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Learning

Chapter Preview

· Learning is defined by your book as “a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience”

· In this chapter we will focus on three major types of learning:

· Classical Conditioning

· Operant Conditioning

· Social/Observational Learning Theory

Learning & Behaviorism

· There are many forms of human learning. This chapter primarily focuses on learning as it is studied within the school of behaviorism

· Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors

· Behaviorism typically discounts the importance of mental activity, though social learning theory reintroduces such factors

Types of Learning

· Associative Learning & Conditioning

· Classical Conditioning

· The organism develops an association between two stimuli

· Operant Conditioning

· The organism develops an association between a behavior and its consequences

· Observational Learning

· The organism observes and imitates another’s behavior

Classical Conditioning

· Prior to studying the process of classical conditioning, we must distinguish between reflex and learned behavior:

· Reflex behavior is automatic, without prior learning

· Learning, within this context, is based on the building of an association through the pairing of stimuli

Classical Conditioning

· A process of associating a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response

· The association process leads the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response

· First systematically described by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning - Process

· Begin with a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (US)

· The unconditioned stimulus (US) is one that already brings about the target behavior (the unconditioned response - UR)

· The neutral stimulus is the one that we want to condition to cause the target behavior

· Pavlov used meat powder as his US, because it already triggered a reflexive UR of salivation. His neutral stimulus was a bell, which he wanted to condition to trigger salivation.

Classical Conditioning - Process

· The neutral stimulus is associated repeatedly with the US

· This pairing must take place closely in time

· During these pairings, the US brings about the UR

· So, Pavlov would repeatedly present the meat powder with the bell; during these pairings the meat powder would cause salivation

Classical Conditioning - Process

· After several associations, you then present the neutral stimulus by itself, without the US

· The result should be that the neutral stimulus brings about the target behavior

· In conditioning terms, the neutral stimulus has now become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR)

· So, after repeated pairings, Pavlov would present the bell without the meat powder. The dogs would salivate. So, the meat powder was no longer neutral, it was now a CS triggering a CR.

Recapping the Process

· Start with neutral stimulus, which brings about no response; and unconditioned stimulus, which brings about target, currently unconditioned response

· Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with US, which brings about UR

· Remove US, present only neutral stimulus

· Neutral stimulus now brings about target response

· Neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) which brings about a conditioned response (CR)

Classical Conditioning

· For classical conditioning to work, the process needs two important characteristics

· Contiguity: US and neutral stimulus are presented closely in time

· Contingency: the neutral stimulus is a reliable indicator of US

Classical Conditioning

· Related concepts:

· Generalization

· Often, the CR is not limited only to the CS; stimuli that are similar to the CS may elicit a similar response

· Discrimination is the process of learning to respond only to some stimuli

· So, you may train a dog to sit to the sound of a certain whistle. However, it may then sit when it hears other, similar whistles. This is stimulus generalization. So, you will then have to train it to respond only to your whistle. This is discrimination.

Classical Conditioning

· Extinction

· Weakening of CR when US is absent

· Some behaviors will persist long after the US is no longer presented. However, some will not. Pavlov’s dogs ultimately would stop salivating to the sound of a bell when they learned that it no longer reliably predicted the presentation of meat powder

· Spontaneous Recovery

· Recurrence of CR after time delay, without further conditioning

· Pavlov could reactivate the CR after extinction by re-pairing the US and CS, and needed fewer trials to do so

Classical Conditioning in Humans

· Explaining Pleasant Emotions

· Advertisers often try to build associations between their product (the neutral stimulus) and a celebrity endorser (US) whom many people like (UR) in the hope that their product can be conditioned (CS) to trigger liking (CR)

· Aversive Conditioning

· The drug Antabuse will trigger nausea in someone who has consumed alcohol. It is used to build aversion learning in recovering alcoholics

Classical Conditioning in Humans

· Be sure to read about the following in your textbook:

· Little Albert

· Counterconditioning

· Placebo Effect

· Immunosuppression

· Taste Aversion Learning

· Drug Habituation

Classical Conditioning in Humans

· Classical conditioning can be a challenging process to learn about, because so many of the terms in it are like each other. So, as you study this material, be sure to try to construct your own examples that will help you learn and apply the terms toward an understanding of the process.

Operant Conditioning

· Whereas classical conditioning focuses more on building automatic responses, operant (also called instrumental) conditioning does a better job of explaining voluntary behaviors

· Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior happening again in the future

History of Operant Conditioning

· Thorndike’s Law of Effect

· Positive outcomes strengthen behavior

· Negative outcomes weaken behavior

· B. F. Skinner

· Consequences change probability of behavior

· Operant = Behavior

· Consequences are contingent on behavior

Types of Operant Conditioning

· Reinforcement increases probability of behavior

· Positive Reinforcement

· Presentation (adding) of something pleasant

· Negative Reinforcement

· Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant

· Different types of reinforcers:

· Primary Reinforcer

· Innately satisfying

· Secondary Reinforcer

· Acquires positive value through experience

Types of Operant Conditioning

Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior

· Positive Punishment

· Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant

· Negative Punishment

· Removal (taking away) of something pleasant

Principles of Reinforcement

· Some principles of classical conditioning also apply to operant conditioning:

· Generalization

· Performing reinforced behavior in different situations, not just the one in which reinforcement took place

· Discrimination

· Responding to signal that behavior will (or will not) be reinforced

· Extinction

· Behaviors that are no longer reinforced will likely decrease in frequency

Schedules of Reinforcement

· Much of the effectiveness of reinforcement is tied to how frequently it takes place:

· Continuous Reinforcement

· Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

· Partial Reinforcement

· Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time

· Partial Reinforcement Schedules

· Ratio schedules are tied to the number of behaviors, interval schedules are tied to the amount of time elapsed

· These can be either fixed (predictable) or variable (unpredictable)

Schedules of Reinforcement

· Fixed Ratio

· Based on set number of behaviors

· Variable Ratio

· Based on average (unpredictable) number of behaviors

· Fixed Interval

· Rewarding behavior after fixed amount of time passes

· Variable Interval

· Rewarding after variable amount of time passes

Schedules of Reinforcement

· Your book discusses the relative effectiveness of these schedules, as outlined on the next slide

· Ratio schedules (e.g. a commissioned sales job) tend to have greater productivity, but that can also lead to higher burnout rates in the workplace

Figure 5.10 - Schedules of Reinforcement and Different Patterns of Responding

Operant Conditioning: Timing

· Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement

· Immediate reinforcement is usually more effective; waiting for delayed, but more highly valued reinforcers takes more will and commitment (e.g. saving for retirement)

· Immediate vs. Delayed Punishment

· Immediate more effective, but delayed can have effect if it gives time to think about it

· In parenting, though, this can backfire if the young child forgets the behavior for which they’re being punished

· Immediate Reinforcement vs. Delayed Punishment

· Immediate consequences usually win

Operant Conditioning

· Shaping

· Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors

· This is most common in pet training. For instance, I trained my dog to shake her paw to the word, “Shake!” I did so by first lifting her paw as I said shake, and giving her a reward. Then I scaled back to touching the back of her leg, saying “Shake!” as I did so, and rewarding her if she lifted it. Finally, I rewarded her only if she lifted the paw when I said the word.

· So, I conditioned the target behavior by rewarding behaviors as they got successively closer to it.

Applied Behavior Analysis

· Also called behavior modification

· Use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

· All human behavior understood as being influenced by rewards and punishments

· This has proven to be a successful technique in the treatment of autism, though it is time consuming and thus costly.

Bandura’s Observational Learning

· In both classical and operant conditioning the focus is on how the environment affects behavior, with little or no consideration of internal mental processes

· Albert Bandura’s model of observational (or social) learning considers the role of internal processes, such as observation, planning, and imitation (or modeling)

· People may engage in behaviors not based on direct punishment and reinforcement, but based on vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment – seeing these applied to other people who are engaging in the behavior

Bandura’s Model of Observational Learning

· Bandura’s model hinges on the following concepts:

· Attention to others

· Retention of lessons learned from watching others

· Motor reproduction – imitation of others’ behaviors

· Observation of reinforcement of the behavior in others, and expectation of similar reinforcement upon engaging in the behavior oneself

Cultural Influences on Learning

· Principles of conditioning and learning are universal and cross-cultural

· However, culture can affect the degree to which various learning processes are used, and it affects the effectiveness of different punishers and reinforcers

· Culture can determine content of learning, especially through the presence of models in the environment that are available for observational learning