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C o p y rig h t © M c G ra w -H ill E d u c a tio n . P e rm is s io n re q u ire d fo r re p ro d u c tio n o r d is p la y

(c ) M c G ra w -H ill E d u c a tio n P e rm is s io n re q u ire d fo r re p ro d u c tio n o r d is p la y

CHAPTER PREVIEW

Nature of Memory

Memory Storage

Memory Encoding

Forgetting

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Science of Memory Tips

Memory Retrieval

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THE NATURE OF MEMORY

Retention of Information or Experience over Time

Three Phases of Memory – encoding – storage – retrieval

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ENCODING: SENSORY INPUT

• Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding

• What is the Role of Attention? – selective attention (purposive focus) – divided attention (multitasking) – sustained attention (vigilance)

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ROUND LETTER TASK

R = round

K = not round

As best you can, count the number of rounded letters in the following word list.

BEAVERCAPTAINCOLLEGESKATEHAMMERBENEFITPLASTERBELIEFPENCILCLOVERPICKLEAUTOGRAVEL How many did you count? 25

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GOOD/POWER TASK

On a scale from one to ten, rate each word GOOD / BAD

and POWERFUL / WEAK

and give reasons why.

Example: Mushroom

Good = 6 (Yummy but poisonous)

Power = 7 (Could kill you)

Do not bother to keep track of anything.

Here we go! BLADETRACTORCANDYLIVERTORNADOYARDPILLOWSQUEEZEWEDDINGCOINSDANCEMOTHERTOOTH

Thank you!

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ROUND LETTER TASK

• Remember counting round letters?

• Please list all of the words from that first list that you can remember.

BEAVER

CAPTAIN

COLLEGE

SKATE

HAMMER

BENEFIT

PLASTER

BELIEF

PENCIL

CLOVER

PICKLE

AUTO

GRAVEL

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GOOD/POWER TASK

• Remember rating GOOD / POWERFUL words?

• Please list all of the words from that second list that you can remember.

BLADE

TRACTOR CANDY

LIVER TORNADO

YARD PILLOW

SQUEEZE

WEDDING

COINS

DANCE

MOTHER TOOTH

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LEVELS OF PROCESSING

• How many of you did equally well on both lists?

• How many did better on the first list?

• How many did better on the second?

• Rating Good / Powerful is “deeper” processing than counting round letters

• Deep processing automatically leads to better recall

• Why?

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ENCODING: LEVELS OF PROCESSING

Encoding as a process that occurs on a continuum…

Shallow Intermediate Deep Rote physical traits

Category label Meaningful personal experience

Deeper processing promotes better recall

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ELABORATION

Target

Cue

Target

Cue

Only one cue leads to this target.

If you don’t happen to find this cue, you can never find the target.

But what if there were many cues, all leading to the same target?

Better chances of happening on one of the cues and thus finding target.

Memory strategies all use elaboration.

Elaborated

• Vivid Imagery • Self Referencing Effect • Memory Wizards

Elaboration enhances memory.

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ENCODING: IMAGERY

Dual-Code Hypothesis (Paivio) 1. verbal code – word or label

2. image code – detailed and distinctive

– Images are stored in both codes. – Superior to verbal codes alone

Rehearsal

AttentionSensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Sensory Memory

• Detailed information • In original sensory form • Very brief duration

Echoic (Auditory) Memory Iconic (Visual) Memory

Encoding

Retrieval

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ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Attention: Sensory Memory à STM

Attention

Sensory Memory

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ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Short Term

Memory • Limited duration (about 30 seconds) • Limited capacity (7 ± 2)

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

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Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Short Term

Memory

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ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Rehearsal

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

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WORKING MEMORY (ALTERNATIVE MODEL TO STM)

Central Executive

Visuo- Spatial

Sketchpad

Phonological Loop

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory Central

Executive

Visuo- Spatial

Sketchpad

Phonological Loop

WORKING MEMORY (ALTERNATIVE MODEL TO STM)

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Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Encoding

Retrieval

Central Executive

Visuo- Spatial

Sketchpad

Phonological Loop

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WORKING MEMORY (ALTERNATIVE MODEL TO STM) ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Encoding = Memorizing

Retrieval = Remembering

Rehearsal

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

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Long Term

Memory Relatively permanent with “unlimited” capacity

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Sensory Memory

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

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• Detailed Information • In Original Sensory Form • Very Brief Duration

Echoic (Auditory) Memory Iconic (Visual) Memory

Long Term

Memory

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FULL REPORT WRITE DOWN AS MANY OF THE FOLLOWING LETTERS AS YOU CAN:

Ready

Set Go

G K F J B L

D N H

Ready

Set Go

M C V R Z Q

X T P

Ready

Set Go

Z B M C W J

K T N

G K F J B L

D N H

M C V R Z Q

X T P

Z B M C W J

K T N

Sperling’s Sensory Memory Study

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WHY CAN WE REPORT ONLY 3 OR 4 LETTERS?

• Hypothesis 1: Our S.M. can only hold 3 or 4 items.

• Hypothesis 2: Our S.M. holds all the items, but fades by the time we have reported 3 or 4 of them.

Both hypotheses are consistent with the data, so how do we tell which is true?

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PARTIAL REPORT WRITE DOWN THE LETTERS IN THE INDICATED ROW ONLY:

Ready

Set Go

R G L

B K C

W F V

Ready

Set Go

X R C

W B Z

H L Q

Ready

Set Go

K M D

T L N

F X H

R G L

B K C

W F V

X R C

W B Z

H L Q

K M D

T L N

F X H

Top

Middle

Bottom

Sperling’s Sensory Memory Study

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RECONCILING THE FINDINGS

In Sperling’s study, subjects’ performance was near perfect for partial report. Which hypothesis fits the partial report data?

– Hypothesis 1: Our S.M. can only hold 3 or 4 items

– Hypothesis 2: Our S.M. holds all the items, but fades by the time we have reported 3 or 4 of them.

3 Compartments

Rehearsal

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory • Limited duration (about 30 seconds) • Limited capacity (7 ± 2)

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

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SHORT TERM MEMORY CAPACITY

7 8 6 2 4 1 4

7 ± 2 “Chunks”

2 55 2 GO!8 60 6 8 GO!04 5 3 2 GO!2 3 5 41 9 4 6 3 GO!3 6 4 9 15 7 3 0 8 9 GO!9 8 0 3 7 52 26 4 9 1 7 GO!7 1 9 4 2 6 21 3 8 5 6 0 3 2 GO!4 2 3 0 6 5 8 3 14

Backward Digit Span Task

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SHORT-TERM MEMORY

How can we improve STM?

– Chunking • grouping items into a unit

– Rehearsal • conscious repetition of information • prolongs STM duration indefinitely

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory

Long Term

Memory Relatively Permanent with “Unlimited” Capacity

Short Term

Memory

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN THEORY (1968)

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LONG-TERM MEMORY These will be examined in turn:

– Explicit Long-Term Memory (Declarative) • episodic memory • semantic memory

– Implicit Long-Term Memory (Nondeclarative) • procedural memory • classical conditioning • priming

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STORAGE: EXPLICIT LTM

• Declarative Memory – conscious recollection of

specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated

• Bahrick (1984) – Recall College Spanish – initial learning is important – permastore content – effect of distributed practice

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STORAGE: EXPLICIT LTM

Subtypes of Explicit Memory – Episodic

autobiographical memories – Semantic

knowledge about the world

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STORAGE: IMPLICIT LTM

Nondeclarative Memory

affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it

– Procedural Memory

– Classical Conditioning

– Priming

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MEMORY: ORGANIZATION

• Schemas scripts (event schema)

• Connectionist Networks parallel distributed processing (PDP)

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MEMORY: LOCATION

• Storage is Diffuse • Circuits of Neurons • Neurotransmitter Involvement • Long-Term Potentiation

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MEMORY: BRAIN STRUCTURES

• Explicit Memory – hippocampus,

frontal lobes, amygdala

• Implicit Memory – hippocampus,

temporal lobes, cerebellum

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SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

…tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in middle

Primacy effect Recency effect

When memorizing a list of items, which items are easier? Items early in the list or later in the list?

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Serial Position of Item within List

1st 2nd 3rd 4th . . . Next Last Last

Pe rf

or m

an ce x

x x

x x x

xPrimacy Effect Recency Effect

>> Decreasing space for rehearsal in working memoryRecent items still in working memory

Double W hammy

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

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RETRIEVAL: TASKS AND CUES

• Types of Tasks – recall – recognition

• Encoding Specificity – information present at encoding effective as retrieval cue – context-dependent memory

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RETRIEVAL: SPECIAL CASES

• Autobiographical Memories – life time periods

• reminiscence bump – general events – event-specific information

• Emotional Memories – flashbulb memories – traumatic events – repressed memories: motivated forgetting

• first forgotten and later recovered • Freudian defense mechanism

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FALSE MEMORY RECOVERY?

• Childhood Sexual Abuse, Other Events

• Recovered / Discovered Memories – Abuse is under-acknowledged. – Most victims accurately remember at least a part. – Loss of memory for abuse is possible. – False reconstruction of memory is possible. – Difficult to separate accurate and inaccurate memories

• Adults Tend to Believe Children’s False Denials.

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EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY

• Distortion

• Bias

• Inaccuracy

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FORGETTING: MEMORY FAILURE

Ebbinghaus

• encoding failure

• retrieval failure/interference theory – proactive interference – retroactive interference

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RETRIEVAL FAILURE

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PROACTIVE V. RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

Proactive Interfering material learned before target material is. “I can’t take in any more new information”

Retroactive Interfering material learned after target material is. “Too much has happened since I studied it”

OLD NEW TEST

Psychology Sociology

proactively

retroactively

Material to be learned Material to be recalled

PsychologySociology

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FORGETTING: MEMORY FAILURE

• Decay Theory – passage of time à forgetting – does not explain all instances of forgetting

• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon – effortful retrieval of

known information

– can retrieve some but not all information

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FORGETTING: MEMORY FAILURE

• Prospective Memory – remembering to do something in the future

• content: remembering what to do • timing: remembering when to do it

– absentmindedness • Amnesia

– anterograde amnesia • inability to store new information

and events – retrograde amnesia

• inability to retrieve past information and events

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STUDY TIPS - ORGANIZING

• Review notes routinely; check for errors

• Arrange into memorable structures

• Experiment with a variety of techniques – Hierarchies – Networks – Analogies to familiar things

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STUDY TIPS - ENCODING

• Give Undivided Attention

• Process Deeply

• Make Associations

• Use Imagery

• Use Chunking

• Encode Early and Often

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STUDY TIPS - REHEARSE

• Redo notes.

• Talk to others.

• Test yourself.

• Ask yourself questions.

• Rest and eat well.

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USING MEMORY

• Roles of Autobiographical Memories – Learn from our experience – Develop sense of identity – Bond with others

• Memory and Aging – Indicator of brain functioning – Activity inoculates against mental

decline – Both physical and mental activity

are important