Discussion 1: Social Research
ABK
CH01.pdf
Lecture Slides
Essentials of Sociology Fifth Edition
Anthony Giddens
Mitchell Duneier
Richard P. Appelbaum
Deborah Carr
Essentials of Sociology
Chapter 1
Sociology: Theory and Method
What Is Sociology?
• Sociology is the scientific study of human
social life, groups, and societies.
• Sociology shows us that aspects of life we
consider natural or take for granted are
influenced by social and historical forces.
• Sociology is a discipline that insists on
studying people within their social context.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
• Systematic Study Empirical data gathered
through systematic research
• The Individual Individuals can
reject behavioral guidelines
because of agency: the
freedom individuals have to choose and to act
• Society Study of social
environment is at the core of sociology
Defining Sociology
The Sociological Imagination
• C. Wright Mills (1959) coined this phrase,
which explained the need to move from away
from viewing problems as personal troubles
and toward recognizing them as public issues.
• An important part of learning to think
sociologically is to gain and utilize the
sociological imagination.
– A recognition of the interdependent relationship
between who we are as individuals and the social
forces shaping our lives. © 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Social Structure
• Goal of sociology: to understand the
connections between what society makes of us
and what we make of ourselves.
• What we do both gives shape to and is shaped
by society. That is, we structure society and at
the same time are structured by society.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Social Structure
• Our lives are structured, or patterned, in
particular, nonrandom, ways.
• Social structures are dynamic. Societies are
always in the process of structuration, which
means they are constantly being affected by
human actions.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
– Our place in society affects our access to resources and
opportunities.
• It is influenced by our parents, teachers, friends, and
other people we interact with.
– Social class, gender, and race also have great
significance and have been of special interest to
sociologists. For instance:
• CEOs earn 354 times as much as an average worker.
• Men tend to earn more than women.
• Whites consider President Obama less successful
than minorities do.
The Significance of Place
– Sociology looks at how
economic, social, and cultural resources are
distributed.
– Sociology views the implications of these
patterns in terms of the opportunities and
obstacles they create for individuals and groups.
– Social Inequality Condition in which members
of society have differing amounts of wealth,
prestige, or power
The Consequences of Difference
• Sociologists do not accept something as fact because
“everyone knows it.”
• Findings are tested by researchers, analyzed in relation to other
data, and evaluated with sociological theory.
Sociology and Common Sense
• The function of sociology, as of every science,
is to reveal that which is hidden. - Pierre
Bourdieu
• True or False?
– women talk more than men.
– divorce is bad for children.
– education increases income.
A Global Perspective
• As sociologists, we must now be global
observers.
• Globalization affects all of us every day, both
as individuals and as members of nation-states,
economic markets, and more.
• A global view offers insight into worldwide
connections, as well as a point of comparison.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Social Change
• Sociology was born during the upheaval that
accompanied industrialization in Western
Europe.
• Many early social thinkers dedicated their
research to better understanding the massive
social change they witnessed.
• The discipline developed with an eye toward
understanding history and change.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Contemporary Social Change
• Social change continues: for most of human
history, the vast majority of people lived in
small, isolated groups. By 2050, nearly 70
percent of all people will live in urban settings.
• The development of technology and
communications capabilities continue to alter
the way humans live.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Social Theory
• Social theories do not intend to explain what is
happening but rather why it happens.
• There are many theoretical approaches in
sociology: sociologists do not all agree on any
given topic, but theories must be based on
facts.
• Research and theory cannot, and should not, be
separate enterprises.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
• Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
– Sought to establish science of society that would reveal the
basic “laws of society”
– Coined term “sociology”
– Believed sociology could replace religion
• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)
– Translated Comte’s work
– Wrote first book on sociological theory/method
– Introduced the significance of
inequality and power into the discipline
– Examined the morals and manners of the anomaly of U.S.
slavery
Two Early Founders
– Functionalist perspective
– Conflict perspective
– Interactionist perspective
Three approaches to
sociological insights:
– (Functionalist Perspective)
• Sociological approach that emphasizes the way parts
of a society are structured
to maintain its stability
– Society viewed as vast network of connected parts,
each of which
helps maintain the system as a whole
– Emphasizes consensus and cooperation
• macro
Structural Functionalism
• How is social order maintained?
– Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
• Emphasized significance of social order
• Introduced concept of anomie—loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Often considered a founder of functionalism and of positivistic (scientific) sociology
Most famous work: Suicide (1897)
–Why do people commit suicide?
Durkheim’s Suicide study
Why do rates of suicide differ among groups? Because of differences in levels of
social integration...
– Egoistic (too little)
– Altruistic (too much)
• ...and social regulation – Anomic (too little)
– Fatalistic (too much)
• Therefore, suicide rates are affected by the functions (or dysfunctions) of social integration and regulation within a given society or part of that society.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
– (Conflict theory)
• Assumes social behavior best understood in
terms of tension between groups over power or
allocation of resources
– Considers how status quo is established and
maintained,
and who benefits and who
suffers from existing system
• Macro
Conflict perspective
• Karl Marx (1818–1883)
– Argues that capitalism, by its nature, creates
and maintains inequality
– Inequality caused by one group (owners)
having material and financial control over
others (wage laborers)
• Max Weber (1864–1920)
– Who has power determined by
social class and ownership of
material resources and by social
status and organizational resources
How do power and
inequality shape outcomes?
Karl Marx
Often considered a founder
of modern conflict theory
Most famous work: Communist Manifesto (1848, with Friedrich Engels)
– Capitalist economic system based on profit and exploitation
– Class struggle
• Bourgeoisie (owners, controllers of capital)
• Proletariat (workers, wage laborers)
Max Weber (VAY-bur)
Weber adds to Marx’s two-class system
– Class position (wealth and income)
– Status (prestige, status symbols, occupation)
– Party (organizational memberships, adds to power)
Modern sociologists: socioeconomic status (“SES”)
• (Interactionist perspective)
• Generalizes about everyday forms
of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole
• Symbols, non-verbal communication, interaction
• People are shaped by and actively shape their social worlds
through interaction
– Social construction of reality
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVVWmZAStn8
– micro
Symbolic Interactionism
– Erving Goffman (1922–1982) popularized dramaturgical
approach—people seen
as theatrical performers concerned with managing their
presentation of self
• “All the world’s a stage” - Shakespeare
How does interaction
shape our worlds?
• Impression Management
Altering presentation of self
to create distinctive appearances
and satisfy particular audiences
–Face-work Efforts people make to maintain a proper image
and avoid public embarrassment
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyvIYc9s__M
• Dramaturgical Approach
Studies interaction as if we
were all actors on a stage
Goffman: Presentation of the Self
• Dramaturgy: the study of social life as theater. – Roles - image being projected (or attempted)
– Audience - people who observe our behavior
– Script – communication with others
– Props - objects used to present image
• Front stage - where appropriate appearance is maintained –
requires performers & audience
• Back stage- Area of social interaction away from the view of an
audience, where people can rehearse and rehash their behavior
• Off stage – no performance, no audience; intrapersonal dialogue
(interaction with the self)
• Performance team- Set of individuals who cooperate in staging a
performance that leads an audience to form an impression of one
or all team members
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iubtmGFJOV0
• How does group membership influence
opportunity?
– W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963)
• Combined emphasis on analysis of everyday lived experience with commitment to investigating power and inequality based on race
– Ida Wells-Barnett (1862–1931)
• Early feminist
• Argued societies can be judged on whether the principles they claim to believe in match their actions
• Used analysis of society to resist oppression
• How should sociologists respond?
– Sociological theory and research
should contribute to positive social change.
• Jane Addams (1860 –1935), an early member of the American Sociological Society, cofounded Hull House.
• Durkheim, who considered an educated citizenry essential to democratic success, helped shape French educational policy.
• Du Bois cofounded the NAACP.
• Academic Sociology Those who study sociology in depth
cultivate a variety of skills, such as developing evidence-based
arguments, evaluating research methods, writing research
reports, and using computer resources to organize and analyze
data and identify ethical issues in research
• Applied Sociology Use of the discipline of sociology with the
specific intent of yielding practical applications for human
behavior and organizations
• Clinical Sociology Use of the discipline of sociology with the
specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring
social institutions
Research Methods: Questions
• Sociology, as a social science, must take an
empirical approach to answering questions
about the world.
• Sociologists ask four primary types of
questions: factual, comparative,
developmental, and theoretical.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Writing Sociological Questions
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Research Methods: Seven Steps
1. Define the research problem.
2. Review the evidence—do a literature review.
3. Make the problem precise—specify your
hypothesis.
4. Work out a research design.
5. Carry out the research—collect your data.
6. Interpret the results—analyze your data.
7. Report the findings—publish or present them.
© 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
• Variable Measurable trait or characteristic that is
subject to change under different conditions
• Operational Definition Transformation of an
abstract concept into indicators that are observable
and measurable
• Hypothesis Testable statement about the relationship
between two or more variables
Formulating the Hypothesis
– Causal Logic Relationship between
variables exists such that change in one leads to
change in the other
– Independent Variable Variable in a causal
relationship that causes or influences a change
in a second variable
– Dependent Variable Variable in a causal
relationship that is subject to the influence of
another variable
– Correlation Relationship between two variables
in which a change in one coincides with a change
in the other
• Correlation does not
necessarily indicate causation.
– Selecting the Sample
• Sample Selection from larger population that is
statistically representative of that population
• Random Sample Sample for which every member of
an entire population has the same chance of being
selected
• It is easy to confuse the careful scientific techniques
used in representative sampling with the many
nonscientific polls that receive media attention.
Collecting and Analyzing the Data
– Ensuring Validity and Reliability
• Validity Degree to which
a measure or scale truly reflects
the phenomenon under study
• Reliability Extent to which a measure produces
consistent results
Collecting and Analyzing the Data
– Sociologists share
their findings so
others can learn from
them and spot errors.
– Research is
cyclical in nature.
– Studies researchers
produce become
part of the literature
reviewed for new projects.
In Summary: The Research Process
• Quantitative Research Collects and reports data primarily in
numerical form
– Mean Calculated by adding
series of values and dividing
by number of values
– Median Midpoint, number that
divides series of values into
two groups of equal values
– Mode Most common value in series
• Qualitative research Relies on
what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on
statistical data
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Survey A study, generally in the form of an
interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers
with information about how people think and act
• Issues in Designing Surveys
– Researchers must develop
representative samples.
– Researchers must exercise great care in wording of
questions
– The characteristics of the interviewer
impact survey data
Research Methods
• Types of Surveys
– Interview Face-to-face or
telephone questioning of respondent
to obtain desired information
– Questionnaire Printed, written, or
computerized form used to obtain
information from a respondent
• Observation Research technique in which an investigator
collects information through direct participation and/or by
closely watching a group or community
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRq1AhFAN-4
Gang Leader for a Day
– Ethnography Study of an entire social setting through
extended systematic observation
– Observation can lead to closeness with some research
subjects that yields insights, but it also risks a loss of
objectivity and/or failing to study other subjects in depth.
Field Research
• Experiment Artificially created situation that allows a
researcher to manipulate variables
– Experimental group Subjects in an experiment who are
exposed to an independent variable
introduced by a researcher
– Control group Subjects in an experiment who are not
introduced to independent variable by researcher
– Hawthorne effect Unintended influence observers of
experiments can have on their subjects
Experiment
• Secondary Analysis Variety of research techniques
that make use of previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data
– Data is nonreactive, not influenced by the research
process
• Content Analysis Systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale
Use of Existing Sources
Research Methods: Ethics
• Because sociologists are dealing with real
people in their everyday lives, we must be very
cautious in our work.
• All research that directly involves human
subjects must first be approved by an
Institutional Review Board (IRB).
• Study participants must give informed consent
prior to agreeing to participate and must be
debriefed afterward. © 2014 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
• Code of ethics The standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession
Code of Ethics
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
2. Respect subject’s right to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and
assistance
7. Disclose all sources of financial support
Code of Ethics: published by ASA
• Confidentiality
– Sociologists generally promise confidentiality to those
they study.
– The Supreme Court has failed to clarify the rights of
scholars to protect their sources.
• Research Funding
– Funding sources must be disclosed and should not taint
objectivity.
• Value neutrality Max Weber’s term for the objectivity of
sociologists in the interpretation of data
– Stanley Milgram shock experiment:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ
– Philip Zimbardo Stanford Prison experiment:
http://www.schooltube.com/video/237e7769aa970bcec4
46/
– Laud Humphreys – tea room trade:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsFa10JFats
– http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/article/tearoom-trade
(for more info)
Famous social experiments with questionable ethics
This concludes the Lecture Slides for
Essentials of Sociology, Fifth Edition
Chapter 1
Anthony Giddens
Mitchell Duneier
Richard P. Appelbaum
Deborah Carr
