subjected to longer periods of supervision, which appears to increase delinquency due to excessive and aggressive monitoring techniques.

Number of residential placements or sentences to formal probation terms had also increased for girls.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency (4 of 4)

Juvenile girl cases are stable.

Trends in detention and processing.

7.2. Describe the nature and extent of female delinquency.

7.3. Explain the “double standard” for girls in the juvenile justice system.

The Nature and Extent of Female Delinquency

Juvenile girl cases are stable:

Girls accounted for 28% of overall juvenile caseload in 2005 and 2014.

Some offense categories saw small increases by gender, others remained same or saw decreases.

Proportion of girls in crimes against persons and drugs cases increased but decreased for property crimes and public order offenses.

These patterns were also reflected in delinquency cases for boys.

Trends in detention and processing:

In 2009, 22% of boys and 15% of girls were detained compared to 24% and 17% in 2014.

Likelihood of processing formally increased slightly for both boys and girls.

However, proportion of cases adjudicated delinquent saw a decrease over past 5 years for both.

The “Violent” Girl (1 of 2)

Media portrayals of bad girls.

Arrest data reflects police response.

Family-based violence.

Court enforces parental authority.

7.4. Critique the concept of the “violent girl.”

The “Violent” Girl

Media portrayals of bad girls:

Over past two decades, media reports have alluded to the rise of the violent juvenile offender.

Portrayal of “bad girls” is linked to data that reflected increase in arrests for violent crimes involving girls.

Leads to the question of whether girls are really becoming more violent.

Arrest data reflects police response:

Self-report studies indicate that levels of violence have actually decreased for both boys and girls.

Youth Risk Behavior Survey: Between 1991 and 2001, acts of violence by girls decreased by 30.5% and by boys decreased by 14.1%.

Family-based violence:

Women juvenile cases have an overrepresentation of incidents of family-based violence.

In some cases, girls may be acting out due to trauma of abuse.

The rise in these cases reflects a shift in the way in which families and officials respond to these cases.

In others, parents may turn to the system to help enforce their own authority.

Police used to treat these interventions as social service rather than criminal matters.

But now these are handled as formal acts of delinquency.

Court enforces parental authority:

Many parents believe that juvenile justice system will give child access to resources like therapy.

Formal processing places girls under supervision of probation.

Subsequent power struggles between parent and child may become grounds for a technical violation of probation.

Court becomes a new and powerful method for enforcing parental authority.

Parents can hold a high level of power in court in disposition of their child’s case.

If a parent agrees that a child can come home, the court may be more likely to return the youth home.

If parent does not want physical custody, a judge may decide to institutionalize the youth.

The “Violent” Girl (2 of 2)

Response to school-based violence.

History of violence.

7.4. Critique the concept of the “violent girl.”

The “Violent” Girl

Response to school-based violence:

Earlier, outbursts and minor assaults were handled within school’s administration using punishments.

Due to zero-tolerance policies, these cases are now dealt with by local police agencies.

As girls are more likely to engage in acts of violence against family members or peers (than boys who likely target acquaintances or strangers), such policies may unfairly target girls.

History of violence:

Girls that engage in violence often have a history of violence in their own lives.

Many girls who act out may simply be reacting to social and personal conditions of their lives.

Girls who engage in violence come from impoverished home environments.

In some cases, there is a history of parental drug abuse.

Many experience sexual abuse and are exposed to violent acts, like intimate partner abuse.

Technical Violations: The New Status Offense (1 of 2)

Status offenses.

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act of 1974.

Presence of girls in system.

Race and gender impact adjudication.

7.5. Analyze the effect of gender and technical violations on case processing.

Technical Violations: The New Status Offense

Status offenses:

Status offenses: noncriminal behaviors such as running away, immorality, truancy, and indecent conduct that allowed youth to come under the jurisdiction of the juvenile court.

Acts that are illegal only if committed by juveniles.

Examples: Underage drinking, running away from home, truancy, and curfew violations.

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act of 1974:

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act of 1974: It provides funding for state and local governments to help decrease the number of juvenile delinquents and to help provide community and rehabilitative programs to offenders.

It called for such decriminalization in any state that received federal funds.

Prior to its enactment, young women were more likely to be incarcerated for status offenses compared to men counterparts.

Ended institutionalization of sexually wayward girls, but no funds made available to provide resources to address the needs of girls.

Reflects courts’ attempt to distinguish between categories of delinquency and status offenses.

Presence of girls in system:

As status offense charges were frequently used to incarcerate girls, decriminalization was expected to decrease presence of girls in juvenile justice system.

Decline did not last long.

Youth still appear before juvenile court for status offense cases, even if they are not ultimately incarcerated.

Race and gender impact adjudication:

White girls least likely to be adjudicated delinquent.

Native American boys most likely to be adjudicated, followed by girls of color.

Many status offenses are result of social, structural, and interpersonal traumas, but are used to justify juvenile court supervision.

Girls of color are disproportionately impacted.

Technical Violations: The New Status Offense (2 of 2)

Bootstrapping.

Reauthorization of JJDP Act (1992).

Status offenses as minor acts.

7.5. Analyze the effect of gender and technical violations on case processing.

Technical Violations: The New Status Offense

Bootstrapping:

Bootstrapping: modern-day practice of institutionalizing girls for status offenses.

Practice of institutionalizing girls for status offenses continues today.

Girl on probation or parole for a criminal offense is prosecuted formally for probation violation on committing a status offense.

Reauthorization of JJDP Act (1992):

Reauthorization of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act: acknowledged the need to provide gender-specific services to address the unique needs of women offenders.

It attempted to make bootstrapping more difficult for courts.

Practice continues in an inequitable fashion against girls.

Status offenses as minor acts:

Acts that were once treated as status offenses are now processed as minor acts of delinquency due to the expansion of the discretionary powers available to schools, police, and juvenile justice officials.

Has allowed justice officials to recommit girls to these residential facilities.

Commitment to state institution or detention center for status offenses is prohibited by JJDP Act 1974.

System has found a new method to incarcerate young girls deemed out of control.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (1 of 11)

Failure to address unique causes.

Gender and race differences.

Risk factors for women delinquency.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency

Failure to address unique causes:

Theoretical inattention to these issues has affected identification and delivery of services for women and girls.

Policy makers assume that since girls engage in nonviolent or nonserious nature of crime, their needs are insignificant.

Programs and facilities in justice system are ill equipped to deal with girls’ needs.

Gender and race differences:

Boys and girls can exhibit many of the same risk factors for delinquency.

The effects of these risk factors may resonate stronger for girls than for boys.

Research indicates that girls possess significantly higher risk factors, like personal victimization experiences toward delinquency than boys.

White girls tend to exhibit higher risk for categories like substance abuse, but youth of color, particularly African American, are overrepresented in juvenile court.

Risk factors for women delinquency:

Risk factors for women delinquency: include a poor family relationship, a history of abuse, poor school performance, negative peer relationships, and issues with substance abuse.

It is important to understand these risk factors to develop recommendations for best practices for adolescent delinquent and at-risk girls.

Factors are significantly interrelated as girls tend to have higher cumulative rates of adverse childhood experiences.

Impacts likelihood for delinquency and increases potential for reoffending throughout adolescence.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (2 of 11)

Family

Positive attachment as protective factor.

Impact of negative family issues.

Family fragmentation.

Family violence.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Family

Positive attachment as protective factor:

The influence of the family unit is one of the most commonly cited references in the study of delinquency.

The family represents the primary mechanism for the internalization and socialization of social norms and values.

A positive attachment to the family acts as a key tool in the prevention of delinquency.

Girls may have stronger attachments to the family than boys.

Families can be protective factor only when they exist in a positive, prosocial environment.

Girls benefit from positive communication, structure, and support in family environment.

Impact of negative family issues:

The family can also lead girls into delinquency at a young age.

Youth may turn to delinquency to enhance self-esteem or overcome feelings of rejection by their families.

Delinquent girls have lower bonds with family than nondelinquent girls.

These issues constitute a greater problem for girls than boys.

Family fragmentation:

Due to divorce, family criminality, and foster care placements.

Girls with blended families more likely to engage in high rates of delinquency and alcohol use, than girls that reside with both birth parents.

Girls who live with one parent are more likely to engage in frequent alcohol use.

Family violence: Families with high levels of conflict and poor communication skills, combined with parents who struggle with their own personal issues, place girls at risk for delinquency.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (3 of 11)

Family

Encourages relapse and recidivism.

Detachment from family.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Family

Encourages relapse and recidivism: Family factors can also serve to encourage relapse and recidivism because girls are more likely to be at risk for continuing behaviors in families where either the parent is involved in the justice system or uses drugs or alcohol.

Detachment from family:

Once in the juvenile justice system, detachment from family can increase.

Incarcerated girls are less likely than boys to receive support from parents.

This has two implications:

Girls are more likely to experience depression, and lack of support can affect mental health.

Many intervention programs rely on parental involvement. Success in the programs could be compromised if girls feel less supported.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (4 of 11)

Abuse

Impact of abuse in family.

More common for girls.

Impacts nature, extent of delinquency.

Experiences of childhood abuse.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Abuse

Impact of abuse in family:

Can be sexual, physical, and emotional.

Impact is intensified when it occurs within the family.

Detrimental to positive development of adolescent women.

Can result in behaviors like running away, trust issues, emotional maladjustment, future sexual risk behaviors (sexual abuse-to-prison pipeline).

More common for girls:

Belknap and Holsinger: 58.9% of girls and 18.5% of boys had been sexually abused by either family member or other individual in their life.

Other forms of maltreatment can have a significant effect on the development of girls.

Girls experience higher rates of physical abuse (62.9%) than boys (42.8%).

Impacts nature, extent of delinquency:

Experiences of abuse impact both the nature and extent of delinquency.

History of child sexual abuse is strongest predictor for violent and nonviolent acts for girls.

Girls with history of physical abuse are significantly more likely to assault their parents.

Abused girls may have lower bonds to protective factors, like parents and school that could serve to inhibit their involvement in general acts of delinquency.

Experiences of childhood abuse:

In attempt to escape from abusive situation, girls often fall into criminal behaviors for survival.

Childhood victimization increases risk that a youth will run away from home.

Together these increase likelihood of engaging in delinquent behaviors.

History of sexual abuse also affects future risk for victimization, because these girls are more likely to find themselves in a domestically violent relationship.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (5 of 11)

Peers

Strong influence in adolescence.

Influence on girls’ behavior.

Time spent with delinquent peers.

Effect of age.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Peers

Strong influence in adolescence:

During adolescence, peers play a key role in terms of support and attachment.

Impact is increased for youth who experience family dysfunction or do not have strong positive attachments to family.

Can strongly impact risk-taking behaviors.

Delinquent peers present greatest risk for youth delinquency.

Number of delinquent peers determines whether a youth engages in problem behaviors.

Influence on girls’ behavior:

Girls generally have at least one friend involved in delinquent behaviors.

More influenced by friends’ delinquent behavior, effects of peer pressure and desire for acceptance.

Reducing negative peer associations can significantly reduce likelihood of future delinquency.

Time spent with delinquent peers:

Youth involved in structured activities and have less unsupervised free time are less at risk.

Girls tend to spend less time (than boys) with delinquent peers and experience less peer pressure.

Negative peer relationships have a stronger effect for African American girls than boys, while boys’ delinquency is more likely to be limited by parental monitoring.

Budget constraints limit opportunities to provide supervised positive outlet for youth between school and home.

Effect of age: For girls, peer associations with older men adolescents impact their likelihood to engage in delinquent acts if the older man is involved in crime-related behaviors.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (6 of 11)

Peers

Negative family attachment.

Peer relationships as protective factor.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Peers

Negative family attachment:

Girls whose parents are less involved are more likely to engage in problem behaviors with delinquent peers.

Particularly true for girls in foster care system who are more likely to have negative peer relationships due to family disruption and dysfunction.

Peer relationships as protective factor:

Positive and supportive relationships can protect youth from delinquent behavior.

Interventions that focus on positive skill building and improving family relationships can be effective in reducing negative peer relationships.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (7 of 11)

School

Truancy: indicator of school failures.

Trauma risk for LGBTQ students.

Success and attachment.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

School

Truancy: indicator of school failures:

School failures have also been identified as an indicator of concern for youth at risk.

Failures include suspension, expulsion, or being held back.

Racism, sexual harassment, peer violence, and disinterested school personnel increased likelihood of dropping out for girls.

Trauma risk for LGBTQ students: The risk of school-based trauma is particularly high for LGBTQ students who experience higher rates of violence in school, which increases increases likelihood that they will fall victim to the school-to-prison pipeline.

Success and attachment:

For girls, success at school is tied to feelings of self-worth.

Greater the attachment to school environment and learning process and connection to teachers, the lesser the risk for delinquency.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (8 of 11)

School

Slashing prosocial extracurricular activities.

Resiliency.

Involvement of parents.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

School

Slashing prosocial extracurricular activities:

It has negatively affected girls.

Activities that involve creativity, build relationships, and enhance personal safety help build resiliency in young women and guard against delinquent behaviors.

Resiliency: also known as protective factors; these can enable women victims and women offenders to succeed.

Involvement of parents: Parent involvement in daughter’s school progress can help build resiliency.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (9 of 11)

Substance Abuse

Poses several risks.

Affects women delinquency.

Gendered experience.

Means of escaping violence.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Substance Abuse

Poses several risks:

Several risks have been identified for adolescent women involvement in alcohol and drug use: early experimentation and use; parental use of drugs and alcohol, histories of victimization, poor school and family attachments, numerous social opportunities for use, poor self-concept, difficulties in coping with life events, involvement with other problem behaviors.

Affects women delinquency:

Two factors:

Girls may run away to escape violence at home as a result of parental drug and alcohol use.

Engagement in substance abuse can also be facilitated by parents.

May use drugs as self-medication to escape from abuse histories.

May also be linked to self-medicating for issues like post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression, and other emotional and behavioral health challenges.

Gendered experience:

Research indicates that the use of, and volume of illicit substances can be a gendered experience.

Lifetime cannabis use is higher for girls than boys.

While boys tend to limit their use to marijuana, girls abuse a variety of substances, including methamphetamines, cocaine, acid, crack, and huffing chemicals.

Poly-drug use indicate significant addiction issues and alters decision-making abilities, influences criminal behaviors, and places them at risk for danger.

Girls tend to use substances at an earlier age than boys.

Increases risk for delinquency for girls, but absence of substance abuse serves as a protective factor.

Means of escaping violence:

Girls may use illicit substances as an escape from the violence that they have observed in their communities.

Trauma of observing violence is a precursor for offending.

From viewing murders in their neighborhood to, such events have a damaging impact on the development of youth.

In a study of 100 girls involved in juvenile justice system, 90% had witnessed violence.

Violence prevention programs in school and community-based programs could assist in healing these wounds.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (10 of 11)

Mental Health

Girls: higher emotional trauma.

Post-traumatic stress disorder.

Anxiety-related disorders.

System fails to recognize needs.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Mental Health

Girls: higher emotional trauma:

Girls in custody experience higher rates of emotional trauma than boys.

Types of trauma varies by gender: While boys are most likely to experience community-based violence, the exposure for girls is more interpersonal.

Post-traumatic stress disorder:

Trauma places youth them at risk for post-traumatic stress disorder and suicidal ideation.

Girls are more likely to engage in self-injurious behaviors.

45% of girls in detention indicated that they had attempted suicide at some point.

Anxiety-related disorders:

Girls more likely to suffer from these, stemming from early childhood abuse and victimization.

In many cases, these co-occur with substance abuse and addiction, creating unique challenges for programming and treatment.

System fails to recognize needs:

Many detention facilities are ill equipped to deal with their mental health needs.

Places youth at risk for future harm and for increased involvement with the system.

Risk Factors for Female Delinquency (11 of 11)

Polyvictimization

Varies by gender.

Reaction to trauma.

Need for adequate screening.

Consider unique and intersectional effects.

7.6. Assess the contemporary risk factors associated with girls and delinquency.

Polyvictimization

Varies by gender:

Boys more likely to be exposed to violence in the community.

Girls more likely to experience physical and emotional trauma at home; sexual abuse by family members and peers, and interpersonal trauma.

Reaction to trauma:

Girls may react in ways that can hide the nature of the trauma and its effects.

Cumulative effects of such traumas often place girls at risk for becoming justice-involved, often for low-level offenses.

Need for adequate screening: Juvenile justice settings must adequately screen for trauma histories and post-traumatic stress.

Consider unique and intersectional effects:

Agencies need to consider how the effects of trauma manifest in unique ways for girls.

The system needs to consider multiple and cumulative effects of trauma on adolescent girls rather than specific effects of family, abuse, or exposure to violence.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls (1 of 3)

Gender-specific programming.

Consider history of victimization.

Not one-size-fits-all-girls model.

Equip juvenile justice facilities.

7.7. Gender-specific needs of young female offenders.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls

Gender-specific programming:

Must be able to address the wide variety of needs of the delinquent girl.

Efforts by Congress have been made to allocate the resources necessary for analyzing, planning, and implementing these services.

Need to be able to address a tangled web of interrelated needs rather than issues on an individual and isolated basis.

Consider history of victimization:

A history of victimization is the most significant issue facing at-risk and delinquent girls.

Belknap & Holsinger: 55.8% of girls believe that experiences with abuse throughout childhood had an effect on their offending behaviors.

Programs need to provide counseling services that focus on their trauma.

Placement services need to be expanded.

As many girls run away from home to escape an abusive environment, detention is not an appropriate place.

As early childhood victimization often leads to risky sexual behaviors, education should be offered as preventive measure for pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases.

Not one-size-fits-all-girls model:

For girls that have gender-sensitive risk factors, gender responsive programming helps prevent recidivism.

For girls that do not have an abuse history, such programs can actually lead to higher risks for recidivism.

Equip juvenile justice facilities:

Juvenile justice facilities are often ill equipped to deal with the physical and mental health needs of incarcerated women.

Emotional needs of teenagers, combined with increase in prevalence of mental health disorders of incarcerated women, makes this important.

Physical and mental health complaints need to be interpreted by staff and facilities as a need, not as a complaining or manipulating behavior.

Such interventions must be established on an ongoing basis versus limited to an episodic basis.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls (2 of 3)

Consider backgrounds and cultures.

Programs that provide support.

Building on resiliency factors.

7.7. Gender-specific needs of young female offenders.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls

Consider backgrounds and cultures:

This impacts not only their pathways to offending but also affects how they will respond to interventions.

Race and ethnicity impact pathways of girls to juvenile justice system:

White women experience higher levels of physical and sexual abuse and substance abuse compared to African American girls, the abuse of girls of color remains high.

Levels of abuse: 70% of Black girls and 90% of white girls indicate history of physical abuse; 46% of Black girls and 62% of white girls report sexual abuse.

Factors like lack of parental monitoring, antisocial attitudes, school commitment, and peer pressure can explain women delinquency in the Hmong community.

White girls are more likely to respond to abuse through internally harming behaviors, whereas girls of color are more likely to engage in outward displays of violence.

Programs that provide support:

The greatest long-term successes come from programs that provide support, not just for the individual girl but for her extended family as well.

Many family members resist being involved in programming, because they fail to accept responsibility for the role that they may have played in the development of their daughter’s delinquency.

This lack of involvement which raises significant concerns for the family environment of these girls.

Many girls express the desire to return to parents after release from custody despite experiencing violence at home and stating that parents contributed to their delinquency.

Gender-specific programming for adolescent women needs to focus on rebuilding family unit and developing positive role modeling.

Family counseling and substance abuse treatment models can positively affect troubled families.

Building on resiliency factors:

Recent research has shifted to include intelligence; brilliance; courage; creativity; tenacity; compassion; humor; insightfulness; social competence; problem-solving abilities; autonomy; potential with leadership; engagement in family, community, and religious activities; and a sense of purpose and belief in the future.

Typically develop within context of family, but support needs to come from somewhere else, since delinquent girls often come from families in crisis.

Participating in programs that are gender responsive and focus on building resiliency are not only effective in increasing coping skills for life challenges and improving abilities to develop long range goals.

Can help reduce engagement in at-risk behaviors and psychological distress.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls (3 of 3)

Few effective changes implemented.

Factors affecting program delivery.

7.7. Gender-specific needs of young female offenders.

Meeting the Unique Needs of Delinquent Girls

Few effective changes implemented:

Many states have embarked on data-heavy assessments reflecting the needs of girls, but few of these adventures have translated into effective programmatic changes.

Funding remains the most significant barrier.

Even when gender-specific programming options exist, the need for services can outweigh the available options, due to limited number of placements and long waiting lists.

Factors affecting program delivery:

Several individual and community factors also affect program delivery.

Lack of information or difficulties in accessing services.

Resistance by girls and their families, and distrust of service providers.

Racial, economic, cultural issues can affect whether communities will seek out assistance and the degree to which these services will reflect culturally relevant issues.

To develop effective and available programming, the system needs to place the allocation of resources as a priority in identifying and addressing the needs of girls in the juvenile justice system.