Assignment 7

may2025

CH04PPT-withnotes.pptx

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Chapter 4

Perceptions and Attributions

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Perception

Perception is based on prior experience

It is the cognitive process by which one selects, organizes, and gives meaning to environmental stimuli

Each person gives his or her own meaning to stimuli, so each perceives things differently

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Perception is empirical in that it is based on prior experience. Perception is defined as the cognitive process by which an individual selects, organizes, and gives meaning to environmental stimuli. Through perception, individuals attempt to make sense of their environment and the objects, people, and events in it. Because each person gives his or her own meaning to stimuli, different individuals will “perceive” the same thing in different ways. When we comment to a classmate, “This course is exciting,” what we really mean is, “This class excites me.” While we think we are describing some objective reality, we are in fact describing our subjective reactions to that reality.

Perception

We are bombarded by environmental stimuli

Which stimuli you focus on is determined by what you choose to pay attention to

Generally, people perceive stimuli that satisfy needs, emotions, attitudes, or self-concept

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Individuals are constantly bombarded by environmental stimuli that impact their senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Exactly which stimuli a person focuses on is determined by what he or she chooses to pay attention to at a particular moment.

The Perceptual Process

Misinterpreting stimuli can result in perceptual errors

Similar-to-me errors

Snap impressions

Each person selects cues that influence the perception of…

Symbols

Objects

People

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There is always the possibility that a person’s perception is inaccurate. Misinterpreting stimuli can and often does result in perceptual errors. The research literature on interviewing suggests that interviewers rate candidates who are similar to themselves in appearance, background, and interests higher than candidates who are dissimilar. This is referred to as the “similar-to-me perception error.” Interviewers also tend to make quick first impression errors based on the first few minutes of an interview. Unfortunately, making first impression errors can eliminate many good job candidates, which is detrimental to a firm.

Individuals try to make sense of environmental stimuli by observation, selection, and translation.

EXHIBIT 4.1 The Perceptual Process: An Individual Interpretation

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Exhibit 4.1 illustrates the basic framework and elements of perception operating as a cognitive process. Each person makes personal/individual choices and responds differently. Learning about perceptual interpretation helps managers understand why individual differences must be considered at work. People see the world around them in their own unique way and behave and respond according to their interpretation.

EXHIBIT 4.2 The Perceptual Gap between Supervisor and Subordinates

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To a considerable extent, people interpret the behavior of others in the context in which they find themselves. A classic study reported by Rensis Likert clearly illustrates this. He examined the perceptions of superiors and subordinates to determine the amounts and types of recognition that subordinates received for good performance. Both supervisors and subordinates were asked how often superiors provided rewards for good work. Exhibit 4.2 presents the results. The two groups perceived significant differences. Each group viewed the type of recognition being given at a different level. The subordinates in most cases reported that very little recognition was provided by their supervisors and that rewards were provided infrequently. The superiors, on the other hand, saw themselves as giving a wide variety of rewards for good performance. The two groups were looking at the same objective reality and very honestly reaching quite different conclusions. The situation was the same, but their interpretations of the situation were markedly different.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Someone’s expectations about another causes the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations

Pygmalion effect

Golem effect

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Perceptions do influence reality. This is the notion of what is called the self-fulfilling prophecy or the tendency for someone’s expectations about another to cause the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations. These expectations can be positive or negative. The positive case is called the Pygmalion effect. Researchers have also found that the self-fulfilling prophecy can be negative—low expectations of success lead to poor performance. This is known as the Golem effect.

The Pygmalion and Golem Effect

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The Pygmalion and Golem effects follow a three stage process:

Supervisor has expectations

Subordinates match their expectations to supervisor

Subordinate performance matches expectation

Perceptual Grouping

Nearness- Stimuli are near each other

Similarity- Stimuli are similar in size, color, shape, or form

Closure- Completing a figure so it has a consistent overall form

Figure and Ground- Grouping sensations into figures and backgrounds

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Once relevant stimuli are selected, individuals categorize and group them so that they will make sense. The brain receives stimuli and seeks to recognize common patterns. This is a way of organizing sensations and applies to perceptions of people, objects, or events.

•The law of nearness—all other things being equal, stimuli that are near each other tend to be grouped together.

•The law of similarity—stimuli that are similar in size, color, shape, or form tend to be grouped together.

•The law of closure—the tendency to complete a figure, so that it has a consistent overall form.

•The law of figure and ground—the tendency to group sensations into figures and backgrounds. Individuals try to make sense of environmental stimuli by observation, selection, and translation.

EXHIBIT 4.3 Four Different Types of Perceptual Grouping

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Schemas

A framework embodying descriptions of people, situations, or objects

Helps us make better sense of information

Schemas are person, role, self, or event based

Managers use schemas to examine or prepare for a situation

Allows the chance to think, organize, and compare before acting

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Managers often use schemas or perceptual frameworks to think about a problem or prepare for a situation. The schema allows a person the chance to think and prepare before acting.

Perceiving, Grouping, and Creating Schemas

Schema inaccuracies and distortions can result from…

Stereotyping

Halo effect

Selective attention

Similar-to-me errors

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Unfortunately, the process of creating schemas is open to the potential for inaccuracies and distortions, such as prejudice resulting from inaccurate stereotyping; selective attention; the halo effect; similar-to-me errors; and others.

Exhibit 4.4 Factors That Decrease Perceptual Accuracy

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Stereotyping

A translation step in the perceptual process

Helps people deal with massive information-processing demands

A useful, even essential, way to categorize individuals, events, or other things on the basis of limited information or observation

Stereotyping is not inherently bad or wrong

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Stereotyping is a translation step in the perceptual process employed to assist individuals in dealing with massive information-processing demands. It represents a useful, even essential, way of categorizing individuals (or events, organizations, etc.) on the basis of limited information or observation. Stereotyping may occur not only as a result of direct interaction with an individual but may also be the result of a reaction to a label or name. For example, a recent study found that work associated with names stereotypically connected with a particular race was evaluated differently from work associated with more general names. The process of forming stereotypes and placing individuals in certain categories on a shorthand basis of such stereotypes can be productive if we recognize its dangers and limitations.

Stereotyping and Prejudice

Prejudice

A stereotype that doesn’t change when given information showing the stereotype is inaccurate

Often the result of direct experiences with members of the rejected group

Once formed, positive experiences with the persons, group, or unit usually do not reverse the prejudice

Extreme form is scapegoating

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A prejudice is a stereotype that refuses to change when presented with information indicating the stereotype is inaccurate. Stereotypes can be helpful; prejudice is never helpful. An extreme form of prejudice is scapegoating (blaming a person or a group for the actions of others or for conditions not of their making). Thus, scapegoating is a type of displaced aggression in which hostilities triggered by frustration are redirected at safe targets.

Stereotyping and Prejudice

Two Sources of Prejudice

Personal- Something, or someone, is perceived as a threat to one’s own interest

Group- Occurs when a person conforms to the norms of a group to which he or she belongs

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At times, the development of prejudice can be traced to direct experiences with members of the rejected group. An employee who is repeatedly belittled and embarrassed by members of a particular work unit might develop a dislike for all members of the unit. Once the prejudice is formed, positive experiences with the persons, group, or unit usually do not reverse the prejudice. Such contrasting information will produce what has been termed cognitive dissonance, a topic presented in Chapter 14. Allport concluded that there are two sources of prejudice. Personal prejudice occurs when members of another group (e.g., work group, race, age cohort) are perceived as a threat to one’s own interest. Group prejudice occurs when a person conforms to norms of a group she belongs to.

Stereotyping and Prejudice

Negative Consequences of Stereotyping

Social injustice

Stifled innovation

Poor decision making

Ineffectiveness and inefficiency

Under-utilization of human resources

Holding back of talented, qualified people

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Stereotyping can be a useful process in that it can greatly increase our efficiency in making sense out of our environment. Nonetheless, stereotyping can and does lead to perceptual inaccuracies and their negative consequences. To the extent that stereotypes create social injustice, result in poorer decision making, stifle innovation, or cause underutilization of human resources, they contribute to ineffectiveness and inefficiency.

Stereotyping Cautions

Pay Attention to Your Stereotyping

Stereotypes are frequently based on little or inaccurate information

Be willing to change or add information that improves the accuracy of your stereotypes

Stereotypes rarely accurately apply to a specific individual

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Stereotypes are rarely accurate when applied to a specific individual.

Individuals must challenge their assumptions to increase accuracy

Selective and Divided Attention

Selective Attention

Giving some messages priority and putting others on hold

A bottleneck or narrowing of the information channel linking the senses to perception

Divided Attention

Occurs when mental efforts are divided among tasks

Some stimuli require more attention

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Selective attention refers to the fact that people give some messages priority and put others on hold. Psychologists refer to selective attentiveness as a bottleneck or narrowing in the information channel linking the senses to perception. When one message enters the bottleneck zone, it seems to prevent others from passing through. This may be why it is difficult to listen to two or more colleagues talking at once. Divided attention occurs when a person must divide his or her mental efforts among tasks, each of which requires some amount of attention (multitasking). Research suggests that when individuals are distracted by multiple demands, they will be more likely to engage in stereotypes. Managers learn that some stimuli (e.g., employees) require more attention than others. Employees who make forceful requests, are superior performers or are more respected capture the manager’s attention more quickly. An employee who keeps making a request for a transfer also receives more attention. This is because of the repetition of the request. Obviously, the potential for error in selecting which stimuli to attend to is always present.

Halo Effect

One important or noticeable characteristic biases an evaluation, perception, or impression of a person

Presuming someone is hard working because they arrive early and stay late

Considering that someone with piercings is wild and unreliable

One trait or characteristic can’t predict a person’s performance

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The halo effect occurs when a person (e.g., manager) allows one important or noticeable characteristic of another person to bias the evaluation, perception, or impression of that person. An employee who is always at work before everyone else arrives or after they leave may be assumed to be productive and hard working. On the other hand, an employee with multiple body piercings may be considered wild and not reliable. Both of these judgments made by a manager utilize the halo effect and may be erroneous.

Halo Effect

An individual’s attractiveness can influence managerial decisions

Attractiveness increased evaluations, pay raises, and promotions for women in non-managerial positions

The opposite was true for women in managerial positions

Both outcomes stem from the halo effect

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Research has found an individual’s physical attractiveness and looks can significantly influence managerial decisions. Attractiveness increased the evaluations, pay raises, and promotion for women in nonmanagerial positions. However, attractive women in management received lower performance reviews and pay raises, as well as a decreased number of promotion opportunities. Both of these outcomes stem from the halo effect.

Similar-to-Me Errors

People frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others

Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately

Those who accept themselves are more likely to see favorable aspects of others

Choosing subordinates who are similar to ourselves may not be appropriate to the situation

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People frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others. This can give rise to similar-to-me errors. One’s own characteristics may affect the characteristics identified as present or lacking in others. Research suggests that knowing oneself well makes it easier to see others accurately. Also, persons who accept themselves are more likely to see the favorable aspects of other people. Basically, these conclusions suggest that if managers understand that their own traits and values influence their perception of others, they probably can perform a more accurate evaluation of their subordinates. A manager who is a perfectionist tends to look for perfection in subordinates, while a manager who is quick in responding to technical requirements looks for this ability in subordinates. This may not be appropriate to the situation.

Situational Factors

Perceptual Accuracy Can be Affected by…

The press of time

Attitudes of subordinates

Other situational factors

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The press of time, the attitudes of the people a manager is working with, and other situational factors all influence perceptual accuracy. If a manager is pressed for time and has to immediately fill an order, then her perceptions will be influenced by these time constraints. The press of time literally will force the manager to overlook some details, to rush certain activities, and to ignore certain stimuli such as requests from other managers or from superiors.

Needs and Perceptions

Perceptions are influenced by needs and desires

People see what they want to see

The hungrier people were when viewing ambiguous drawings, the more they saw them as articles of food

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Perceptions are influenced significantly by needs and desires. In other words, the employee, the manager, the vice president, and the director see what they want to see.

Attribution Theory

Behavior is greatly influenced by our personal interpretation of reality

Perceptual processes are potent determinants of behavior

Attribution theory

Attempts to explain the why of behavior

Based on people’s attributions of the causes of events that happen to them

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One approach that provides a basis for understanding the relationship between perception and behavior is attribution theory. Attribution theory attempts to explain the why of behavior as based on people’s attributions of causes to events that happen to them. Attribution theory views the process by which individuals interpret events around them as being caused by (attributed to) a relatively stable portion of their environment.

Attribution Theory

EXHIBIT 4.5 The Attribution Process

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Exhibit 4.5 displays the attribution process. According to attribution theory, it is the perceived causes of events, not the actual events themselves, that influence people’s behavior. More specifically, individuals attempt to analyze why certain events have occurred, and the results of that analysis influence their behavior in the future.

Attribution Theory

Behavior is examined on the basis of:

Distinctiveness- Degree to which one behaves similarly in different situations

Consistency-Degree to which one engages in the same behaviors at different times

Consensus -Degree to which others are engaging in the same behavior

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The attribution process can be important in understanding the behavior of others. The behavior of others can be examined on the basis of its distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus. Distinctiveness is the degree to which a person behaves similarly in different situations. Consistency is the degree to which a person engages in the same behaviors at different times. Consensus is the degree to which other people are engaging in the same behavior. Knowing the extent to which a person’s behavior exhibits these qualities can be very useful in helping us better understand that behavior.

Attribution Theory

EXHIBIT 4.6 Internal and External Attributions

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Exhibit 4.6 casts consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in the form of questions, the answers to which can lead us to some conclusions about the behavior in question.

Attribution Theory

Systematic errors or biases distort attributions

Fundamental attribution error- Under-estimating the importance of external factors and over-estimating internal factors when making attributions about the behavior of others

Self-serving bias- Taking credit for successful work and denying responsibility for poor work

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Not all attributions, of course, are correct. Another important contribution made by attribution theory is the identification of systematic errors or biases that distort attributions. One such error is called the fundamental attribution error. The fundamental attribution error is a tendency to underestimate the importance of external factors and overestimate the importance of internal factors when making attributions about the behavior of others.

Another frequent error is the self-serving bias. This is reflected in the tendency people have to take credit for successful work and deny responsibility for poor work. The self-serving bias leads us to conclude that when we succeed it is a result of our outstanding efforts, while when we fail it is because of factors beyond our control.

Attribution Theory

Managerial implications of an attributional approach to understanding work behavior

To influence behavior, managers must understand the attributions employees make

Managers must be aware that their attributions may be different from employees’ attributions

Managers cannot assume that their own attributions are error free

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The managerial implications of an attributional approach to understanding work behavior are important. To influence employee behavior, the manager must understand the attributions employees make. Further, a manager must be aware that his own attributions may be different from employees’. For example, if a manager perceives employees’ poor performance to be the result of lack of effort, she may attempt to increase motivation levels. On the other hand, if employees perceive performance problems to be attributable to lack of managerial guidance, the efforts made by the manager are not likely to have the desired effect on performance. Managers cannot assume that their attributions will be the same as their employees’. Neither can they assume their own attributions are error-free. Knowing this, coupled with an effort to understand what attributions employees make, can greatly enhance the manager’s ability to have a positive effect on employee behavior.

Impression Management

The attempt to influence others’ perceptions of ourselves

How we talk

Our overall style

Office locations and furniture

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Through actions, body language, and manner of speaking, individuals attempt to influence the perceptions that others have of them. The attempt to influence others’ perceptions of oneself has been called impression management. Managers manage impressions of themselves by how they talk, their overall style, their office location, and furniture, and even by the individuals, they select as employees. The range of managers’ techniques for creating and sustaining a particular impression of themselves is very wide. Nearly everybody practices impression management.

Impression Management

Impression management is interpersonal

Resources, style, and creativity are mobilized in order to create a positive impression in the presence of others

Reasons to use impression management

Allows one to convey a desired identity

After the identity is established, it allows congruence with the impression

A particular situation requires a significantly different behavior

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Goffman proposed that impression management is a kind of theatrical process. When a person is in the presence of others, there is a reason to mobilize resources, style, and creativity to make a positive impression. The process occurs at first contact, but also over the course of a long-term relationship. Individuals (managers and nonmanagers) engage in impression management for numerous reasons. First, to interact socially, impression management allows the person to communicate a desired identity. Once the identity is established, the individual tries to remain congruent with the impression—or face cognitive dissonance. The audience (manager, colleagues, stakeholders) respects the desired identity and attempts to comply with the impression being conveyed. Some situations (e.g., performance feedback meeting, a meeting to discuss the theft of company property) elicit significantly different behaviors than others (e.g., a company softball game). Some have defined norms while others are more ambiguous, presenting a challenge. Despite these differences, all interpersonal meetings are “theater” that involves actors, audience, stage, and script. Organizations that interact heavily with the public always engage in impression management.

Impression Management

Impression Management Tactics

Ingratiation

Self-promotion

Exemplification

Supplication

Intimidation

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Organizational researchers have proposed various impression management frameworks. The one framework that has been carefully examined empirically is offered by Jones and Pittman. According to Jones and Pittman, individuals engage in five impression management tactics: 1. Ingratiation: They seek to be viewed positively by flattering others or offering to do favors for them. 2. Self-promotion: They tout their abilities and competence. 3. Exemplification: They seek to be viewed as dedicated by going above and beyond the call of duty. 4. Supplication: They seek to be viewed as needing help because of limitations. 5. Intimidation: They seek to be viewed as powerful and threatening.

EXHIBIT 4.7 What Job Applicants Say to Generate a Positive Impression of Themselves

Assignment 7

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