Discussion - 250 words min- due in 16 hours

combs

CH01_Curriculum_Jaruszewicz.pdf

Home >Education homework help >Discussion - 250 words min- due in 16 hours

The Concept of Early Childhood Curriculum

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe what curriculum is and what it includes.

2. Explain historical influences on modern curricula.

3. Describe what “developmentally appropriate practice” means.

4. Describe contextual factors that affect early childhood professionals’ work with curricula.

5. Discuss active reflection as an important teacher activity.

1 Pretest 1. The term curriculum refers only to

the workbooks and reading materials that children use in an early childhood classroom. T/F

2. The roots of modern early childhood curricula date to the period of ancient Rome. T/F

3. The phrase “developmentally appropriate practice” refers to having children learn concepts that are intended for older students. T/F

4. Early childhood professionals don’t always get to choose the curriculum that’s used in their classroom. T/F

5. Good teaching practice includes intentional reflection about curriculum. T/F

Answers can be found at end of the chapter. © Fancy Collection / SuperStock

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

Imagine yourself interviewing for your first early childhood teaching position. You know you will need to dress profes- sionally and to have a resume that highlights your strengths and experiences. You can assume that interviewers will ask questions about your education and experience with children and what kind of teacher you hope to be. But what else might you share with this prospective employer to establish confidence in your knowledge and ability to plan and imple- ment curriculum effectively?

As an early childhood educator, you will be expected to make many decisions about curriculum that demonstrate your awareness of how children develop and learn, and you will need to select materials and apply these resources to meet the needs of a diverse group of children. Therefore an important theme of this text is decision making. Each of the six modules is guided by an important question that relates to a dimension of your role as a curriculum decision maker.

In this chapter, we explore the basics that will allow you to develop a full understanding of curriculum: what curriculum is, how it reflects a long history of thinking about children, how developmentally appropriate practice provides a frame- work for curriculum, and how to think about your work as an early childhood educator.

1.1 What Is Curriculum? In the broadest sense, curriculum is a structured framework for teaching. As a student, you already have personal experience with curriculum, and you probably know that as an early childhood teacher, you will have to work within a curriculum as you teach your students. But, what does a curriculum include? What kinds of decisions does a teacher make about curricu- lum? This section addresses these questions.

What Does Curriculum Include?

In practice, curriculum is much more than a structured framework (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2003). Especially in early childhood education, cur- riculum is understood to include (Figure 1.1):

• The physical classroom space, or environment

• All the materials the teachers use to instruct students

• All the materials that children use

• The methods and strategies teachers use to implement and assess the effectiveness of activities and lessons

• Everything the children learn, intended or not (see Feature Box 1.1 on Hidden Curriculum)

An interview gives the job candi- date an opportunity to ask ques- tions about the curriculum she will be expected to use and a chance to show how her experience, education, and philosophy will guide her deci- sion making.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

Early childhood curriculum can be as open ended as a set of general guidelines, in which case the teacher will make many of the decisions about what and how to teach. Conversely, the curriculum can be structured to the point that its “what, when, and how” elements are carefully spelled out for the teacher (Frede & Ackerman, 2007). In any event, the curriculum is important because it governs much of what the teacher does in the classroom to help stu- dents learn what they are supposed to learn.

The Role of the Teacher

As the “coordinator in chief,” the early childhood educator has substantial responsibilities, including setting up and maintaining the environment, arranging equipment and materials, planning, implementing, and managing activities, and then assessing, communicating, and documenting how learning takes place.

The degree of flexibility that the teacher has in terms of how to structure the day or how detailed to make the lessons depends in part on the type of early childhood setting within which the teacher works. Working in a federally funded preschool program like Head Start, for example, usually involves a selected curriculum and clearly described procedures and expectations about how it will be implemented. On the other hand, teachers working in a pri- vate child-care program might get to select or develop the curriculum they use, while teach- ers in public schools have very different kinds of choices to make, as they navigate a complex system of curriculum standards, resources, and accountability.

F01.01_ECE311

Materials Children Use

Environment

Teaching Materials

Strategies

What Children

Learn

Figure 1.1: Components of Curriculum

The concept of curriculum includes much more than just the materials used in the classroom. This Venn diagram illustrates the interrelated nature of curriculum elements.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

The Hidden Curriculum

The hidden curriculum refers to things children and teachers learn or are expected to know in school that are not directly taught—often related to social rules, interactions, and behaviors that represent the “culture” of a school, classroom, or home care setting (Giroux & Purpel, 1983; Jackson, 1968; Myles, Trautman, & Schelvan, 2004). Familiar examples of hidden curriculum include raising your hand when you want to be recognized, being quiet in the hallway, or lining up at the drinking fountain.

The environment communicates information about these hidden messages in different ways. For instance, you may remember from your own experiences in school that if your teacher seated students at desks aligned in rows facing the front of the classroom, you understood where atten- tion should be focused and that it might not be acceptable to turn around to talk to the classmate seated behind you. Conversely, if your teacher seated everyone at small tables facing one another, you might have assumed it was accept- able to engage in conversation. Children get into trouble or can become confused when they misread or don’t understand the messages the environment is set up to convey. Complicating matters is the fact that the hidden curriculum can vary from teacher to teacher or one part of the school environment to another.

Young children especially need help “reading” these kinds of messages, as they often represent expectations that are very different from those they already know from home. For instance, perhaps at home one child has a toy box and is accustomed, when asked to clean up, to simply toss all the toys from the floor into the box. Another child may not be expected to help with putting toys away at all and may be allowed to leave them lying about. At school, we would help the child learn that all students are expected to help keep the classroom organized, and we would do this by putting picture labels on shelves to make it clear where each item or group of items belongs. By doing so, we convey an additional hidden message, which is that we value independence and responsibility and a spirit of “everyone helps.” Successful teachers not only implement the “official” curriculum effectively but help chil- dren to understand the hidden curriculum as well.

As a teacher, you might also be expected to conform to expectations that have not been explicitly explained or described to you. For instance, you might be told that your official work hours are from 7:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. But what if you arrive at school at 7:30 and you notice that you are the last car to pull in the parking lot and that all the other teachers are busy working in their classrooms as you enter the building? Will you feel anxious or confused? Should you ask someone if you are expected to arrive earlier than 7:30 or will that convey the wrong impression? As you consider how you might feel in this circumstance, remember that young children experience these same kinds of feelings—wanting to be accepted and do the “right” thing at school, but perhaps needing help to understand what that means.

▶ Stop and Reflect When you think about your own experiences in school, can you recall how you learned to interpret a particular teacher’s body language—perhaps the slight nod of approval or the “look” that let you know you needed to think twice about what you were about to do? What are some other examples of hidden curriculum from your own school experience?

Teachers help children and their parents navigate the hidden curriculum by clearly communicating and explaining expec- tations for conduct, interactions, and school or program values.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

What Is the Difference between a Curriculum Approach and a Curriculum Model?

In the curriculum literature, the terms approach and model are sometimes used interchange- ably (Frede & Ackerman, 2007), but they can also be interpreted differently. For purposes of clarity in this book, these two terms will differentiate the level of detail and specificity within a curriculum about how things should be done and the degree of freedom the teacher has to make choices. This distinction will be important as we discuss the kinds of decisions teachers make about curriculum.

Curriculum Approach A curriculum approach is a broad framework designed from a specific perspective or orien- tation about how children learn (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2008). An approach includes key ideas and principles but allows or encourages “reflection, practice, and further careful reflection in a program that is continuously renewed and readjusted” (Gandini, 1993 p. 4). Thus, a teacher who follows a particular approach will make a lot of choices about how to inter- pret and apply these principles. Reggio Emilia, which we discuss later in the chapter, is an example of a philosophi- cal approach that guides the curriculum in many American preschools; however, schools following this approach do not receive materials or explicit instruction from Reggio Emilia administrators.

Curriculum Model A curriculum model, on the other hand, is more prescriptive. Formally, it’s defined as “an ideal representation of the theoret- ical premises, administrative policies, and pedagogical components of a program aimed at obtaining a particular educa- tional outcome” (Spodek & Brown, 1993, p. 91). It describes everything about what and how the teacher will teach, from the way in which the classroom should be organized and the materials to use to activity plans and directions about how to introduce, teach, and assess lessons.

The purpose of having a model is to ensure consistency no matter who uses the curriculum or where it is implemented (Goffin, 2001). This allows for a high degree of reliability that the curriculum is being implemented as originally intended, so that it achieves its expected out- comes. The Montessori Method (Montessori, 1912), or a purchased curriculum that includes specific instructional materials you need in order to implement it, would be an example of a curriculum model. The choice to use a model or an approach is not reflective of one being better than the other but largely dependent on the mission or philosophy of a program.

Comprehensive and Limited-Scope Curriculum A curriculum can also be comprehensive or limited in scope. A comprehensive curriculum addresses all areas of learning, while a limited-scope curriculum focuses on a single area, such as literacy, math, or the arts (National Child Care Information and Technical Assistance

A curriculum is a program for learning implemented by teachers who work with children in many ways. In this photo, a teacher works with a small group of children.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

Center [NCCIC], 2011). The Creative Curriculum for Preschool (Heroman et al., 2010) and The High Scope Preschool Curriculum (Epstein & Hohmann, 2012) are examples of comprehensive curricula, since they are designed to address all areas of learning. The High Scope Educational Research Foundation also offers limited-scope curricula that can be purchased separately, such as the High Scope Growing Readers Early Literacy Curriculum (2010) or the Numbers Plus Preschool Mathematics Curriculum (Epstein, 2009).

Standards Curriculum standards are statements about what children should know and be able to do that are organized in a cohesive, systematic manner according to areas of growth and devel- opment or academic subject categories. Standards are developed by states, programs (such as Head Start), or organizations that represent different dimensions of curriculum, such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) or Common Core State Standards (CCSS).

Standards should not be confused with curriculum, but they are used to guide curriculum selection and implementation as well as evaluation of student achievement. For example, CCSS mathematics standards are grade specific and "provide clear signposts along the way to the goal of college and career readiness for all students" (Common Core State Standards [CCSS] Initiative, 2010, p. 4). Teachers developing curricula for second graders, for example, would focus on four core areas:

• extending understanding of base-10 notation;

• building fluency with addition and subtraction;

• using standard units of measure; and

• describing and analyzing shapes. (CCSS Initiative, 2010, p. 17)

While these standards will apply to any classroom governed by the national math standards, they do not dictate which curriculum to use to teach mathematics.

Degree of Teacher Control A teacher’s effectiveness in implementing any curriculum will be greatly influenced by her knowledge about child development, the skills and experience he brings to the classroom, and his personal belief system (Hill, Stremmel, & Fu, 2005). As a new teacher, you might appreci- ate a curriculum that provides lots of direction, support, and instructional resources so that you can focus most of your energies on developing your skills and insights about how children learn and behave. Over time, teachers often develop a comfort level with a curriculum to the point where they can “tweak” it to more effectively meet the needs of individual children.

Some teachers see structured models as limiting what they can do with children’s imagina- tions, individuality, and intelligence. A highly experienced teacher may not need the kind of instructional support and direction provided by the curriculum. He may actually become frus- trated if he is not permitted to exercise the personal knowledge and skills acquired through practice over time. We mentioned earlier that the degree of control a teacher has to interpret the curriculum can vary considerably by setting; that is, in some classrooms diverging from the set curriculum is not an option, while in others the teacher has more freedom to embrace more flexibility and creativity (Frede & Ackerman, 2007).

In all cases, children need and deserve teachers who understand them, are highly knowledge- able about the curriculum options, and know how to make good decisions on their behalf.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

How Do Curricula Vary within Early Childhood Education?

All curricula, including those developed for young children, are designed to complement and support the students for whom they are intended. They include:

• A theoretical or philosophical orientation

• Stated or implied assumptions about learners

• Goals or intended outcomes for learners

• Stated or implied assumptions about the role of teachers

• Specified or suggested content

• Specified or suggested methods of implementation and assessment of learners (Frede & Ackerman, 2007; Goffin, 2001; NAEYC, 2003)

The period of early childhood is commonly understood to include birth through age 8, as defined by the NAEYC (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Yet within this period, children’s devel- opmental characteristics and interests vary enormously, so curriculum across the early child- hood span does as well. We would not expect a curriculum for infants or toddlers to be the same as one for first or second graders. In this sec- tion we will discuss some of the general similarities and differences in curriculum across early childhood.

General Distinctions In general, curriculum for infants and toddlers empha- sizes language development, socialization, explora- tion of the immediate environment, and acquisition of self-help skills, often through daily routines like diapering and feeding. Preschool curricula focus on the development of social and interpersonal skills, play, acquiring a love of learning, and thinking skills. Kindergarten serves as the transition from pre- school to elementary school, and the curriculum begins to focus more on early reading and writing.

In the primary grades (1 through 3), curriculum is typically broken out into defined subject or content areas and the focus shifts from growth and devel- opment to academics. Strategies teachers use to implement curriculum for all young children should support individual and group needs of typically developing children, second-language learners, and those with special developmental needs (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Teacher-Child Ratios Young children usually spend their entire day with the same teacher, child-care provider, or small team of teachers, and early childhood educa- tors usually plan for and implement all components of the curriculum. Typically, however, the teacher-child ratio, or the number of children each individual adult is responsible for, increases by age, because we know that owing to their physical needs and language capacities, infants and toddlers require more hands-on attention than do preschoolers, kindergarteners,

A curriculum for infants emphasizes one-on- one interactions between adults and children.

What Is Curriculum? Chapter 1

and children in early elementary grades (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Therefore curriculum for infants and toddlers will emphasize one-on-one interactions between the adult and child, while curriculum for preschoolers and older children includes an increasing number of activi- ties for small groups of children and sometimes a larger group.

Expectations A high-quality comprehensive early childhood curriculum emphasizes global, integrated learn- ing across all areas of development (NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003). However, our knowledge of how children grow and develop across each of the individual developmental domains (cognitive, social/emotional, physical, creative) affects the expectations we have for children of different ages in each of these areas. For example, we don’t expect toddlers—who, at this stage of development prefer to play on their own—to interact with a group of children during play. We might however, be concerned about a kindergarten-aged child who doesn’t play with others, since by this age children have typically developed a preference for play with peers (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Materials Adults who work with young children rely on instructional materials and strategies, or “tools of the trade,” that support children’s needs and interests. Early childhood classrooms or child-care settings usually have basic furniture, equipment, and learning materials specifically designed for small children. Some curricula specify exactly what materials are needed; others provide general guidelines or suggestions.

Some early childhood materials, such as puzzles, are constructed to be used for very specific purposes (in this case, developing fine-motor coordination and matching a shape with a cor- responding space). But the designs of these materials will vary according to the age of the child for whom they are intended. For example, toddler puzzles typically have fewer, larger pieces, some even with knobs on them, while puzzles designed for older children would have many more pieces and be smaller in size.

Similarly, blocks intended for toddlers will be large enough to be handled easily and might be made of foam or cardboard, while kindergarteners might have access to a large selection of wooden blocks of all sizes and shapes as well as a selection of accessory items, like small

people and vehicles, to be used with them.

As children acquire language and an interest in reading and writing, the amount and kinds of paper and writing implements increase as well. Once children gain the ability to talk and move about, they will gradually become more interested in activities like easel painting, drawing with cray- ons and markers, and manipulating a large variety of materials that help them to acquire the fine motor skills they will need for writing.

Expectations for what children know and can do vary by age.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

Their interest in reading and writing continues to develop as the curriculum exposes them to many dif- ferent kinds of stories and nonfiction books. While reading and writing become a more prominent ele- ment of curriculum in the later part of early childhood, materials of all kinds that children can handle and manipulate remain an important feature throughout.

1.2 How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Prior to the seventeenth century, childhood was not generally considered a distinct phase of the life span. Children who survived the first years of life were quickly incorporated into the work routines that sus- tained the well-being of the family. However, begin- ning with the Enlightenment, thinkers like John Locke (1632–1734) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) began to describe the period of childhood as develop- mentally distinct and significant.

The way we think about early childhood curriculum today is influenced by many ideas about childhood that have emerged and evolved since that time. The curriculum models and approaches we use today reflect ongoing work with young children in places as diverse as the tenements of Rome and the laboratory preschools of influential universities.

A Cast of Influential Thinkers

Many scientists, theorists, and philosophers have contributed to the current view that children should be respected as individuals in their own right. Further, these thinkers continue to help us understand how children learn and the methods and environments that best encourage the learning process. The following brief profiles describe individuals whose ideas and theo- ries have generated important themes for early childhood curriculum; these will be addressed throughout this text.

Friedrich Froebel Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) is generally credited with proposing the seminal idea that young children need a systematic program and materials specifically designed for their unique learn- ing style. Froebel likened children to seeds to be cultivated in a “garden of children,” or kin- dergarten. He believed a teacher’s role was to observe and nurture the learning process, in part by encouraging them to play. He also believed that children’s play should be structured for their own protection and maximum benefit.

Froebel’s curriculum for young children centered on concrete materials he called “gifts” as well as activities, including songs and educational games, he described as “occupations.” Gifts were objects such as wooden blocks and colorful balls of yarn designed to teach chil- dren concepts about color, shape, size, counting, measuring, comparing, and contrasting.

A well-equipped early childhood classroom provides a range of materials specifically chosen to support the needs and interests of the children.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

The purpose of occupations—which involved the child’s manipulation of items like clay, paper, and beads— was to develop the fine motor and visual discrimination skills needed for reading and writing. Froebel encour- aged the use of the play circle, a cur- riculum feature that looks familiar in any preschool classroom today, as a time to sing songs that would help to reinforce concepts and develop memory.

Maria Montessori Many of Maria Montessori’s (1870– 1952) ideas are embedded in virtu- ally every early childhood program, and her influence on our thinking about curriculum has been profound

(Goffin, 2001; Morrison, 2011). Montessori was the first woman in Italy to earn a medical degree, and she was a tireless child advocate. She insisted that through proper early educa- tion, underprivileged and cognitively impaired children could be successful. She worked first with children who were described at that time as “mentally retarded” (a term we would not use today) and subsequently with poor children in the tenements of Rome, establish- ing preschools, each of which was called a Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House). In essence, Dr. Montessori proposed the idea of children at risk and the notion that society had a moral responsibility to devote resources to early intervention.

Dr. Montessori embraced and expanded Froebel’s kindergarten concept. She felt that children were natural learners and should drive much of their own learning. She asserted that children should be grouped in multiage (2½ to 5 years) classes to allow flexibility and opportunities for peer mentoring. Montessori developed an extensive set of “didactic” materials and les- sons designed to be attractive to children and used by teachers to teach specific concepts and skills. She adapted furniture to child size as a gesture of respect for the unique needs of early learners (Montessori, 2008).

Montessori believed that the environment in which children learn should be meticulously pre- pared and organized to offer materials and activities in a carefully orchestrated sequence. She trained teachers to observe children carefully and recognize sensitive periods, the most appro- priate moments at which to introduce new lessons. Montessori’s ideas about early education promoted the development of independence, responsibility, curiosity, and aesthetic sensitivity (Montessori, 2007). We will discuss her method in more detail in Chapter 2.

John Dewey At about the same time Montessori was conceptualizing early education in Italy, John Dewey’s (1859–1952) work completely redirected the course of American education with a movement known as progressivism. Dewey, known first as a philosopher, believed in pragmatism, or faith in the value of experience (practice) to inform ideas (theory). He promoted a practical approach to education, the idea that “education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living” (Dewey, 1897).

Source: http://www.froebelweb.org/gifts/

Many of Froebel’s gifts, including various blocks and tiles, can be found virtually unchanged in preschool classrooms today.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

Like Montessori, Dewey believed that the curriculum should be child-centered and school should be a place where children practice life through active, hands-on activities. Dewey also believed, like Froebel, that children learn through teacher-facilitated play. He viewed class- rooms and schools as incubators for democracy—where we should learn social responsibility and citizenship (Dewey, 1916). To promote later success in society, progressive schools empha- sized collaborative learning and problem solving.

Dewey also thought deeply about the role of the teacher, and his concept of the teacher as a facilitator represented a big departure from the commonly accepted notion of the teacher at the front of the room delivering information to children. He stated that “the teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these influences“ (Dewey, 1897).

Dewey’s idea that schools should be places where “education is life” gave rise to thinking about curriculum in a new way. Thomas Heard Kilpatrick, one of Dewey’s students, published The Project Method in 1918, describing a scientific approach using long-term project work as a means of integrating learning across all areas of the curriculum and engaging children in topics of their own choosing. Dewey’s ideas about education as a process, teachers as collaborative partners, and curriculum as a practical and meaningful activity had an enormous impact on educators of his time—an impact that is still felt today (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 2008).

Jean Piaget A contemporary of both Montessori and Dewey, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) proposed a theory of cognitive development that initiated a constructivist view of cur- riculum. Piaget’s experiments with young children (some of them conducted at a modified Montessori school in Geneva, Switzerland) revealed them, during their play, to be active par- ticipants in the development of mental concepts through trial and error, repeated interactions with materials, and adaptation to the environment. His work confirmed early learning as distinct from other developmental periods, implying, therefore, that materials and activities for young children should reflect the idiosyncratic way in which they think and process stimuli (Branscombe et al., 2003; Chaille, 2008).

Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four distinct stages, three of which occur either wholly or partially during early childhood (Piaget, 1977). In the sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers process experience and begin to coordinate movement through sensory exploration and motor activity (Branscombe, Castle, Dorsey, Surbeck, & Taylor, 2003). Preoperational thinking of preschoolers emerges spontaneously, as they are internally moti- vated to make sense of their environment by testing ideas and theories in play and exploration with materials (Chaille, 2008).

Maria Montessori opened her first Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1907.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

At about age 7, children figure out that they can solve problems logically by using objects to perform “opera- tions” (like addition and subtraction). They also begin to understand that operations are reversible (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5 is the same as 5 – 2 = 3) (Branscombe et al., 2003). Formal operations, or the ability to think logically and perform operations entirely in the abstract without the support of objects, begins to emerge at about age 11.

Piaget’s ideas and experiments have been challenged and reinterpreted in ways that continue to expand our understanding of a constructivist view of curriculum (Branscombe et al., 2003; Cannella, Swadener, & Che, 2007). Most early childhood teachers recognize that chil- dren are “concrete thinkers” who require large blocks of time to explore materials and processes. However, “Constructivism is not a method, a curriculum model, or a series of appropriate practices. . . . Rather, constructiv- ism is the theory that underlies the choices and decisions you make about how you set up the classroom, choose the curriculum, and respond to the children’s work and ideas” (Chaille, 2008, p. 5).

Lev Vygotsky While Piaget’s work continues to have an immeasurable influence on early childhood researchers, teachers, and theorists, Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) expanded construc-

tivist theory in ways that also make particular sense to early childhood educators. Vygotsky proposed that cognitive growth was not just the result of individual interactions with materials, as described by Piaget, but a socially constructed pro- cess requiring interaction with others (Bodrova & Leong, 2008). He described the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as a window of time when children—with thoughtful and intentional teacher coaching known as scaffolding—are most likely to be able to advance what they can do independently (Vygotsky, 1962). The ZPD is not unlike what Montessori described as a “sensitive period.”

Vygotsky’s work is most evident in early childhood curriculum today in the prominence of sociodramatic play and emphasis on language; these are considered mental tools that enable the child to convert experiences into internalized understandings, a key process in cognitive development (Bodrova & Leong, 2008). For example, when a group of children decide to set up a pizza parlor, they determine who will be the cook, servers, and customers. They might use paper to make hats and aprons and roll out modeling dough for pizza shells, pepperoni, and other toppings. They develop self-regulation as they apply mental and physical self- control and social rules to act out the scenario, all the time using language to negotiate, communicate, and offer ideas to keep the play going. As children begin to use objects sym- bolically, plan and take on roles in play, and use language to share experiences, higher-order thinking (executive functioning) develops.

According to Piaget, children develop concepts through open-ended explora- tion with various materials, such as sand, water, and blocks.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

Uri Bronfenbrenner Uri Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) proposed thinking about the growth of relationships as a multilayered, interactive ecological system of expanding spheres of influence (Figure 1.2). Those that most influence young children are:

1. The microsystem, which includes the environment with which children have the most direct and concrete experience, such as their family, neighborhood, schools and churches.

2. The mesosystem, which consists of relationships among the elements of the microsys- tem, such as parent-teacher conferences or a school-sponsored back-to-school picnic.

3. The exosystem, which influences children indirectly through policies and decisions of which children are largely unaware, such as the implementation of learning standards.

4. The macrosystem, or the larger societal environment, which affects our daily lives. For example, living in a high-crime neigh- borhood would influence the resident chil- dren in a variety of ways.

Bronfenbrenner’s theory is important, as early childhood educators develop curriculum to be responsive to diversity and culture. The microsys- tems experienced by the young children in your group or class may be quite varied in terms of language, ethnicity, foods, and family traditions. Including materials that reflect this diversity— such as African American, Asian, Hispanic, and Caucasian baby dolls and play food from differ- ent cultures—provides a connection between the school or care and home environments.

Loris Malaguzzi Loris Malaguzzi (1920–1994) founded the munic- ipal early childhood programs in Reggio Emilia, Italy, immediately after the end of World War II; he is therefore known as the father of the Reggio Emilia approach. Malaguzzi is not considered a theorist or philosopher like Dewey or Piaget, but his contribution to early childhood curriculum is significant because he integrated and refined the ideas of others to legitimize an eclectic articulation of curriculum (Goffin, 2001; Hill, Stremmel, & Fu, 2005; Chaille, 2008).

A contemporary of theorists like Gardner, Piaget, and Bronfenbrenner, Malaguzzi modeled curriculum and program development through ongoing critical reflection, merging new ideas with old and reinventing as necessary. He envisioned curriculum as an organic process, responsive to the unique characteristics, interests, and community of children and families at any particular moment in time (Gandini, 1993; Malaguzzi, 1993). Chapter 2 includes a fuller description of key ideas associated with the Reggio Emilia approach.

F01.02_ECE311

Macrosystem

Exosystem

Mesosystem

Microsystem

Child

Figure 1.2: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory can be visualized as a series of concentric circles that represent increas- ingly larger spheres of environmental influence.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

Howard Gardner Until 1983, the prevailing view of intelligence held that it could be measured by assessment of verbal and mathematical abilities and assigned a number, the intelligence quotient (IQ). The widespread use of standardized IQ tests, emphasis and time commitment in elementary school on language, literacy, and mathematics is evidence of the major influence of this per- spective. In 1983, Howard Gardner (1943–), a cognitive psychologist like Piaget, published Frames of Mind, challenging that view by describing intelligence as multidimensional, interac- tive, and fluid. Gardner identified seven distinct intelligences and added two more in 1995 (see Table 1.1).

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (MI) immediately attracted a great deal of atten- tion in education. Within a year of its publication, plans were under way to establish the Key School in Indianapolis (now known as the Key Learning Community), with a curriculum entirely based on MI theory.

Because he is a contemporary theorist, the full impact of Gardner’s MI theory has yet to be realized, and determining its influence on early childhood curriculum is a work in progress.

In the latest edition of Frames of Mind, Gardner describes two major curricular implications of MI theory for teachers, individualizing and operating from a pluralistic perspective:

By individualizing, I mean that the educator should know as much as possible about the intelligences profile of each student. . . . and to the extent possible . . . teach and assess in ways that bring out that child’s capacities. By pluralizing, I mean that the educator should decide which concepts, topics, or ideas are of greatest importance, and should then present them in a variety of ways. (Gardner, 2011, p. xvi)

How Has Thinking about Curriculum Changed over Time?

The theories and ideas of the individuals profiled above, as well as those of others, continue to affect our thinking about early childhood curricu- lum. Other factors that influence curriculum devel- opment today include society’s values, standards, accountability systems, research findings, commu- nity expectations, culture and language, and indi- vidual children’s characteristics (NAEYC, 2003).

Our society’s core values are expressed through pri- mary documents like the U.S. Constitution as well as through our laws, national holidays, social pro- grams, and public education system. The variety of family structures and traditions, religious practices,

Table 1.1: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Dimension of Intelligence

Example of Profession

Interpersonal Counselor Politician Salesperson

Intrapersonal Researcher Novelist Entrepreneur

Bodily/Kinesthetic Athlete Firefighter Actor

Musical/Rhythmic Musician Composer Disk Jockey

Verbal/Linguistic Journalist Teacher Lawyer

Logical/Mathematical Engineer Programmer Accountant

Naturalist Environmentalist Farmer Botanist

Visual/Spatial Navigator Sculptor Architect

Existential Philosopher Theorist

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

and socioeconomic conditions reflected across our changing population continually shapes our culture. Globalization, art, the media, recreational pastimes, scientific discoveries, and technology also all play a role.

Individuals and society process these factors as internally held perspectives, a world view, that affects how we relate to others, react or respond to events, and imagine the future (Mezirow, 2000; Miller & Seller, 1990).

The Importance of Our World View The goals, foundations, and characteristics of curriculum can be directly affected by changes in our societal world view, or the way individuals and groups of people perceive reality and how those perceptions affect the way they function in their day-to-day lives. For example, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, optimism and faith in our economic system were replaced by uncertainty among millions of people about their immediate and long-term prospects, especially among those impacted by the ten-year drought known as the Dust Bowl.

This was the perfect environment in which progres- sivism, as led by John Dewey, could take hold and shape curriculum for students of all ages. Early child- hood curricula at that time reflected Dewey’s prag- matic approach to education, which emphasized the development of useful skills, teamwork, and collab- oration. University laboratory preschools also flour- ished as education researchers sought to generate imaginative long-term solutions to our problems.

Similarly, in the late twentieth century, as America became firmly established as a superpower both economically and militarily, a general attitude of confidence prevailed. The standard of living was at an all-time high, but a report, titled A Nation at Risk, commissioned by President Ronald Reagan and published in 1983 by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, claimed that we were in trouble:

“Our once unchallenged preeminence in com- merce, industry, science, and technological innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world. . . . and the well-being of [America’s] people, the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people.” (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983)

The report described public schools as failing institutions. Citing a 1982 Gallup poll con- firming that “people are steadfast in their belief that education is the major foundation for the future strength of this country,” the report set new goals for American education, redefined “excellence,” and called for comprehensive reform. The “nation at risk” report

This famous photo by Dorothea Lange shows a “Dust Bowl” mother and three of her seven children. It characterizes a time when the national world view was dominated by a mood of stress and worry. This made for an environ- ment in which progressive ideas about educa- tion could take hold.

How Did Early Childhood Curriculum Evolve? Chapter 1

led to wide-ranging changes in public education. A debate as to whether the report helped or hurt education, including early childhood education, continues to this day (Hyun, 2002; Toppo, 2008).

As you might imagine, shifts in world view tend to be cyclical, as each new generation reacts to current events. Typically, when times are good and people feel confident and secure, they tend to adopt the attitude, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” Conversely, support for innovations and experimental curricula arises when the view of the world and the future is more negative or tenuous.

Early childhood curriculum developers will continue to adapt to movements like the develop- ment of state and national learning standards, demand for accountability, and changing pub- lic school configurations. This work is complicated by three conflicting world views reflected among curricula, communities, and individual teachers. These perspectives can be described as transmissional, transactional, and transformational (Miller, 2007; Miller & Seller, 1990).

Three T’s: Transmissional, Transactional, and Transformational Views of Education In short, the transmissional view is traditional, in that students are expected to master infor- mation delivered by the teacher. This reflects a teaching method that was standard around the world until the twentieth century. The transactional perspective is more egalitarian, and people with a transformational orientation believe that a curriculum should represent the actual lived experiences of diverse groups of learners.

The goals of a transmission-style curriculum, in which the teacher typically stands at the front of the class delivering information, are efficient whole-group instruction, sequential presenta- tion of information, and transfer of information from teacher to student (Smith, 1996, 2000; Tyler, 1949). The method does not allow much room for individual learning styles or rates of learning, as all children are expected to master the same material in the same amount of time.

A good analogy for the transmission style is an assembly line, where the “product” is uni- formly prepared students. This approach is derived from and mimics the factory model that made America so successful following the Industrial Revolution and throughout the twentieth century (Miller & Seller, 1990; Sears, 2003; Toffler, 1970, 1990). While most early childhood classrooms today no longer reflect this approach, your own schooling experiences or those of your parents may have been primarily based on this view.

The goal of a transactional teacher or curriculum is to promote individualized learning through process-oriented experiences and activities that are meaningful and relevant to both students and the teachers (Smith, 1996, 2000). Transactional classrooms are often organized with dif- ferent activity areas and blocks of time when children are free to choose to work alone or with playmates and to direct their own activities. Teachers work with students individually and in small groups. Curriculum is often organized around topics or themes into units of study that integrate different areas of learning.

Transactional curriculum originated with progressivism and is heavily influenced by construc- tivism (Fenwick & Anderson, 2005; Miller & Seller, 1990). Early childhood classrooms and curriculum today reflect this highly interactive, collaborative style of teaching and learning.

The primary goal of transformative teachers and curriculum is to ensure that multiple per- spectives are reflected among children and families in increasingly diverse communities (Bredekamp & Rozengrant, 1992; Miller & Seller, 1990). In early childhood education, this view

The Big Picture: Developmentally Appropriate Practice Chapter 1

is promoted by a group of researchers and educators who call themselves reconceptualists and interpret and develop curriculum from a social justice perspective (Cannela, Swadener, & Chi, 2008). A teacher with a transformative orientation emphasizes curriculum focused on inquiry, driven by questions relevant and important to the students rather than predetermined goals or outcomes.

Table 1.2 provides a succinct comparison of each view. As you work through this text, keep the 3 T’s in mind, as all are represented across the wide variety of early childhood curricula. Teachers often find it helpful to be able to recognize their own world view and how it com- pares/contrasts with the curriculum they use.

Table 1.2: Three T’s Comparison Chart

Transmissional Transactional Transformational

Source of instruction

Teacher directs lessons and activities

Teacher coordinates activities and themed studies

Teacher manages curriculum that emerges over time

Learning via . . . Practice Experience Open-ended inquiry

Assessment focus Products Process and progress Process and products

Desired outcome Mastery of information Attainment of individual- ized goals

Authentic representation of learning

1.3 The Big Picture: Developmentally Appropriate Practice In this section, we consider the relative position of early childhood curriculum within the larger framework of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). The early childhood period from birth to 8 years of age is unique in life-span development in terms of growth and learning. Curriculum for young children reflects and supports the amazing changes that occur during this time.

What Is DAP?

DAP is not a curriculum but a framework for how to think about curriculum in a way that takes into account what we know about how young children grow and learn. The concept behind DAP is that it should support children’s individual needs and interests in accordance with what they are physically and mentally ready to learn (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Principles of child development that inform DAP include the following:

• All areas of development are important and interrelated

• Development is sequential but uneven

• Individual children develop at varying rates

• Maturation and experience are interactional

• Sensitive (optimal) periods create windows of opportunity for the most effective introduction of concepts and materials

• Development proceeds from simple to complex, concrete to abstract

• Children need secure, consistent relationships

The Big Picture: Developmentally Appropriate Practice Chapter 1

• Multiple sociocultural influences may be found within any group of children

• Children exhibit a variety of learning styles and preferences

• Play is necessary and important to children’s healthy development

• Children’s learning should be supported with teacher scaffolding

• There is a relationship between approaches to learning and the development of positive dispositions (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009)

Essentially, five elements characterize a developmentally appropriate curriculum. First, it sup- ports the creation of a caring community where all are safe, valued, and respected. Second, it balances adult-guided and child-initiated learning opportunities through careful planning, good decision making, scaffolding, and attention to individual needs. Third, a developmen- tally appropriate curriculum includes clear goals, prioritizes integrated learning, and provides a useful framework for planning daily activities. Fourth, a developmentally appropriate cur- riculum uses multiple ongoing assessment strategies that are goal oriented, systematic, and purposeful. Finally, a high priority of DAP is to build reciprocal, open, and supportive relation- ships with families (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Developmental vs. Academic Curriculum Organization

Every curriculum articulates what children should learn from both theoretical and organiza- tional perspectives. In early childhood, two different approaches predominate. In some cur- ricula, goals, concepts and activities are designed and organized in terms of academic content areas such as math, science, social studies, reading, and writing. In other curricula, these three elements are expressed according to growth and learning across developmental domains— cognitive, social/emotional, physical, and creative.

This might be confusing, as many of you are probably wondering about the “right way” to think about curriculum for young children. In later chapters, we will examine both types of curriculum design more closely, but either can be effective and developmentally appropriate as long as

• The curriculum is grounded in sound principles about how young children think, learn, and interact.

• Designated materials and activities reflect the interests and abilities of children.

• Goals and outcomes promote learning that is integrated, meaningful, and relevant.

• Assessment methods and tools are used authentically to accurately represent what children know and can do. (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009)

From time to time, early childhood educators have been pressured to diverge from these principles. By the mid-1980s, for example, after the publication of A Nation at Risk, concerns about public schools resulted in a “back to basics” movement, which promoted basic skills and a unilateral focus on reading and math. Some felt that this approach led to the exclusion of other areas of the curriculum. Pressure to implement what early childhood educators called “pushing down” the curriculum and wide-scale standardized testing of young children was intense (Katz, 1999; Willis, 1993).

Push-down advocates assumed that long-term achievement could be improved by imple- menting a strict academically oriented curriculum that focused earlier on reading, writing,

The Big Picture: Developmentally Appropriate Practice Chapter 1

and mathematics. They also assumed that strategies used with older children—such as whole-group instruction, rote memorization, and paper-and-pencil activities, rather than a play-oriented curriculum, could be used with 4-year-olds. Thus the incentive for a massive collaborative response on behalf of the early childhood field was born.

NAEYC and the DAP Position Statement

Many professional organizations advocate for the rights and welfare of young children and their families (see Feature Box 1.2). Among these groups, the NAEYC, which originally orga- nized in 1926, is the largest, with approximately 60,000 members and 50 affiliate chapters (NAEYC, n.d.). This group’s purpose is to advance knowledge and advocate on behalf of young children, their teachers, and their families.

NAEYC published its first position statement describing and advocating for developmen- tally appropriate practice in 1986. The overall goal of the DAP statement was to achieve high-quality ethical practice. NAEYC was at that time developing a voluntary accreditation system for early childhood programs and provided the statement in part to differentiate between developmentally appropriate (DAP) and developmentally inappropriate practices (DIP). Representative examples of DAP and DIP were provided, such as:

Appropriate (for toddlers): “An adult initiating conversation with a toddler gives the child ample time to respond. Educators listen attentively for children’s verbal initia- tions and respond to these. Educators label or name objects, describe events, and reflect feelings to help children learn new words.”

Inappropriate (for toddlers): “Educators talk at toddlers and do not wait for a response. Adult voices dominate or educators do not speak to children because they think they are too young to respond. Educators either talk ‘baby talk’ or use language that is too complex for toddlers to understand.” (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997)

The 1986 statement was quickly followed in 1987 with an expanded, comprehensive docu- ment covering children from birth to age 8. The subsequent impact of the DAP position state- ment and its effects on curriculum development cannot be overstated.

The DAP position statement is an organic document, revised regularly to include new infor- mation and insights about how young children learn and what they need. Revisions of the original statement were published in 1997 and 2009, after intensive review of new research, consideration of critiques, and solicitation of feedback from its membership in open forums, meetings, and workshops.

The 1997 revision included increased emphasis on children with special needs and cultural diversity. The current (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) version responded to three challenges: (1) reducing learning gaps and increasing achievement, (2) building stronger relationships between early childhood and elementary education, and (3) emphasizing the importance of teacher knowledge and decision making.

The Big Picture: Developmentally Appropriate Practice Chapter 1

A Century of Advocacy

Over the past century, early childhood advocates have addressed poverty, child labor, access to high-quality affordable day care, health, and nutrition—all issues that affect children. Currently early childhood professionals and organizations are working to promote many issues that directly relate to or impact early childhood curriculum, including:

• Federal, state, and local policies that reflect DAP

• Early Learning Standards aligned with curricula and assessment

• Comprehensive teacher professional development systems

• Program quality rating and improvement systems

• Public funding to support quality initiatives (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009)

Professional organizations often participate in or sponsor conferences or regular opportunities to meet for collaboration, networking, continued learning, and renewal of professional commitment. The list below provides information about a sampling of professional organizations (in addition to the NAEYC) that focus in particular on providing support for early childhood educators.

The Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI). ACEI was initially organized in 1892 as the International Kindergarten Union (IKU). Its current mission is “to promote and support the optimal education and development of children worldwide, and to influence the professional growth of educators and the efforts of others who are committed to the needs of children in a changing society.” ACEI resources include publications, conferences, and online training.

The National Association for Family Child Care (NAFCC). The mission of the NAFCC is to “promote quality child care by strengthening the profession of [in-home] family child care.” It does so by pro- viding access to an accreditation system, training, conference and local membership activities as well as by advocating nationally for the needs of family child-care providers.

The National Child Care Association (NCCA). Founded in 1975, the NCCA is a professional trade association whose mission is to “promote the growth and safeguard the interest of quality early childhood care and education focusing on licensed, private providers of these services [child care centers].” NCCA resources include training and professional development opportunities through state and national conferences and activities, publications, a member buying club, and legislative advocacy.

The National Coalition for Campus Children’s Centers (NCCCC). “NCCCC supports research and activities affecting college and university early childhood education and service settings, family and work issues, and the field of early childhood education in general. NCCCC expresses this mission through its newsletters, publications, conferences and grants.” NCCCC members represent child- care and laboratory and demonstration programs located on college, university, and community college campuses across the country.

The National Head Start Association (NHSA). The mission of the NHSA is to “coalesce, inspire, and support the Head Start field as a leader in early childhood development and education.” NHSA pro- vides networking, employment opportunity information, disaster relief, professional development and scholarships, and a radio station devoted to the interests of Head Start professionals.

(continued)

http://www.acei.org

http://www.nafcc.org

http://www.nccanet.org

http://www.campuschildren.org/

http://www.nhsa.org

Politics, Government, and Early Childhood Curriculum Chapter 1

1.4 Politics, Government, and Early Childhood Curriculum Trends in early childhood curriculum can be significantly affected by public policy and govern- ment intervention, innovations in technology and media, and the infrastructure of teacher education programs. Early childhood professionals need a solid grounding and awareness of the context in which they will be working, as any of these factors has the potential to signifi- cantly impact their professional lives.

Policy and its impact on early childhood curriculum are driven in large part by politics, and support for early child- hood education can be inconsistent. Today, the adoption and implementation of early learning standards, account- ability systems, and funding mechanisms are the govern- ment initiatives that most affect curriculum.

Head Start

The national Head Start program was launched in 1964 under the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. Its primary goal was to help reduce or eliminate the effects of poverty by providing comprehensive support and education to young children and their families.

Today Head Start early childhood preschool programs— and the companion Early Head Start program for infants, toddlers, and pregnant women that was authorized in 1994—serve close to a million at-risk American chil- dren annually. Head Start must be reauthorized every five years by the U.S. Congress. Each time the legisla- tion comes up for review, new rules can be applied that affect the way in which Head Start programs select, implement, and evaluate curricula for use in Head Start classrooms.

The Southern Early Childhood Association (SECA). Since 1948, SECA has been committed to “improving the quality of care and education for young children and their families through advo- cacy and professional development.” SECA’s focus areas are the fourteen southern states; they provide publications and other print resources including position statements and policy briefs. SECA also works actively through national and local avenues to provide leadership and professional devel- opment opportunities.

▶ Stop and Reflect After reading the descriptions and mission statements of these groups, what do you think they have in common? How are they different? How would you, as a professional early childhood educa- tor, decide which one(s) to join?

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the War on Poverty legislative initiative in August 1964. This program included authorization for the Head Start Programs, which continue today.

http://www.southernearlychildhood.org/

Why Is It Important for You to Think about Curriculum? Chapter 1

No Child Left Behind

In 2001, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act included a mandate to develop early learning standards in each state, but it did not dictate what those standards should be. A NCLB task force developed a set of standards known as Good Start, Grow Smart (GSGS) for children aged 3 to 5 as a voluntary model for states (Scott-Little, Lesko, Martella & Milburn, 2007). GSGS blended an academic content focus in sections on math, language, and literacy with developmentally focused sections devoted to approaches to learning, physical growth and health, and social/emotional growth.

Popular early curriculum models currently in widespread use, such as High Scope and the Creative Curriculum, subsequently matched their goals, objectives, and concept frameworks with the standards for each state, some based on GSGS and others not. The purpose of this effort was to help teachers account for how their curriculum and assessments match stan- dards while still maintaining the intentions and integrity of the model they use. In sum, one of the biggest issues in early childhood today is the extent to which standards should drive or dictate curriculum.

1.5 Why Is It Important for You to Think about Curriculum? Think of the maxim “Practice what you preach.” It will be relevant every day of your teaching career, as your actions represent what you believe about teaching and learning. Consciously and unconsciously, whether adhering to a curriculum approach or using specific materials from a curriculum model, teachers make decisions about curriculum all the time. The key to being an effective teacher is to make those decisions as deliberately, intelligently, and sensi- tively as possible (Hill, Stremmel, & Fu, 2005).

The Concept of Theory to Practice

In simple terms, “theory to practice” describes the translation of ideas about how children grow and learn into the decisions we make and actions we take as teachers (Dewey, 1904; Mezirow, 1997). As you have learned in this chapter, our thinking today about early education and curriculum is derived from multiple sources and principles that have evolved over time. Curricula vary depending on how those core ideas are combined, integrated, interpreted, and influenced by culture, society, and individuals involved in curriculum development and implementation.

The Reflective Teacher

Your early childhood education studies will provide you with a knowledge base and profes- sional dispositions that will continue to be informed by your experiences as a teacher and curriculum developer. Excellent teachers are also reflective, purposefully thinking about the curriculum decisions they make and their teaching in three principal ways (Schon, 1983, 1987; Winter, 1998; McAlpine, Frew, & Lewis, 1991). You could describe these modes as advance planning, in-action decisions, and debriefing. In other words, you should think about your work before, during, and after you do it.

Reflective teachers who think about their work at the highest level are metacognitive, think- ing not only about what they do but also about the process they use to make decisions, thus

Why Is It Important for You to Think about Curriculum? Chapter 1

developing an internal dialogue built on insights and close examination of their actions. This critical reflection process includes (1) identifying beliefs and attitudes, (2) applying insights from teaching to modify assumptions on which those beliefs are based, and (3) adapting practices to be consistent with revised beliefs (Mezirow, 2000).

A Case Study: Mary and Jane

Let’s look at how this process works. In this scenario Mary and Jane are reflective co-teachers for a multiage class of 4-year olds and kindergarteners. They observe that six of the boys in the class are entirely focused on “superheroes.” This is evident in many aspects of the cur- riculum—language, artwork, journal writing, block structures, and outside play.

The teachers are unsure about the value of superhero play or why it seems so important. They assume that it is gender-specific to boys but also notice girls engaged in themes about fairies, witches, princesses, and other powerful creatures. Mary and Jane decide to:

• Identify relevant resources and research (Cooper 2009; Erdman & Downing, 2015; Paley, 1992)

• Develop a plan for recording observations in the classroom

• Devote some of their daily planning time to talking together about what they have read, seen, and thought about

• Involve the children in conversations about superhero play

• Make decisions and adjustments to the curriculum to address problems and new questions

• Keep a journal of their thoughts about the issue of superhero play

After two weeks, Mary wrote:

I had no idea that the characters involved were princesses and witches and I find it interesting that the preferred role is that of the witch. Something to think about [sic]. Is this version of good guy/ bad guy? I don’t think so since neither role is really seen as a “bad guy” role by them. I think this is “power” play on the line of super- man, etc. and in this case the witch has the power, doesn’t she always? Another thing I notice when I reflect on this is the social give and take. When Susan leaves the play because she doesn’t want the role assigned to her Anastasia steps back and [I believe] thinks about it and realizes that if they switch roles then Susan will be willing to continue the play. As it turns out she was right.

One week later, Mary said,

We have been allowing superhero play and there have been no real problems. We had to solve the problem of tagging too hard but scarves in the pocket have solved that problem. We decided that when there were problems we could have a meeting and ask the children to help us find a solution. I think they are motivated to solve problems because they know that too many hurts or tears will result in at least a temporary end to our approval of this play.

Teachers Mary and Jane used a systematic reflection process to understand and respond to children’s super- hero play.

Why is it Important for You to Think About Curriculum? Chapter 1

They are just beginning to experiment with the idea that it might also be ok to tell stories that involve power play.

Now let’s look at what happened as a result of Mary and Jane’s reflective process. Their original beliefs about superhero play have changed, as they think they understand better the dynamic between the theme and important concepts of good/bad and power. They no longer assume that it occurs only with boys and realize that dialogue with the children is meaning- ful and can provide ideas for problem solving. They are confident that their decision to adapt curriculum to include superheroes is based on sound information. They have new questions to pursue about the possible applications of superhero themes to literacy.

Reinventing the Wheel

You will work with many people and resources to shape the early childhood curriculum of the future. Intergenerational professional relationships can be very important and helpful, as this is one of the ways in which we pass along practical curriculum wisdom (Henderson & Kesson, 2004) acquired over many years of teaching.

As a new teacher, you will likely be so focused on your day-to-day work that you might not think you will ever have time to think about the “big picture” or take a long view of what is happening as you work with curriculum. However, keeping the big picture in mind is critical to teaching from a metacognitive stance. Consider the following suggestions for things you can do to develop a reflective approach to your work:

• Seek out a mentor who models reflective teaching

• Keep a journal and write in it regularly

• Maintain a file of questions that arise about different aspects of curriculum

• Engage in regular conversations with your students

• Find and read resources related to your questions

• Join a professional association, such as one of those listed in Feature Box 1.2, and attend conferences to network with others and develop a perspective on the context in which you work

Five Key Questions

As we proceed in our exploration of early childhood curriculum, five key questions provide the organizing elements for the twelve chapters in this text. Together, they represent a coherent philosophy of education and a practical framework for reflection:

1. What is the purpose of curriculum? (Chapters 1 and 2)

2. What are children like and how do they learn? (Chapters 3 and 4)

3. What is my role as a teacher? (Chapters 5 and 6)

4. What do children need and want to know and learn about? (Chapters 7 through 11)

5. How should curriculum be implemented? (Chapters 7 through 12)

If you begin to think about these questions now and revisit them regularly, you will establish habits of mind that will serve you well and help you make sense of triumphs and challenges you encounter.

Posttest Chapter 1

Chapter Summary • Curriculum is a structured framework for teaching that is articulated with varying levels

of specificity.

• Early childhood educators have substantial responsibilities and varying degrees of flex- ibility about how to implement curriculum depending on the curriculum they use and the context in which they work.

• While curriculum for young children is based on principles consistent across the span from birth to age 8, the needs, abilities, and interests of children at different times affect what curriculum includes and how it is implemented.

• Many individuals have contributed to our understanding of how children learn and the methods and environments that best encourage the learning process. Among some of the most influential are Maria Montessori, John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky.

• Factors such as social values, socioeconomic conditions, politics, research, and culture contribute to individual and social world views, which in turn are reflected in different perspectives about what curriculum should include and how it should be implemented.

• Through the work of professional organizations like NAEYC, early childhood educa- tors advocate for developmentally appropriate practice as a framework for curriculum development. Teachers use knowledge about how children grow and learn to make decisions about curriculum and how to adapt to changing demands that affect their work.

• Good teachers engage in regular and thoughtful reflection and inquiry about their work to integrate theory and practice.

Posttest

1. Which of the following is not part of curriculum?

a. The physical learning environment

b. All the learning materials teachers and children use

c. Requirements for teacher qualifications necessary to implement the curriculum successfully

d. Methods and strategies teachers use to implement and assess the effectiveness of activities and lessons

2. Which individual developed an ecological systems model to describe relationships and sociocultural influences on children?

a. Maria Montessori

b. Uri Bronfenbrenner

c. Howard Gardner

d. John Dewey

3. Teachers develop and implement curriculum from a developmentally appropriate perspective when they:

a. Gather ideas for activities from many sources and choose those that best fit their teaching style and preferences.

Posttest Chapter 1

b. Consider the individual differences among children as well as the generally accepted developmental characteristics of children at different ages.

c. Carefully follow the curriculum in exactly the same way for all children.

d. Make sure that reading, writing, and mathematics are the primary focus of the curriculum.

4. One reason that the 2001 No Child Left Behind legislation is important to early childhood educators is that NCLB:

a. Guarantees that all young children will be successful in elementary school.

b. Mandated development of a single set of national standards that ensure curriculum consistency from state to state.

c. Fully funds early childhood education for all children.

d. Led to the development of state early learning standards that affect and guide curriculum in many different settings.

5. Teachers should engage in reflection about their work primarily because:

a. It is the only way to know if the curriculum is developmentally appropriate.

b. Insights gained from intentional thinking about teaching experiences help teachers integrate theory and practice.

c. Reflective teachers earn higher salaries and command more respect in their field.

d. Children can learn only from a thoughtful teacher.

6. A curriculum model:

a. Provides all the materials necessary for implementation.

b. Addresses all areas of learning and development.

c. Describes everything a teacher should do to implement it according to the principles on which it is based.

d. Is one that must be purchased to implement successfully.

7. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences:

a. Expands the concept of intelligence from two to five dimensions.

b. Encourages educators to plan activities that focus on one aspect of intelligence at a time.

c. Applies to early childhood more than any other developmental period.

d. Assumes that intelligences present at birth are subsequently shaped by experiences.

8. The concept of developmentally appropriate practice:

a. Is a theory proposed to explain how children think.

b. Provides a framework for how to develop and implement curriculum for young children.

c. Greatly influenced early childhood education when it was first introduced in 1996 but has been replaced by more modern thinking.

d. Includes a set of learning standards that teachers follow to make sure that their curriculum is appropriate for young children.

9. Head Start programs:

Key Terms Chapter 1

a. Now serve nearly a million children from birth to age 5.

b. Must be reauthorized and funded by the U.S. Congress annually.

c. All use the same curriculum so that federal accountability requirements can be met.

d. Were implemented in the 1990s to address increasing concerns about children at risk for academic failure.

10. The critical reflection process for metacognitive teachers can be described as:

a. Writing daily entries in a personal journal to describe what happened each day.

b. Conducting a survey of students and their families at the end of the year to find out how much they enjoyed being in the class.

c. Changing teaching practices every year to avoid getting too set in their ways.

d. Adapting practices based on analysis of beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes.

Answers: 1 (c); 2 (b); 3 (b); 4 (d); 5 (b); 6 (c); 7 (d); 8 (b); 9 (a); 10 (d)

Discussion Questions

1. Choose one of the influential thinkers profiled in this chapter and explain why you might want to know more about his or her work and ideas.

2. Which of the 3 T’s (transmission, transactional, transformative) perspectives comes closest to describing your own view? Why?

3. What do you think could be some of the most difficult obstacles in the way of implementing developmentally appropriate practices? Why?

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest

1. False. Curriculum includes much more than printed materials.

2. False. Thinking about early childhood as a distinct period emerged during the seventeenth-century Enlightenment period.

3. False. Developmentally appropriate practice focuses on appropriate matching of curriculum to the developmental characteristics of children.

4. True. Depending on the setting, sometimes teachers are expected to implement a preselected curriculum.

5. True. Teachers think carefully and make many decisions as they plan, implement, and evaluate curriculum.

Key Terms

Comprehensive curriculum A curriculum that addresses all areas of learning

Constructivist A person whose approach to teaching is based on Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Content area A specific subject area of curriculum, such as literacy, math, or science

Curriculum A structured framework for teaching

Key Terms Chapter 1

Curriculum approach A broad, flexible conceptual framework for teaching based on a particular theoretical perspective

Curriculum model A conceptual framework for teaching that describes everything about what and how a teacher will teach

Developmental domain A specific aspect of overall child development, such as cognitive, social/emotional, physical growth, or creativity

Developmentally appropriate practice Teaching based on developmental and cultural knowledge of both individuals and groups of children and their families

Early intervention Providing instructional and family support to identify and address spe- cial needs at the earliest possible time in order to give at-risk children the best possible tran- sition to elementary school

Environment The physical space within which early childhood curriculum is implemented

Executive functioning Higher-order thinking, characterized in young children by the abil- ity to plan activity and control impulses

Head Start Federally funded preschool programs established in 1964 to provide early child- hood education for children considered at risk for school failure

Hidden curriculum Things children and teachers are expected to know that may not be intentionally taught

Infants Children from birth to 18 months of age

Kindergarten The transitional year between preschool and first grade

Limited-scope curriculum A curriculum that addresses a single or limited number of learning areas (like math or literacy)

Metacognition Intentional thinking about one’s ideas and thinking process

Preschoolers Children from ages 3 to 5

Scaffolding A teaching strategy that focuses on providing help and support to enable chil- dren to advance from tasks or activities they can do independently to a higher level

Self-regulation Internalized cognitive process of impulse control

Standards Statements about what children should know and be able to do, developed by states, programs, or organizations that represent different dimensions of curriculum

Teacher-child ratio The number of children an individual teacher is responsible for, such as 1:4 for infants

Toddlers Children from 18 to 36 months of age

World view Internalized values that affect how people perceive and interpret the ideas and actions of others

References Chapter 1

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Described by Vygotsky as a time window between what a child can do independently to what he or she can do with teacher assistance