Assignment 7
may2025
CH03PPT-withnotes.pptxChapter 3
Individual Differences at Work
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Individual Differences Influence Work Behavior
Individual differences have a direct effect on behavior, perceptions, and interactions
These differences explain why some people embrace change and others fear it
Virtually no area of an organization is unaffected by individual differences
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Individual differences impact all areas and aspects of the organization.
There is virtually no area of an organization that is unaffected by individual difference.
Individual Differences in the Workplace
To understand individual differences
Observe and recognize the differences
Study relationships among variables that influence individual behavior
Work behavior is anything a person does in the work environment
Some behaviors contribute to productivity; others are non- or counter-productive
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To understand individual differences
Observe and recognize the differences
Study relationships among variables that influence individual behavior
Work behavior is anything a person does in the work environment
EXHIBIT 3.1 Individual Differences Affect Workplace Behavior
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The individual variables presented in Exhibit 3.1 are classified as diversity, abilities, skills, attitudes, personality, emotions, and perceptions (to be covered in chapter 4). These variables all impact key work behaviors such as employee productivity, creativity, and performance.
What Diversity Is and Is Not
Diversity is not a synonym for equal employment opportunity (EEO).
Diversity is not another word for affirmative action.
Diversity is the vast array of physical and cultural differences that constitute the spectrum of human differences
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Diversity is the vast array of physical and cultural differences that constitute the spectrum of human differences
Population Trends
The workforce is becoming more diverse
Minorities will become the majority of the US population by 2060.
White non-Hispanic will be 50 percent of population
Hispanic or Latino will be 29 percent of population
African-Americans will be 18 percent of population
Asian-Americans will be 9.3 percent of population
Close to one-quarter of Americans will be aged 65 or older by midcentury
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The workforce is becoming more diverse
Minorities will become the majority of the US population by 2060.
White non-Hispanic will be 50 percent of population
Hispanic or Latino will be 29 percent of population
African-Americans will be 18 percent of population
Asian-Americans will be 9.3 percent of population
Close to one-quarter of Americans will be aged 65 or older by midcentury
Diversity Factors
Primary Dimensions (stable)
Age
Ethnicity/Race
Gender
Physical attributes
Sexual/Affectional orientation
Secondary Dimensions (changeable)
Education background
Marital status
Religious beliefs
Health
Work Experience
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Diversity may be considered through the perspective of primary and secondary dimensions.
The six primary (and stable) dimensions include age, ethnicity, gender, physical attributes, race, and sexual/affectional orientation. Secondary (and changeable) dimensions include educational background, marital status, religious beliefs, health, and work experience.
Benefits of Diversity
Enhanced decision quality
Better connection with customers.
More creative innovation
Higher financial performance
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Organizations that commit to diversity and create a culture of inclusiveness can gain several important benefits, including 1. Enhanced decision quality. Diverse board members, executives, managers, and employees bring a wide variety of experiences, frames of reference, perspectives, professional contacts, and information networks to bear on complex problems. 2. Better connection with customers. As the U.S. population becomes increasingly diverse, this means an organization’s customers (as well as other key stakeholders such as vendors, regulators, investors, etc.) are also becoming more diverse.
Diversity in the Workplace
Generational diversity
Gen Y or Millennials (20s and younger)
Gen X (30s and 40s)
Baby boomers
Disability diversity
Make facilities accessible
Restructure jobs
Modify work schedules
Job reassignments
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Generational diversity: Gen Y or Millennials (those who are in their 20s and younger) are different in key ways when compared to Gen X (those in their 30s to low 40s) and baby boomers (those who are in their mid-40s and older). Gen X and baby boomers, as managers, need to realize that Millennials can be used to leverage their skills at online social networking to collaborations and teamwork on virtual team projects. Millennials tend to require more praise and short-term rewards than do Gen X and baby boomers, but they will put their own careers first and will look for organizations that provide meaningful training and projects to build their résumés.
Disability diversity: The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. A disabled person is someone who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of his or her major life activities.
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Diversity in the Workplace
Gender, racial, age and ethnic diversity will bring differences in…
Values
Work ethics
Behavioral norms
Miscommunication, insensitivity, ignorance, and hostility may become major concerns
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What are the implications of diversity differences in the global and domestic workplace? It is important to understand that even the perception that these differences exist influences the behavior of men, women, and minorities in the workplace. A male manager, for example, who assumes a female employee is less committed to the organization because of family responsibilities is likely—perhaps unconsciously—to behave differently toward her than he otherwise would. In turn, the female employee’s behavior will likely be influenced—again, perhaps unconsciously—by the manager’s behavior.
Abilities and Skills
Ability
A person’s talent to perform a mental or physical task.
Generally stable over time
Skill
Learned talent
Acquired in order to perform a task
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Workers will also be diverse in regard to their skills and abilities.
Abilities and skills play a major role in individual behavior and performance. Ability is a person’s talent to perform a mental or physical task. Skill is a learned talent that a person has acquired to perform a task. A person’s ability is generally stable over time. Skills change as one’s training or experience occurs. A person can be trained and consequently acquire new skills.
Abilities and Skills
Mental ability
Verbal fluency & comprehension
Inductive & deductive reasoning
Associative memory
Spatial orientation
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When selecting candidates for a particular position, one of the better predictors of training proficiency and job success is mental ability .Often referred to as intelligence, mental ability can be divided into several subcategories: verbal fluency and comprehension, inductive and deductive reasoning, associative memory, and spatial orientation. One of the more popular cognitive ability tests is the Wonderlic Personnel Test.
Abilities and Skills
Tacit knowledge… work-related, practical know-how acquired through observation and experience
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Tacit knowledge refers to work-related practical know-how that employees acquire through observation and direct experience. By gaining hands-on work experience, successful employees learn the ins and outs of their jobs, the norms of their work teams, and the values of the organizational culture.
Abilities and Skills
Sternberg believes that leaders and managers with practical intelligence tend to:
Capitalize on their own strengths and overcome their weaknesses.
Realize they are not good at everything.
Overcome negative expectations set by others around them.
Learn from their positive and negative experiences.
Have can-do attitudes.
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According to Robert J. Sternberg, people who develop and use tacit knowledge will increase their chances of success within organizations. He believes that practically intelligent leaders and managers tend to:
•Capitalize on their own strengths and overcome their weaknesses.
•Realize they are not good at everything.
•Overcome negative expectations set by others around them.
•Learn from their positive and negative experiences.
•Have can-do attitudes.
Although far from conclusive, research supports such claims about the virtues of practical intelligence.
Attitudes
Attitudes are determinates of behavior because they are linked to…
Perception
Personality
Feelings
Motivation
An attitude is…
A mental state of readiness
Learned and optimized through experience
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An attitude is a mental state of readiness learned and organized through experience, exerting a specific influence on a person’s response to people, objects, and situations with which it is related. Each person has attitudes on numerous topics.
Attitudes: Implications for the Manager
Attitudes…
Are learned
Define one’s predispositions
Are the emotional basis of interpersonal relations and identifications with others
Are closely linked to personality
Are subject to change
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The definition of attitude has certain implications for the manager. First, attitudes are learned. Second, attitudes define one’s predispositions toward given aspects of the world. Third, attitudes provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identification with others. And fourth, attitudes are organized and are close to the core of personality. Some attitudes are persistent and enduring. Yet, like each of the psychological variables, attitudes are subject to change. Attitudes are intrinsic parts of a person’s personality. A number of theories attempt to account for the formation and change of attitudes.
Components of Attitudes
Cognition
A person’s perceptions, opinions, and beliefs
Affect
Emotional components of attitudes; learned from parents, teachers, peers
Behavior
The tendency to act in a certain way toward someone or something
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One such theory proposes that people “seek a congruence between their beliefs and feelings toward objects” and suggests that the modification of attitudes depends on changing either the feelings or the beliefs. The theory proposes that cognition, affect, and behavior determine attitudes and that attitudes, in turn, determine cognition, affect, and behavior. The Cognitive component of an attitude consists of the person’s perceptions, opinions, and beliefs. It refers to the thought processes with special emphasis on rationality and logic. An important element of cognition is the evaluative beliefs held by a person. Evaluative beliefs are manifested in the form of favorable or unfavorable impressions that a person holds toward an object or person. Affect is the emotional component of an attitude and is often learned from parents, teachers, and peer group members. It is the part of an attitude that is associated with “feeling” a certain way about a person, group, or situation. The behavioral component of an attitude refers to the tendency of a person to act in a certain way toward some-one or something. A person may act in a warm, friendly, aggressive, hostile, teasing, or apathetic way, or in any number of other ways. Such actions could be measured to examine the behavioral component of attitudes.
Cognitive Dissonance
Discrepancy between attitude and behavior
Creates discomfort, which individuals attempt to reduce or eliminate
Example: Knowing that smoking is bad for your health, but continuing to smoke
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Sometimes there may be discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors. This kind of discrepancy is called cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is a mental state of anxiety that occurs when there is a conflict among an individual’s various cognitions (for example, attitudes and beliefs) after a decision has been made. The concept of cognitive dissonance is developed further in Chapter 14.
EXHIBIT 3.2 The Three Components of Attitudes: Cognition, Affect, and Behavior
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Cognition, Affect, and Behavior
Exhibit 3.2 illustrates how a work environment factor (e.g., managers’ style) can influence the three components of attitudes. This stimulus triggers cognitive (thought), affective (emotional), and behavior responses. In essence, the stimulus results in the formation of attitudes, which then lead to one or more responses.
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an attitude toward a job that results from a perception of the job and the fit between the worker and the organization.
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Job satisfaction is an attitude people have about their jobs. It results from their perception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between them as individuals and the organization.
Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
Factors that have been associated with job satisfaction include:
Pay
The work itself
Promotion opportunities
Supervision
Co-workers
Work conditions
Job security
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A number of factors have been associated with job satisfaction. Among the more important ones are these:
Pay—the amount of pay received and the perceived fairness of that pay.
Work itself—the extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and accepting responsibility.
Promotion opportunities—the availability of opportunities for advancement.
Supervision—the technical competence and the interpersonal skills of one’s immediate boss.
Co-workers—the extent to which co-workers are friendly, competent, and supportive.
Working conditions—the extent to which the physical work environment is comfortable and supportive of productivity.
Job security—the belief that one’s position is relatively secure and continued employment with the organization is a reasonable expectation
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One of the most widely debated and controversial issues in the study of job satisfaction is its relationship to job performance or effectiveness. Three general views of this relationship have been advanced: (1) job satisfaction causes job performance; (2) job performance causes job satisfaction; and (3) the job satisfaction–job performance relationship is moderated by other variables such as rewards. Exhibit 3.3 shows each of these viewpoints. The first two views have mixed, but generally weak, research support. Most studies dealing with the performance–satisfaction relationship have found low association between performance and satisfaction. The evidence is rather convincing that a satisfied employee is not necessarily a high performer. Managerial attempts to make everyone satisfied will not necessarily yield high levels of productivity. Likewise, the assumption that a high-performing employee is likely to be satisfied is not well supported. The third view suggests that satisfaction and performance are related only under certain conditions. A number of other factors, such as employee participation, have been suggested as affecting the relationship. Most attention, however, has focused on rewards as influencing the relationship. Generally, this view suggests that the rewards one receives as a consequence of good performance, and the degree to which these rewards are perceived as reasonable or equitable, affect both the extent to which satisfaction results from performance and the extent to which performance is affected by satisfaction. This means that if an employee is rewarded for good performance and if the reward is deemed fair by the employee, job satisfaction will increase (or remain high). This, in turn, will have a positive effect on performance, leading to additional rewards and continued higher levels of job satisfaction.
Personality
A relatively stable set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors
The relationship between behavior and personality is complex
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The relationship between behavior and personality is perhaps one of the most complex matters that managers have to understand. When we speak about an individual’s personality, we are referring to a relatively stable set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors.
Personality
Principles of personality generally accepted as true…
Personality has observable, measurable patterns
Personality has superficial aspects, such as attitudes toward being a team leader
There is a deeper core, such as sentiment about having a strong work ethic
Personality involves both common and unique characteristics
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Although many aspects of personality formation, development, and expression are not perfectly understood, certain principles are generally accepted as being true. For example, personality: 1. Appears to be organized into patterns that are, to some degree, observable and measurable. 2. Has superficial aspects, such as attitudes toward being a team leader, and a deeper core, such as sentiments about authority or a strong work ethic. 3. Involves both common and unique characteristics. Every person is different from every other person in some respects and similar to other persons in other respects.
Personality & Behavior in Organizations
Following World War II, many researchers believed that personality testing could predict job performance
The validity of such tests is questionable
There was fear that such tests discriminated against minorities
Many companies today still use such tests
Selection, career planning, training, and team assignment decisions
Myers-Briggs Inventory is popular
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In the years following World War II, many researchers and managers believed that measures of personality could predict job performance and other behaviors at work. It was common for companies to administer psychological inventories to job applicants the 1960s, however, the validity or accuracy of such personality tests was questioned. One of the main reasons for this concern was the fear that such personality tests would lead to the unfair treatment of minority groups commonly discriminated against in the past. Despite the concern over the potential misuse of personality tests, more researchers continued to ask the question, “Does an individual’s personality affect his or her behavior at work?” To many, the answer was “yes.” In addition, many companies today use personality testing to help make selection, career planning, training, and team assignment decisions. For example, one popular personality test, the Myers-Briggs Inventory (MBTI), is used by many companies to assist in team building, management development, decision making, leadership, and career development. For example, Southwest Airlines uses the MBTI as a diagnostic tool to help its employees and work teams communicate and work together more effectively. It has been reported that over 3 million individuals complete the MBTI each year. Although the validity of some of the uses of MBTI has been questioned, the large number of companies and people using this personality test is indicative of the increasing popularity of personality tests in general.
The Big Five Personality Dimensions
Extroversion
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Openness to Experience
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Literally hundreds of personality dimensions or traits have been identified by psychologists over the last century. However, within the past 30 years or so, a consensus has emerged that, for the most part, the human personality can be described by five dimensions or factors. The Big Five personality dimensions include: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.
Extroversion refers to the tendency to be sociable, gregarious, assertive, talkative, and active. People high in extroversion tend to enjoy talking and interaction with co-workers, and they gravitate toward jobs that have a good deal of social interaction
Emotional stability is the tendency to experience positive emotional states, such as feeling psychologically secure, calm, and relaxed. Anxiety, depression, anger, and embarrassment are characteristics of low emotional stability.
Being courteous, forgiving, tolerant, trusting, and softhearted are traits associated with agreeableness. The employee described as “someone who gets along with others” is high on agreeableness.
Conscientiousness is exhibited by those who are described as dependable, organized, thorough, and responsible. Individuals who are conscientious also tend to per-severe, work hard, and enjoy achieving and accomplishing things.
The final personality dimension is openness to experience .This dimension reflects the extent to which an individual has broad interests and is willing to take risks. Specific traits include curiosity, broad-mindedness, creativity, imagination, and intelligence.
The Big Five Personality Dimensions
No trait or group of traits predicts how well someone will perform on a project or job
Additional selection tools
Structured interview
Cognitive ability test
Work performance test
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A review of the personality research suggests that even with the Big Five, not one trait or group of traits predicts with precision how well someone will perform on a particular project or in a specific job. In addition to assessing one’s personality, firms should use a variety of selection tools to try to match a person’s interests and skills with a particular job. These can include a structured interview, a cognitive ability test, and a work performance test. The individual job candidate or employee applying for an internal promotion also should be attempting to find the best fit for him or herself in the job and organization. Using only the scores on a personality test will often lead to misalignment and poor person–job (and person–organization) fit. Once into a job, individuals who work hard at the “fit” are likely to experience higher levels of job satisfaction, more positive attitudes, and better relationships among peers.
EXHIBIT 3.4 The Big Five Personality Dimensions: A Summary
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As Exhibit 3.4 indicates, research on the Big Five personality dimensions is promising due to the evidence that shows personality does influence important work behaviors such as job performance, training proficiency, and job satisfaction. This personality model also has implications for global management and organizational behavior. The five factors have been obtained in different cultures and using different languages. So, it is not surprising that relationships among the Big Five dimensions and job performance also apply across country borders. The existence of very similar relationships has been demonstrated in Great Britain, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Norway, and Spain.
Locus of Control
The degree to which one believes their behavior influences what happens to them
Internals believe their good performance is due to their effort or skill
Externals believe they are controlled by outside forces over which they have little, if any, control
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In addition to assessing applicants and employees on certain dimensions of the Big Five, organizations often choose a few relevant personality traits that they believe are closely linked to performance in certain jobs and in their organization. We now will look at three such personality traits of interest to many organizations: locus of control, self-efficacy, and creativity.
The locus of control of individuals determines the degree to which they believe their behaviors influence what happens to them.
Self-Efficacy
Learned and generally task specific personal beliefs regarding competencies and abilities
Self-efficacy has three dimensions
Magnitude refers to the level of task difficulty that individuals believe they can attain
Strength refers to whether the belief is weak or strong
Generality refers to how generalized across different situations the belief in capability is
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Self-efficacy relates to personal beliefs regarding competencies and abilities. Specifically, it refers to one’s belief in one’s ability to successfully complete a task. Individuals with a high degree of self-efficacy firmly believe in their performance capabilities. The concept of self-efficacy includes three dimensions: magnitude, strength, and generality.
Magnitude refers to the level of task difficulty that individuals believe they can attain Strength refers to whether the belief regarding magnitude is strong or weak. Finally, generality indicates how generalized across different situations the belief in capability is.
Self-Efficacy
Feelings of self-efficacy can affect…
Selection decisions
Training programs
Goal setting and performance
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Beliefs regarding self-efficacy are learned. The most important factor in the development of positive self-efficacy appears to be past experience. If over a period of time we attempt a task and are increasingly successful in our performance, we are likely to develop self-confidence and an increasing belief in our ability to perform the task successfully; conversely, if we repeatedly fail in our attempts to perform a task well, we are not as likely to develop strong feelings of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy tends to be task specific; that is, a belief that we can perform very well in one job does not necessarily suggest a corresponding belief in our ability to excel in other jobs. According to an analysis of self-efficacy by Gist and Mitchell, research on self-efficacy has led to several consistent findings. They indicated that self-efficacy is associated with work-related performance, career choice, learning and achievement, and adaptability to new technology, and they noted that certain training methods could enhance self-efficacy in individual trainees. A related large-scale research study found that individuals high in self-efficacy tended to perform at a higher level. Also supporting these conclusions is the research by Bandura and Locke, who found that, when combined with goal setting, individuals with high levels of self-efficacy tend to display higher levels of motivation and performance.
Creativity
Creativity is a personality trait
The ability to break away from habit-bound thinking and produce novel and useful ideas
Produces innovation, which is the lifeblood of corporations
Can be encouraged and developed by giving people the opportunity and freedom to think in unconventional ways
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Creativity is a personality trait that involves the ability to break away from habit-bound thinking and produce novel and useful ideas. Creativity produces innovation, and innovation is the lifeblood of a growing number of corporations.
Developing Employee Creativity
Encourage everyone to view old problems from new perspectives
Provide as many people with as many new experiences as possible
Make certain people know it is OK to make mistakes
Set an example in your own approach to dealing with problems and opportunities
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Creativity is a personality trait that can be encouraged and developed within organizations by giving people opportunity and freedom to think in unconventional ways. For example, one major impediment to increasing creativity in work settings is the fear of failure. If an organization is intolerant of mistakes and failure, it should not expect employees to take the risks often inherent in creative approaches to problems.
Emotions
Defined as a state of physiological arousal accompanied by changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feeling.
Emotions play an important role at the workplace.
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People are different in terms of how they experience and exhibit emotions.
Emotions are defined as a state of physiological arousal accompanied by changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feeling.
Emotions play an important role at the workplace.
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EMOTIONS
Primary emotions
surprise
joy
anticipation
acceptance
fear
sadness
disgust
Anger
Moods are the mildest form of emotions
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Research suggests that there are eight primary emotions: surprise, joy, anticipation, acceptance, fear, sadness, disgust, and anger.
The mildest forms of emotions are called moods. A mood is a low-intensity, long lasting emotional state.
Moods act as subtle emotional factors that affect day-to-day behavior. Moods can be contagious. This phenomenon, known as mood (or emotional) contagion, is the automatic transfer of mood between persons. Research seems to support this notion
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EMOTIONAL LABOR
Managing emotions in order to perform one’s job
May involve enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions to modify the emotional expression.
Managing emotions is stressful and may result in burnout
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Managing emotions in order to perform one’s job is called emotional labor. In organizations, emotional labor may involve enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions to modify the emotional expression. The rules or norms regarding expectations about emotional expression may be acquired by observing colleagues, or they may be stated in selection or training material.
While emotional labor results from modifying emotional expression in an interaction, this labor is also experienced through empathy. Employees observing co-workers being treated unfairly showed increased emotional labor even though they themselves were being treated fairly.
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Emotional Intelligence
The ability to…
Be self-aware of feelings
Manage emotions
Motivate oneself
Express sympathy
Handle relationships with others
People with high emotional intelligence are more successful on the job
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Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to manage one’s own and others’ emotions in order to guide one’s behavior and achieve goals.
Research suggests that leaders who manage their moods and emotions may be more effective at developing group goals and objectives, motivating others, generating cooperation and trust, and encouraging flexibility in decision making. The ability to manage one’s and others’ emotions extends to anyone who works with other people in organizations.
Four Dimensions of EI
Self awareness
Social awareness
Self-management
Relationship management
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While there are several different ways to conceptualize emotional intelligence, a popular approach suggests that EI consists of the following four dimensions:
Self awareness: Emotionally intelligent individuals have a greater awareness of their own emotions and feelings. By accurately assessing their feelings, these individuals are in a better position to act in a way that fits with their emotions.
Social awareness: Individuals with higher levels of EI are better at demonstrating empathy or relating to other people. They are more likely to meet other people’s needs and understand the needs of the organization.
Self-management: An important aspect of having EI is not letting your emotions or mood swings disrupt your productivity or relationships with your supervisor, co-workers, or customers.
Relationship management: Maintaining positive and productive relationships with people at work requires that we listen to their needs, communicate in a positive manner, collaborate with them on projects, and support their ideas and initiatives
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