Assignment 7

may2025

CH05PPT-withnotes.pptx

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Chapter 5

Motivation

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Introduction

More than motivation plays a role in performance

Ability

Instinct

Aspiration level

Personal factors (age, education, background)

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No one questions the central role motivation plays in shaping behavior and, specifically, in influencing work performance in organizations. Nonetheless, as important as motivation is, it is not the only factor that determines performance. Over the years, a variety of other variables thought to play an important role in performance have been suggested. These include ability, instinct, and aspiration level as well as personal factors such as age, education, and family background.

EXHIBIT 5.1 Determinants of Job Performance

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One way of conceptualizing the various determinants of performance is illustrated in Exhibit 5.1. As can be seen from this exhibit, job performance may be viewed as a function of the capacity to perform, the opportunity to perform, and the willingness to perform. The capacity to perform relates to the degree to which an individual possesses task-relevant skills, abilities, knowledge, and experiences. Unless an employee knows what is supposed to be done and how to do it, high levels of job performance are not possible. Having the opportunity to perform is also a critical ingredient in the performance recipe. The third factor, willingness to perform, relates to the degree to which an individual both desires and is willing to exert effort toward attaining job performance. It is, in other words, motivation, and it is what this chapter is about. No combination of capacity and opportunity will result in high performance in the absence of some level of motivation or willingness to perform.

Determinants of Job Performance

Motivation Components

Direction

Persistence

Intensity

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Motivation Components

In all likelihood, those individuals are already motivated; what that manager really wants is motivation that results in more or different kinds of behaviors. To understand this distinction, it is helpful to think of motivation as being made up of at least three distinct components: direction, intensity, and persistence.

Direction relates to what an individual chooses to do when presented with a number of possible alternatives

The intensity component of motivation refers to the strength of the response once the choice (direction) is made.

Finally, persistence is an important component of motivation. Persistence refers to the staying power of behavior or how long a person will continue to devote effort.

Needs Motivate Employees

Most managers must motivate a diverse and unpredictable group of people

They have varying needs and goals

Needs

Deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time

May be physiological, psychological, or sociological

Those with deficiencies are more susceptible to motivational efforts

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Most managers must motivate a diverse and, in many respects, unpredictable group of people. The diversity results in different behavioral patterns that are in some manner related to needs and goals. This type of diversity makes the manager’s motivational work very challenging. Needs refer to deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time. The deficiencies may be physiological (e.g., a need for food), psycho-logical (e.g., a need for self-esteem), or sociological (e.g., a need for social interaction).

Needs Motivate Employees

Needs trigger tension and a search for ways to reduce it

A course of action is selected

Goal-directed behavior occurs

The behavior triggers either a reward or punishment

The deficiencies are reassessed

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EXHIBIT 5.2 The Motivational Process: A General Model

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As can be seen in Exhibit 5.2, needs refer to deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time. Needs are viewed as energizers or triggers of behavioral responses. The implication is that when need deficiencies are present, the individual is more susceptible to a manager’s motivational efforts. People seek to reduce various need deficiencies. Need deficiencies trigger a search process for ways to reduce the tension caused by the deficiencies. A course of action is selected, and goal-directed (outcome-directed) behavior occurs. After a period, managers assess that behavior, and the performance evaluation results in some type of reward or punishment. Such outcomes are weighed by the person, and the need deficiencies are reassessed. This, in turn, triggers the process, and the circular pattern starts again.

Motivation Theories

Content theories focus on

Factors within the person

The needs that motivate people

Process theories describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is…

Energized

Directed

Sustained

Stopped

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EXHIBIT 5.3 Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation

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EXHIBIT 5.3 Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation

Exhibit 5.3 summarizes the basic characteristics of content and process theories of motivation from a managerial perspective. Both categories of theories have important implications for managers, who are—by the nature of their jobs—involved with the motivational process.

Content Motivation Theories

Maslow’s needs hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

McClelland’s learned needs theory

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The content theories of motivation focus on the factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior. They attempt to determine the specific needs that motivate people. Four important content approaches to motivation are: (1) Maslow’s need hierarchy, (2) Alderfer’s ERG theory, (3) Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and (4) McClelland’s learned needs theory. Each of these four theories has had an impact on managerial practices.

EXHIBIT 5.4 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Related to the Job

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The crux of Maslow’s theory is that needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The lowest-level needs are the physiological needs, and the highest-level needs are the self-actualization needs. These needs are defined to mean the following:

1. Physiological. The need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.

2. Safety and security. The need for freedom from threat, that is, security from threatening events or surroundings.

3. Belongingness, social, and love. The need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.

4. Esteem. The need for self-esteem and for esteem from others.

5. Self-actualization. The need to fulfill oneself by making maximum use of abilities, skills, and potential.

Exhibit 5.4 shows the hierarchical nature of Maslow’s theory. For each of the five need levels, the exhibit provides examples of work-related factors that might be associated with need satisfaction.

The Need-Hierarchy Approach

A satisfied need ceases to motivate

Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, and stress

People have a need to grow and develop; they strive to move up the hierarchy

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A satisfied need ceases to motivate.

Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration.

Maslow assumes that people have a need to grow and develop and, consequently, will strive constantly to move up the hierarchy in terms of need satisfaction. This assumption may be true for some employees but not others.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy

Need-hierarchy issues

Little data proves that a needs hierarchy exists

Only two needs levels exist: physiological and then all others

Security needs decrease as managers advance

With a corresponding increase in need for social interaction, achievement, and self-actualization

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A number of issues remain regarding the need-hierarchy theory. First, data from managers in two different companies provided little support that a hierarchy of needs exists. The data suggested that only two levels of needs exist: one is the physiological level, and the other is a level that includes all other needs. Further evidence also disputes the hierarchy notions. Researchers have found that as managers advance in an organization, their needs for security decrease, with a corresponding increase in their needs for social interaction, achievement, and self-actualization.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s hierarchy

Existence = physiological and safety

Relatedness = belongingness, social, love

Growth = esteem and self-actualization

A frustration-regression process exists

If one continually fails to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge

Efforts will be redirected toward satisfying a lower-order need

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Alderfer agrees with Maslow that individual needs are arranged in a hierarchy. However, his proposed need hierarchy involves only three sets of needs:

1. Existence. Needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.

2. Relatedness. Needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.

3. Growth. Needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

A content theory with two motivation factors

Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors)

Salary, job security, working conditions, status, company procedures, interpersonal relations

Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions)

The job content, achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, possibility of growth

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Herzberg developed a content theory known as the two-factor theory of motivation. The two factors are called hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) and motivators (satisfiers).Herzberg suggests that both hygiene factors and motivators, need to be present in order for employees to feel motivated. Hygiene factors are extrinsic conditions from the job context and include salary, job security, working conditions, status, company procedures, quality of technical supervision, and quality of interpersonal relations among peers, superiors, and subordinates. When present, employees reach a point where they are "not dissatisfied" with their job; however, this condition is not sufficient to motivate high levels of employee performance. Motivators, on the other hand, are intrinsic conditions from job content that make the job meaningful and satisfying. Motivators include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, the work itself, and the possibility for growth.

EXHIBIT 5.5 Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction

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EXHIBIT 5.5 Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction

Referring to Exhibit 5.5, several important managerial implications of Herzberg’s two-factor theory include:

1. No job dissatisfaction, high job satisfaction. An employee who is paid well, has job security, has good relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are present 5no job dissatisfaction), and is given challenging duties for which he is accountable will be motivated.

2. No job dissatisfaction, no job satisfaction. An employee who is paid well, has job security, and has good relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are present 5no job dissatisfaction), but is not given any challenging assignments and is very bored with her job (motivators are absent no job satisfaction) will not be motivated.

3. High job dissatisfaction, no job satisfaction. An employee who is not paid well, has little job security, has poor relationships with co-workers and the supervisor (hygiene factors are not present 5high job dissatisfaction), and is not given any challenging assignments and is very bored with his job (motivators are absent no job satisfaction) will not be motivated.

Criticisms of Herzberg’s Theory

Over-simplifies the nature of job satisfaction

Requires people to look at themselves retrospectively

Only self-reports of performance over long period of time were used in original study

Little testing of motivational and performance consequences of the theory

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Herzberg’s work has been criticized for a number of reasons. For example, some researchers believe that Herzberg’s work oversimplifies the nature of job satisfaction. Other critics focus on Herzberg’s methodology, which requires people to look at themselves retrospectively. Still, other critics charge that Herzberg has directed little attention toward testing the motivational and performance consequences of the theory. In his original study, only self-reports of performance were used, and in most cases, the respondents described job activities that had occurred over a long period of time.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Job enrichment

Builds personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a job

Increases individual motivation by providing more discretion and accountability

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Although the list of criticisms for Herzberg’s model is long, the impact of the theory on practicing managers should not be underestimated. For example, one concept that emerged from Herzberg’s work is that of job enrichment. Job enrichment is defined as the process of building personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a person’s job.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

McClelland believes needs are acquired from culture

Need for achievement (n Ach)

Need for affiliation (n Aff)

Need for power (n Pow)

When a need is strong, there is motivation to use behavior that leads to its satisfaction

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McClelland has proposed a theory of motivation that is closely associated with learning concepts. He believes that many needs are acquired from the culture. Three of these learned needs are the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for affiliation (n Aff), and the need for power (n Pow).

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Factors reflecting a high n Ach

Likes to take responsibility for solving problems

Sets moderate achievement goals and takes calculated risks

Desires feedback on performance

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Based on research results, McClelland developed a descriptive set of factors that reflect a high need for achievement. These are:

1. The person likes to take responsibility for solving problems.

2. The person tends to set moderate achievement goals and is inclined to take calculated risks.

3. The person desires feedback on performance.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Factors reflecting a high n Pow

Concentrates on obtaining and exercising power and authority

Concerned with influencing others and winning arguments

Power can be negative or positive

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A person with a high need for power, meanwhile, concentrates on obtaining and exercising power and authority. He or she is concerned with influencing others and winning arguments. Power has two possible orientations according to McClelland. It can be negative in that the person exercising it emphasizes dominance and submission. Or power can be positive in that it reflects persuasive and inspirational behavior.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Factors reflecting a high n Aff

Desires social interaction

Concerned about the quality of personal relationships

Social relationships take precedence over task accomplishment

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The need for affiliation reflects a desire to interact socially with people. A person with a high need for affiliation is concerned about the quality of important personal relationships, and thus, social relationships take precedence over task accomplishment.

Criticisms of Learned Needs Theory

Supporting evidence supplied by McClelland and his associates

Use of projective psychological personality tests has been questioned as being unscientific

Claim that n Ach can be learned runs counter to a large body of literature that argues the acquisition of motives normally occurs in childhood and is very difficult to alter in adulthood

No proof that acquired needs are permanently acquired

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McClelland’s theory faces a number of criticisms. Not the least of these criticisms is that most of the available evidence supporting the theory has been provided by McClelland or his associates. McClelland’s use of projective psychological personality tests has been questioned as being unscientific. Furthermore, McClelland’s claim that n Ach can be learned runs counter to a large body of literature that argues the acquisition of motives normally occurs in childhood and is very difficult to alter in adulthood. Finally, McClelland’s theory is questioned on grounds of whether the needs are permanently acquired. Research is needed to determine whether acquired needs last.

EXHIBIT 5.6 A Graphic Comparison of Four Content Approaches to Motivation

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Exhibit 5.6 compares the four approaches. McClelland proposed no lower-order needs. Moreover, his needs for achievement and power aren’t identical with Herzberg’s motivators, Maslow’s higher-order needs, or Alderfer’s growth needs, although there are some similarities. A major difference between the four content theories is McClelland’s emphasis on socially acquired needs. Also, the Maslow theory offers a static need-hierarchy system; Alderfer presents a flexible, three-need classification approach; and Herzberg discusses intrinsic and extrinsic job factors. Each of the content approaches purports to present the clearest, most meaningful, and most accurate explanation of motivation. In reality, each has strengths and limitations that practicing managers need to consider; none is clearly inferior or superior to the others, especially in today’s diverse workplace. Smart managers will look to all of these approaches to provide insights that can be applied to specific challenges and problems.

Process Theories of Motivation

Content theories focus primarily on the needs and incentives that cause behavior

They try to explain how behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped

The process theories of motivation are concerned with answering the questions of how individual behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped.

Expectancy theory

Equity theory

Goal-setting

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The content theories we have examined focus mainly on the needs and incentives that cause behavior. They are concerned primarily about which specific things motivate people. The process theories of motivation are concerned with answering the questions of how individual behavior is energized, directed, maintained, and stopped. We will examine three process theories: expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive that effort = successful performance + desired rewards and outcomes

Motivation is a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity

Most behaviors are under the voluntary control of the individual and consequently are motivated

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One of the more popular explanations of motivation was developed by Victor Vroom. Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative activities. In his view, most behaviors are considered to be under the voluntary control of the employee and consequently are motivated. To understand expectancy theory, it is necessary to define the terms of the theory and explain how they operate.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Instrumentality

The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are tied to second-level outcomes (rewards or punishment)

Valence

An individual’s preferences for outcomes

Expectancy

Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome

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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

EXHIBIT 5.7 Expectancy Theory

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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As seen in the general expectancy model in Exhibit 5.7, the four most important components of expectancy theory are effort-to-performance (E -P) expectancy, performance-to-outcome (P -O) expectancy, outcomes, and valence.

Equity Theory

One’s perception of being treated fairly in social exchanges can influence motivation

Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) equals the ratios of other employees

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Equity theory explains how people’s perceptions of how fairly they are treated in social exchanges at work (e.g., amount of the pay raise this year, how well the supervisor treats them, etc.) can influence their motivation. The essence of equity (which also means “fairness”) theory is that employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations. This theory of motivation is based on the assumption that individuals are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work. The individual works in exchange for rewards from the organization

Important Equity Theory Terms

Person- The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived

Comparison Other- Any group or persons used as a referent by Person, regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes

Inputs- The individual characteristics brought by Person to the job

Outcomes- What Person received from the job

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Four important terms in this theory are:

1. Person. The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived.

2. Comparison other. Any group or persons used by Person as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes.

3. Inputs. The individual characteristics brought by Person to the job. These may be achieved (e.g., skills, experience, learning) or ascribed (e.g., age, sex, race).

4. Outcomes. What Person received from the job (e.g., recognition, fringe benefits, pay).

Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other employees. Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent; an individual’s own ratio of inputs to outcomes could be greater than, or less than, that of others.

EXHIBIT 5.8 The Equity Theory of Motivation

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Change Procedures to Restore Equity

Changing inputs

Changing outcomes

Changing attitudes

Changing the reference person

Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person

Leaving the field

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In response to this under rewarded condition, equity theory suggests a number of alternative methods to restore a feeling or sense of equity vis-à-vis your treatment (as compared to that of your colleague). Some examples of restoring equity are:

1. Changing inputs. You may decide to put less time or effort into the job.

2. Changing outcomes. You may decide to negotiate for a much larger pay raise (e.g., to get at least $10,000 total).

3. Changing attitudes. Instead of changing inputs or outcomes, you may simply change your attitude by convincing yourself that the money is less important than other outcomes (e.g., nice place to work, job security, etc.).

4. Changing the reference person. In this example, you can change the reference person to someone who received a raise that was similar to the one you received. This might allow you to restore equity by comparing your outcomes/input ratio to someone with a similar ratio.

5. Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person. Since the original reference person is a co-worker, you might encourage the individual to work longer hours and work harder to justify the larger pay increase (i.e., increase inputs).

6. Leaving the field. Due to the frustration and perceived unfairness of the situation, you may decide to simply quit your job.

Organizational Justice

The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace

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In the 1980s and 1990s, equity theory inspired new streams of research to explain employee attitudes and behavior. The concept of organizational justice, or the degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace, attracted a considerable amount of research attention.

Organizational Justice

Exhibit 5.9 Four Dimensions of Organizational Justice

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The four components of this research domain are: distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice

Organizational Justice

Procedural justice has been shown to have a positive impact on a number of affective and behavioral reactions

Organizational commitment

Intrinsic motivation

Intent to stay with organization

Organizational citizenship

Trust in supervisor

Satisfaction with decision outcome

Work effort

Task performance

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Positive consequences of procedural justice have been found in important organizational decision contexts, including pay allocation, personnel selection, and performance appraisal. Since procedural justice can provide benefits to organizations, an important issue involves the types of decision-making procedures that people consider to be fair.

Procedural Justice

People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair when…

They have a voice in the decision

Decision making is consistent

The process and procedures conform to ethical and moral values

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People are more inclined to interpret decisions to be fair when they have a voice in the decision, there is consistency in decision making and the process and procedures conform to ethical and moral values.

Procedural Justice

Why does it work?

Self-interest Theory -People want fair procedures because it enables them to obtain desired extrinsic outcomes

Group Theory- Fair group procedures are a sign of respect and an indication that group members are valued

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Two explanations have emerged regarding why procedural justice works. Self-interest theory proposes that people want fair procedures because such fairness enables them to obtain desired extrinsic outcomes. Although a manager may decide not to promote a person, if the process has been fair it will be accepted and the employee will be more likely to remain committed to the organization.

Group value theory suggests that people value fairness as a means of realizing such desired intrinsic outcomes as self-esteem. People have a strong sense of affiliation with groups to which they belong. Fair group procedures are considered to be a sign of respect and an indication that they are valued members of the group. This results in a higher sense of self-esteem.

Procedural Justice

Interpersonal justice

Judgments made by employees as to whether they feel they are treated fairly

Perceptions of justice are higher when employees are treated with dignity and respect

Abusive supervisors are common

Employees who experience bullying and incivility are more likely to quit

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Related to procedural justice is the concept of interpersonal justice, which refers to judgments made by employees about whether they feel fairly treated by their supervisors and other authorities in the organization.

Procedural Justice

Informational justice

Perceived fairness of the communication provided to employees from authorities

Keep many channels open and communicate frequently

Utilize informal chats

Don’t sugarcoat bad news

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A final form of organizational justice, informational justice focuses on whether employees perceive that decisions and other communication from authorities are explained in a fair manner.

Goal Setting

A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to accomplish through behavior and actions

Locke’s view…

An individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior

Once a person starts something, he/she pushes on until a goal is achieved

Harder goals result in higher levels of performance if the goals are accepted by the individual

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Interest in applying goal setting to organizational problems and issues has been growing since Locke presented what is now considered a classic paper in 1968. A goal is a result that a person, team, or group is attempting to accomplish through behavior and actions. Locke proposed that goal setting is a cognitive process of some practical utility. His view is that an individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior

Goal Setting Terms

Goal specificity

the degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal.

Goal difficulty

the degree of proficiency or the level of performance that is sought.

Goal intensity

pertains to the process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it.

Goal commitment

the amount of effort used to achieve a goal.

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The attributes Locke highlights are goal specificity, goal difficulty, and goal intensity.

Goal specificity is the degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal.

Goal difficulty is the degree of proficiency or the level of performance that is sought.

Goal intensity pertains to the process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it.

Goal commitment is the amount of effort used to achieve a goal.

EXHIBIT 5.10 Goal Setting Applied to Organizations

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Exhibit 5.10 presents a model of individual goal setting using available theoretical research but illustrating a practical framework that managers can apply. The goal-setting model emphasizes that a goal serves as a motivator. It is important for any goal to be clear, meaningful, and challenging. When goals are not accomplished, an individual faces a sense of dissatisfaction. Whether there is a relationship between goals and job performance is moderated by a number of factors, including ability, commitment, and feedback.

Motivation and the Psychological Contract

Exchange theory- Organizational members engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships

Per Schein, the degree to which employees exert effort, commit to goals, and derive satisfaction from work depends on

The extent to which employee expectations match the organization’s expectations

The specific nature of what is exchanged

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A conceptual framework that provides a useful perspective for viewing the topic of motivation is exchange theory. In a very general sense, exchange theory suggests that members of an organization engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships (exchanges) with each other. For example, an employee gives time and effort in exchange for pay; management provides pleasant working conditions in exchange for employee loyalty. Schein suggests that the degree to which employees are willing to exert effort, commit to organizational goals, andderive satisfaction from their work depends on two conditions:

1. The extent to which employee expectations of what the organization will give them and what they owe the organization in return matches the organization’s expectations of what it will give and receive.

2. Assuming there is agreement on these expectations, the specific nature of what is exchanged (effort for pay, for example).

The Psychological Contract

Mutual expectations constitute part of the psychological contract

An unwritten agreement between the individual and the organization

Specifies what each expects to give and receive from the other

Can change over time

These implicit agreements may take precedence over written agreements

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You may recall from chapter one; the psychological contract is an unwritten agreement between an employee and the organization that specifies what each expects to give to and receive from the other.

Psychological Contract Breach

A perception that the organization has failed to fulfill an unwritten exchange agreement.

A violation in the psychological contract can lead to decreased job satisfaction and citizenship behavior.

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In the ideal psychological contract, those contributions the individual was willing to give would correspond perfectly to what the organization wanted to receive; similarly, what the organization wanted to give would correspond totally with what the individual wished to receive. In reality, however, this seldom occurs. Additionally, psychological contracts are not static; either party’s expectations can change as can either party’s ability or willingness to continue meeting expectations. In more extreme cases, an organization may take actions (e.g., layoffs) that lead employees to perceive that a psychological contract breach has occurred. Such a violation of the psychological contract can lead to decreased job satisfaction and citizenship behavior.

Managers…

Can influence the motivation state of employees

Must intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement.

Should be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals.

Must consider differences valences for rewards.

Should continual monitor the needs, abilities, goals, and preferences of employees and not just depend on HR to do so

Need to provide employees with jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction.

This chapter suggests that instead of ignoring motivation, managers must take an active role in motivating their employees. Four specific conclusions are offered here:

1. Managers can influence the motivation state of employees. If performance needs to be improved, then managers must intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement.

2. Managers should be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals. Managers also must consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards.

3. Continual monitoring of needs, abilities, goals, and preferences of employees is each individual manager’s responsibility and is not the domain of personnel/human resource managers only.

4. Managers need to work on providing employees with jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction.

Assignment 7

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