discussion
8.1 Consciousness
Consciousness is difficult to define. It refers to an awareness of one's self and one's surroundings. But consciousness seems to be more than that. Some investigators believe that consciousness requires a state of wakefulness, although others consider dreaming to be a state of consciousness. Obviously, there is no consensus about the nature of consciousness (Augustenborg, 2010; Damasio, 1999). Early psychologists studied consciousness by examining metacognition, or people's awareness of their own mental processes (Nelson, 1996). In a typical experiment, people were exposed to specific stimuli and then asked to make reports about their introspections, or thought processes, concerning these stimuli. These early studies were loaded with methodological problems and really didn't tell us much about important aspects of consciousness, such as alertness and attention.
Jean Delacour (1995) has suggested that consciousness is characterized by six main features:
1. behavior that is coherent and controlled;
2. detection of novel stimuli and orienting responses to those stimuli;
3. behavior that is goal directed and flexible;
4. production and comprehension of language;
5. evidence of memory for facts and events in one's life; and
6. presence of metacognition.
According to Delacour's six criteria for consciousness, the behaviors exhibited while a person is sleepwalking are not considered conscious because these behaviors are neither coherent nor goal directed. Metacognition is absent during sleepwalking, too. That is, a person is not aware of his or her own thought processes while sleepwalking.
A close examination of Delacour's criteria reveals that consciousness appears to involve structures in the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex. Keep in mind that, while awake, you perform many activities unconsciously. On many days I back my car out of my driveway as I prepare to drive to work, and the next thing I know, I'm pulling into the parking lot outside my office building, with no conscious recollection whatsoever of driving to work, stopping at traffic signals, and so forth. Somehow, although awake, I got to my office unconsciously, with no awareness of the actions that I performed to reach my destination.
Thus, consciousness appears to be more than merely being awake. Behaviors that are performed automatically do not require conscious processing. In contrast, unexpected events and novel, complex tasks are processed consciously. You might have noticed that, when you consciously attend to a well-learned automatic behavior such as climbing the stairs, your performance of that behavior is slowed down and less accurate. The next time you walk up a flight of stairs, try to pay attention to every movement of your legs. You will find that your movements become awkward when you switch the performance of automatic behaviors from unconscious to conscious processing.
Disorders of Consciousness
To obtain a better understanding of consciousness, let's consider a number of disorders, such as amnesia, frontal lobe syndrome, and autism, which are characterized by impairment of consciousness. In this section we will also examine two disorders, coma and locked-in syndrome, whose primary symptoms include disturbance of consciousness. Dissociative states will also be discussed because these states represent a disruption of consciousness.
Amnesia
The most common form of memory disorder is amnesia, which is a loss of memory. According to Delacour's criteria for consciousness, accessing memory is necessary for conscious processing to occur. This means that any impairment of memory interferes with conscious processing.
Two forms of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia, are caused by damage to the hippocampus. In Chapter 4 you learned that the hippocampus is responsible for the creation of permanent, or long-term, memory. The extent of hippocampal damage will influence the type of amnesia produced. A person with retrograde amnesia will not remember events that occurred before the time of brain injury. Some people have loss of memory for a few hours, a few days, or even a few years before the brain injury. Damage to a limited area of the hippocampus is associated with shorter periods of memory loss.
Anterograde amnesia is an inability to form new memories that results from damage to the hippocampus on both sides of the brain. One well-studied case is a patient known as H. M., who developed anterograde amnesia following surgical removal of the hippocampus on both sides of his brain. Although he could recall memories from his youth, H. M. could not remember anything that happened to him since his surgery (James & MacKay, 2001; Milner, 1966; Sagar, Cohen, Corkin, & Growdon, 1985; Spiers, Maguire, & Burgess, 2001; Squire & Wixted, 2011). He continually lost his way around the hospital following his surgery, and, when his parents moved to a new home, he could not remember how to get to their new house.
Another type of amnesia is psychogenic amnesia, which is caused by stress or psychological trauma. Individuals with psychogenic amnesia cannot retrieve information stored in long-term memory. People with psychogenic amnesia often are found roaming around with no memory of their identity or any information about their pasts.
Frontal Lobe Syndrome
Injury to the frontal lobe produces impairments of attention, metacognition, goal-directed behavior, and other aspects of working memory required for conscious behavior. One of the most striking features of frontal lobe syndrome is goal neglect, in which the affected individual disregards instructions and ignores requirements of a task, although the individual is able to explain the instructions or rules for task completion (Duncan, 1995). Except for goal neglect, impairment of conscious processes is minimal in patients with frontal lobe syndrome. The "Case Study" describes a famous case of frontal lobe syndrome.
Case Study: The Story of Phineas Gage
Erin Paul Donovan/SuperStock
Photo 8.1 Phineas Gage's accident is commemor-ated in a bronze plaque in Cavendish, Vermont.
Phineas Gage was a highly intelligent, hardworking man who was well liked by his coworkers before he suffered a tragic accident in 1848. At the time of his accident, he was 25 years old and a foreman for a construction crew that was laying railroad tracks in Vermont. To lay tracks in the mountainous, rocky terrain of Vermont, the crew had to use blasting powder to break up big rocks that were in the path of the tracks. Normally, the men would drill a hole in a rock, pour blasting powder into the hole, put a fuse on top, and then cover the powder and fuse with sand. A long metal rod was then used to tamp or pack the sand down before the fuse was lit.
One day, however, Gage was distracted for a moment and began tamping down the blasting powder before the sand was added. The impact of the tamping rod on the blasting powder ignited a huge explosion, causing the rod to shoot up and rip through Gage's head. The rod, which was about 42 inches long and more than 1 inch in diameter, entered just below his left cheekbone, destroying his left eye, and exited through the top of his head. Miraculously, Gage survived this terrible accident. He stood up immediately after the impact knocked him off his feet, began talking normally, and was able to walk away with his men.
Within a few months, Gage had recovered well enough to return to work. He had lost his left eye, but his speech, memory, and intelligence were unaffected by the accident. However, his personality had changed dramatically. Formerly a polite, socially responsible man, he became extremely rude, and he began to curse routinely, lie to his coworkers, and show up for work irregularly. He seemed to have lost all sense of social awareness and was eventually fired from his job. After losing his job, he wandered around the United States and South America until his death in 1861 in San Francisco, where he was buried without an autopsy.
Five years after Gage's death, the country doctor who had treated him asked Gage's family to have the body exhumed so that he could examine Gage's skull. Gage's doctor later sent the skull and the tamping rod to Harvard University, where they are currently exhibited at the Warren Anatomical Medical Museum.
Autism
Fotosear ch/SuperStock
Photo 8.2 Autistic individuals cannot easily shift their attention from a stimulus that preoccupies them to another stimulus.
Autism is a cognitive disorder in which consciousness is impaired. For example, autistic individuals cannot easily shift their attention from a stimulus that preoccupies them to another stimulus. Thus, an autistic individual might not respond to a stimulus that most of us would find important, like a human voice. Other evidence of impaired consciousness in autistic people includes behaviors that are not coherent, flexible, and goal oriented and an absence or near absence of language. Asperger's syndrome is a form of autism in which the affected individuals are high functioning, displaying excellent language skills and evidence of metacognition (Jackson, Skirrow, & Hare, 2012). People with Asperger's syndrome can describe their inner feelings and report their thoughts; thus, they possess a consciousness that is less impaired than that normally found in autism.
Coma
Coma is defined as a state of unconsciousness in which the eyes are closed. This is a very broad, nonspecific definition because many different levels of awareness are observed in coma. The Glasgow Coma Scale (Teasdale & Jennett, 1974) is used to assess the level of functioning in an individual in a coma state. Table 8.1 describes the various stages of the Glasgow Coma Scale. To obtain a Glasgow Scale score, the clinician must assess eye opening, motor response, and verbal response of the comatose patient. In general, a low score on the scale is associated with a poor prognosis for recovery (Masson et al., 2001). Approximately 45% of people who have a Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 5 will die before waking from the coma, whereas only 3% of people with a score greater than 12 will die. Some people who do survive enter a permanent vegetative state in which their eyes are open but their behaviors are reflexive and primitive. For example, individuals in a permanent vegetative state will often cry when they are distressed or in pain. (Crying is a primitive response.) Speech is never observed in a person in a permanent vegetative state.
|
Table 8.1: The Glasgow Coma Scale |
|
|
Eye opening |
|
|
E Score |
Clinical Signs |
|
4 |
Opens eyes spontaneously |
|
3 |
Opens eyes on command |
|
2 |
Opens eyes when pinched |
|
1 |
Does not open eyes to pain |
|
Motor response |
|
|
M Score |
Clinical Signs |
|
6 |
Follows simple commands |
|
5 |
Withdraws body part when pinched |
|
4 |
Pulls away from examiner's hand when pain applied |
|
3 |
Flexes body inappropriately to pain |
|
2 |
Body becomes rigid in response to pain |
|
1 |
Has no response to a pinch |
|
Verbal response |
|
|
V Score |
Clinical Signs |
|
5 |
Carries on normal conversation, oriented for time and place |
|
4 |
Talks to examiner but makes no sense |
|
3 |
Seems confused or disoriented |
|
2 |
Makes sounds that examiner doesn't understand |
|
1 |
Makes no noise |
|
Coma Score: (E + M + V) = 3 to 15 |
|
|
Source: Teasdale, G., Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. Lancet, 2(7872), 81–84. |
Coma results from brain damage caused by trauma, anoxia (oxygen deprivation), or disease. For example, coma is often associated with head injuries received in car accidents. Typically, in a car accident, when the car slams to a halt, people inside are first pitched forward, as their bodies continue in the forward motion of the car, and then are tossed backward due to the force of inertia. This means that injuries occur in the front of the brain (or frontal lobes) as a person's body is propelled forward in space after the impact, and injuries also occur in the back of the brain (parietal and occipital lobes) when the body is jerked backward in space. In general, damage that is limited to one hemisphere does not produce a coma state. That is, both hemispheres must be injured to induce coma. Other areas implicated in coma include the midbrain and reticular formation.
Locked-In Syndrome
This rare disorder occurs in individuals whose motor systems become permanently detached from conscious control. People with locked-in syndrome appear to be unconscious and in a coma because their eyes are closed and they do not move or respond to stimuli. However, these individuals are fully conscious and aware of their surroundings. Sometimes an individual with locked-in syndrome is able to move an eyelid and can communicate by means of blinking (such as, one blink means "yes," and two blinks mean "no"). Using eye blinks, a journalist named Jean-Dominique Bauby was able to dictate a whole book, The Diving Bell and the Butterfly, an amazing account of his life following a stroke that left him impaired with locked-in syndrome. Locked-in syndrome is usually associated with damage to the hindbrain, particularly in the area of the pons.
Dissociative States
In this chapter you've learned that one of the most prominent characteristics of consciousness is the integration of all sensory and memory components of the conscious experience, which results in a unified consciousness. In dissociative states, this integration becomes disrupted, and affected individuals can experience altered sensory perceptions, amnesia, attentional disorders, and distortion of time perception and identity (Bob & Svetlak, 2011; Krystal, Bennett, Bremner, Southwick, & Charney, 1995). For example, a person with dissociative symptoms may experience flashbacks, in which the emergence of vivid memories causes a past event to be experienced as happening all over again. Persons having a flashback may experience altered auditory and visual perceptions that cause them to feel as if they are reliving the past event. A disturbance in identity function can result in dissociative identity disorder, in which an individual can exhibit a number of different personae, some of whom are unaware of the existence of other personae, or in a fugue state, in which an affected person does not know his or her own identity and has no memory of the past (Spiegel et al., 2011).
Norepinephrine has been linked to flashbacks and other dissociative states (Krystal et al., 1995). For example, a drug that increases norepinephrine activity, called yohimbine, has been demonstrated to initiate flashbacks and panic attacks in individuals who have experienced a previous traumatic event. Three classes of drugs produce dissociative states in healthy people: (1) anesthetics that act as glutamate antagonists, like phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine; (2) marijuana and related cannabinoids; and (3) hallucinogens that increase serotonin activity, such as LSD. These drugs all have the effect of altering sensory perceptions, distorting attention and memory, and causing a state of depersonalization, in which affected individuals feel as if they are outside of their own bodies.
Research on Consciousness
Research with brain-injured patients has contributed to our understanding of the biological bases of consciousness. For example, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have generated the largest percentage of service members sustaining traumatic brain injuries in history, and clinicians have reported a broad range of impairments in consciousness associated with these brain injuries (French & Parkinson, 2008; Lippa et al., 2010; Warden, 2006). Other research has examined consciousness in patients who have undergone brain surgery to correct a neurological problem or to remove a brain tumor.
In 1981 Roger Sperry, a professor at the California Institute of Technology, received a Nobel Prize for his research on cerebral function in individuals who had undergone a callosotomy, or surgical division of the corpus callosum. Recall from Chapter 4 that the corpus callosum is a thick band of axons that connects the two halves of the cerebrum (Figure 8.1). Severing the corpus callosum produces a permanent loss of communication between the two cerebral hemispheres and is performed only on patients with severely disabling seizure disorders who do not respond well to traditional drug treatment. These individuals are often referred to as split-brain patients after the surgery.
Figure 8.1: The corpus callosum
In extreme circumstances, doctors will perform a callosotomy, a surgery that splits the corpus callosum. However, when the corpus callosum is split, the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain cannot communicate with one another.
Immediately following callosotomy, split-brain patients appear disoriented and unable to coordinate their hand movements to work together. One man, for example, started to button his shirt with one hand, and the other hand immediately began unbuttoning the shirt! Because the left hand is controlled by the right side of the brain and the right hand by the left side, severing the corpus callosum leaves the postsurgical patient in a state where one hand does not know what the other hand is doing. However, within a month or so, the two cerebral hemispheres learn to work together, typically through the visual and auditory senses, which relay information to both halves of the cerebrum, and the postsurgical patient's behavior looks smooth and normal.
The participants in Roger Sperry's experiments were split-brain individuals who had undergone surgery several years prior to the experiments, and they looked essentially normal in their everyday behavior. However, the experiments conducted in Sperry's laboratory were able to demonstrate that something very unusual was taking place in these participants: They appeared to have a left-brain consciousness and a right-brain consciousness. When an object was placed in the left hand of one of Sperry's subjects (out of the subject's view; see Figure 8.2), the information was relayed to the right cerebral hemisphere only. (If the subject were able to see the object, information about that object would be sent to both sides of the cerebrum.) When asked to name the object in the left hand, these individuals could not identify the object because only the left hemisphere can produce language. However, when asked to pick out the object among a group of several objects behind a screen, the left hand could easily choose the correct object, and the right hand could not. The opposite was true for objects placed in the right hand: Split-brain subjects could name the object placed in their right hands and could select the correct object behind a screen, whereas they could not do the same thing with their left hands.
Figure 8.2: Sperry's split-brain studies
In Figure A the man's left hemisphere did not see the word, so he could not name it. The right hemisphere, which did see the word, controls the left hand that writes "cat." In Figure B the feeling of the spoon in the left hand goes to the right hemisphere. The man cannot name the item and merely guesses. The left hemisphere produces language, but the left hemisphere has no knowledge of the spoon.
Sperry and his colleagues were surprised to discover that each hemisphere has a consciousness or awareness of its own (Gazzaniga, Bogen, & Sperry, 1962, 1992; Sperry, Gazzaniga, & Bogen, 1969). In split-brain patients, neither mind-right nor mind-left is aware of the other hemisphere's consciousness. That is, little, if any, cognitive or perceptual information is shared between the two cerebral hemispheres. However, a split-brain patient experiences a unitary consciousness, just like you and me, and is aware of only one mind and one set of sensory experiences and memories (Gazzaniga, 1989).
Further research with split-brain patients has demonstrated that this sense of unified conscious awareness is due to a special role of the left hemisphere in consciousness (Gazzaniga, 1989; Gazzaniga & LeDoux, 1978; Schechter, 2012). Because the left hemisphere contains the language centers necessary for the production of speech, carefully designed studies can give us a clear understanding of the function of the left hemisphere in consciousness. For example, in a test of concept association, when the right hemisphere of a split-brain patient was shown an image of a wintry, snow-covered scene, and the left hemisphere was shown an image of a chicken claw, the patient pointed to an image of a chicken with the right hand and pointed to an image of a shovel with the left hand. When asked why the chicken and the shovel were selected, the split-brain patient responded that chickens have claw feet and that the shovel was needed to clean out the chicken house. The left hemisphere did not have knowledge of the snow-covered scene, but it readily concocted an explanation for why the left hand selected a picture of a shovel (Gazzaniga, 1989). This experiment shows quite clearly that the left hemisphere is involved in interpreting incoming data based on the knowledge that it has.
8.2 Sleep
Studies of split-brain patients have provided us with a great deal of insight into the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the conscious processing of information. Research using EEG recordings of human brains during sleeping and waking states has helped us better understand the neural mechanisms underlying sleep and consciousness. Let's examine the findings of EEG research next.
Electrical Activity in Consciousness and Sleep
Electrical activity in the brain can be measured in two ways, as you learned in Chapter 1: through scalp electrodes pasted onto the skin overlying the skull and through intracranial electrodes inserted into the brain (intra- means "inside" and -cranial refers to the cranium or skull in Latin). The changes in electrical activity recorded by electrodes reflect the activity of hundreds or thousands of neurons lying directly beneath the electrode. Both types of recordings have revealed important information about brain activity underlying sleep and consciousness.
Research involving EEG measures recorded via scalp electrodes has revealed that brain activities associated with sleep and waking are quite different. In general, synchronized brain waves are the hallmark of deep sleep. Synchronized brain waves are large, slow, regular waves (Figure 8.3). In contrast, desynchronized brain waves, which are rapid, irregular brain waves, are observed during conscious states. States of high excitation or emotional states are associated with very fast and highly irregular EEG recordings. The fast, irregular brain waves associated with arousal are called beta waves. Beta waves occur at a frequency of approximately 13 to 50 waves per second and are associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system. In addition, cognitive and emotional tasks that require intake of information, such as counting verbs in a written passage, checking for arithmetic errors, or looking at provocative slides, are associated with increased beta activity (Ray & Cole, 1985).
Figure 8.3: Four types of brain waves
Can you explain the differences between these brain waves and what brain activities they are associated with?
On the other hand, alpha waves are observed during periods of relaxed wakefulness, when the parasympathetic nervous system is active. Alpha waves occur at a rate of 8 to 12 waves per second (Figure 8.3). Tasks that require attention to internal processing, such as performing mental arithmetic, creating sentences that begin with a particular letter, and mentally rotating geometric figures, are associated with increased alpha wave activity (Ray & Cole, 1985).
When alpha waves disappear and give way to slower brain waves, sleep occurs. Thus, sleep and wakefulness appear to be states along a continuum of brain activity levels, with wakefulness being associated with beta and alpha brain waves and sleep being associated with slower brain waves. During periods of drowsiness, as when you are sitting in a boring lecture and begin to drift off, EEG records indicate that brain activity fluctuates between alpha and slower, more regular waves, called theta waves. Theta waves occur at a rate of 3 to 7 waves per second and are usually associated with light sleep.
Stages of Sleep
EEG studies have shown us that sleep occurs in four stages, each with its own characteristic brain wave activity. The stages of sleep are referred to as Stage I, II, III, or IV with Stage I being the lightest stage of sleep and Stage IV being the deepest stage of sleep. Desynchronized theta waves are found primarily in Stage I sleep (Figure 8.4).
Like Stage I sleep, Stage II sleep is characterized by desynchronized brain waves. However, synchronized brain waves are also present in Stage II sleep, as are other hallmarks, including sleep spindles and K-complexes. Sleep spindles are bursts of brain waves with a frequency of 7 to 14 waves per second that last for several seconds and recur every 3 to 10 seconds (Steriade, McCormick, & Sejnowski, 1993). They are present in all stages of sleep but are most prevalent in Stage II sleep and are associated with a loss of perceptual awareness. On the other hand, K-complexes are seen only in Stage II sleep. K-complexes appear as large changes in measured voltage in EEG records, with a sharp positive peak followed by a sharp negative peak.
Figure 8.4: Stages of sleep
Brain waves (EEG) become large, slow, and regular in Stage IV sleep, whereas they are fast, low-voltage, and irregular in REM sleep. Eye movements (EOG) increase dramatically in REM sleep, but muscle tension (EMG) disappears in REM sleep.
In Stage III sleep, synchronized brain waves called delta waves are observed, indicating a deeper stage of sleep. Delta waves are very slow, regular brain waves that occur at a rate of approximately 2 waves per second.
Stage IV sleep is associated with a preponderance of delta waves in the EEG record (Figure 8.3). That is, in Stage IV sleep, more than 50% of the EEG record indicates delta wave activity, whereas delta waves occur less than 50% of the time in Stage III sleep. During Stage IV sleep, heart rate and breathing are slow, and the individual is in the deepest stage of sleep. These stages of sleep, during which the EEG record exhibits large, slow brain waves, are often referred to collectively as slow-wave sleep or quiet sleep. Table 8.2 summarizes the characteristics of each stage of sleep.
|
Table 8.2: Stages of sleep |
|||
|
Stage |
EEG activity |
Muscle tone |
Eye movements |
|
I |
primarily theta wave activity |
moderate |
slow, rolling |
|
II |
mostly synchronized, with sleep spindles, K-complexes |
moderate |
none |
|
III |
synchronized, with some delta wave activity (<50%) |
low to moderate |
none |
|
IV |
>50% delta wave activity |
low to moderate |
none |
|
REM |
desynchronized, increased brain activity |
none movements |
rapid, jerking eye |
A person who falls asleep first enters Stage I. However, to fall asleep, a person must be in a relaxed state, with alpha waves present in the EEG record. Have you ever tried to sleep when you were really excited or upset about something? If you have, you undoubtedly found it tremendously difficult to fall asleep under those circumstances. When you are in a state of emotional arousal, your brain is very active, as indicated by the presence of beta waves. To fall asleep, you have to relax, slowing brain activity from 20 brain waves per second to fewer than 8 waves per second. When my son, Jacob, was quite young, he came to me one evening after he had been tucked into bed, complaining, "I can't sleep. I keep thinking about monsters." I replied, "Stop thinking about monsters. Think about something boring, like llamas. Think about llamas." Somehow my young son managed to relax and slow down his brain activity, because he was fast asleep soon after this exchange.
Thus, when a person falls asleep, he or she enters Stage I sleep, which is characterized by the presence of theta waves. As sleep continues, the person goes into Stage II, then Stage III, and finally Stage IV sleep. After spending some time in Stage IV sleep, the person moves back to Stage III, then to Stage II, and all the way back to Stage I. In fact, the entire night's sleep consists of repeated cycling from Stage I to Stage IV and back to Stage I again. This complete cycle, I → II → III → IV → III → II → I, is referred to as a sleep cycle and typically takes about 90 minutes. In general, we spend more time in Stage IV sleep during sleep cycles early in the night and spend more time in Stage I sleep during sleep cycles that occur toward morning.
REM Sleep
An interesting phenomenon occurs every 90 minutes during sleep when a person moves into Stage I sleep at the end of a sleep cycle: Brain activity increases (as indicated by the predominance of desynchronized brain waves), the heart rate and respiration rate increase, and the eyeballs begin to jerk about under the eyelids. American psychologist Nathaniel Kleitman and French psychologist Michel Jouvet discovered this unique stage of sleep at about the same time (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953; Jouvet & Michel, 1958). Kleitman and his students, Eugene Aserinsky and William Dement, called this stage of sleep rapid eye movement or REM sleep, due to the presence of eye movements during sleep. We spend about 20% of the night in REM sleep.
Jouvet gave REM sleep another name, paradoxical sleep, because the brain appears to be very active at the same time that the skeletal muscles are very inactive. In fact, electromyographic (EMG) recordings, which measure muscle tone, indicate that the major muscle groups have no muscle tone during paradoxical sleep. During paradoxical sleep, the body also appears to be sexually excited, as indicated by penile erection in men and vaginal lubrication in women. Men will notice that they often awaken with a penile erection in the morning. Recall from the preceding paragraph that we spend more time in Stage I sleep toward morning. This means that we are most likely to be in paradoxical or REM sleep just before we awaken and thus will be coming out of a stage of sexual arousal.
Another paradoxical feature of REM sleep is the lack of awareness of sensory stimulation despite increased activity of the thalamus and cerebral cortex (Pare & Llinas, 1995). That is, somatosensory, auditory, or olfactory stimuli can be applied to a person in REM sleep, and that person will not be consciously aware of the stimuli. However, electrical activity of the entire forebrain is virtually identical for waking and REM states, which means that a cognitive response to sensory stimuli should be induced. Pare and Llinas (1995) have suggested that REM sleep operates very much like automatic, implicit, or nonconscious processing, relying on previously stored data rather than responding to incoming sensory stimulation.
Aquatic mammals, such as whales and dolphins, show a remarkable adaptation to their watery existence: Only one cerebral hemisphere sleeps at a time, while the other hemisphere remains awake, allowing the animal to swim to the surface periodically to breathe. EEG records show desynchronization associated with wakefulness in one hemisphere and slow synchronized brain waves in the sleeping hemisphere. Many sleep with one eye open, in order that the awake hemisphere can monitor the environment visually while the other hemisphere sleeps. Even more unusual, some species (for example, the bottlenose dolphin) have no REM sleep whatsoever, which allows the animal to swim continuously (Mukhametov, 1985, 1988).
Alcohol and other drugs that depress the central nervous system, such as barbiturates and marijuana, affect the amount of time spent in the various stages of sleep during a sleep cycle. That is, if you drink alcohol or smoke marijuana or take a barbiturate before going to bed, you will descend quickly from Stage I to Stage IV sleep, and you will spend more time than normal in Stage IV sleep. In fact, you will spend so much time in Stage IV sleep that you will not get enough REM sleep. People who take barbiturates on a regular basis find that they have very vivid dreams and horrifying nightmares when they stop using the pills. Normally, we spend about 20% of our sleeping time in REM sleep. However, following REM deprivation, people can spend over 30% of their sleep in REM. We see this REM rebound effect in individuals who are deprived of REM sleep.
8.3 Brain Mechanisms of Sleep and Consciousness
Brain lesioning and stimulation studies using animal subjects have demonstrated that a number of brain stem structures play crucial roles in sleep and consciousness. These structures include the reticular formation, locus coeruleus, raphe, and various hypothalamic and thalamic nuclei (Figure 8.5). In addition, examination of human patients who have damage to these areas reveals that these structures are also important in regulating sleep and consciousness in people. Table 8.3 summarizes the roles that these structures play. Let's take a look at each of these structures individually.
REM Sleep and the Brain
|
Table 8.3: Brain structures involved in sleep and consciousness |
|
|
Brain structure |
Function |
|
Reticular formation |
Produces cerebral arousal and vigilance, initiates orienting response |
|
Raphe system |
Lesions of raphe produce sleeplessness in rats; stimulation induces sleep |
|
Locus coeruleus |
Produces and regulates arousal; initiates a state of alert attentiveness |
|
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (hypothalamus) |
Regulates biological clock |
|
Pineal gland |
Releases melatonin in response to the suprachiasmatic nucleus |
|
Reticular thalamic nucleus |
In non-REM sleep, blocks transmission of sensory information to cerebrum and limbic system. |
Staying Awake: The Reticular Formation
You learned about the reticular formation in Chapter 4. Moruzzi and Magoun (1949) discovered the reticular formation, and they found that stimulation of the reticular formation causes a sleeping animal to awaken suddenly. Thus, the reticular formation is important for maintaining wakefulness and vigilance. Lesioning the reticular formation results in an inability to make orienting responses to novel or important stimuli. When Bremer (1935) lesioned the reticular formation in cats, these cats went into a state of permanent sleep and could not be awakened.
Controlling Sleep: The Raphe System
The raphe system is the principal source of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Because serotonin plays an important role in regulating sleep, the raphe undoubtedly is crucial in the control of sleep. Lesions of the raphe produce sleeplessness in rats, whereas stimulation of the raphe induces sleep (Jouvet, 1999). A case study of a patient with a tumor in the raphe system revealed that the patient was unable to sleep and remained awake for about 2 weeks until his death (Arpa, deAndres, Rodriguez, & Padrino, 1994).
Neurons in the raphe exhibit a firing pattern that is unlike that of other neurons in the brain (Jacobs, 1994). These neurons fire spontaneously at a slow, steady rate. Even when the neurons are surgically removed from the brain and cultured in a dish on the lab bench, these serotonin cells continue to fire their characteristic rhythm pattern. The rate of firing of raphe cells changes in response to alterations in the level of consciousness. For example, when an individual is relaxed but awake, the serotonin neurons fire at a rate of about three spikes per second. The number of spikes per second generated by the serotonin neurons increases when an individual is awake and aroused. As the individual falls into slow-wave (non-REM) sleep, the number of spikes per second decreases. However, during REM sleep when the cortex shows increased activation associated with dreaming, the neurons in the raphe system stop firing altogether. Just before the individual awakens, the neurons in the raphe resume their three-per-second pattern.
The Biological Clock
Radius/SuperStock
Photo 8.3 It takes a few days for our biological clock to adjust to changes in our environment.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is located in the anterior hypothalamus just above the optic chiasm. This nucleus has been demonstrated to play a crucial role in regulating sleep-wake cycles, or what is known as the biological clock. Research on many species indicates that each species is active at certain hours of the day and is inactive at others. Reptiles, birds, and mammals appear to undergo a period of quiescence that we call sleep. Studies of human participants have shown that most people have a rhythm, called a circadian rhythm, that is a little over 24 hours long for both young and elderly individuals (Bass & Takahashi, 2011). For most people, this means that we feel sleepy sometime during the evening and typically fall asleep within an hour or two thereafter. If we manage to stay awake past our usual sleeping time, we feel extremely tired in the middle of the night. However, toward morning, we get a second wind and feel wide awake once again.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus is believed to contain the pacemaker that controls the circadian rhythm. Not only does this rhythm regulate our levels of sleepiness and wakefulness, but it also controls hormonal levels and body temperature and metabolism (Huang et al., 2011; Schibler, Ripperger, & Brown, 2001; Wirz-Justice, 1995). For example, our body temperature reaches a peak at 8:00 p.m. and then drops throughout the night, reaching a low at about 5:00 a.m., when it starts rising again. Our brain activity and sensory abilities follow a circadian rhythm, too. At 8:00 p.m., most of our senses (taste, smell, hearing) are at a peak, and our hearing remains sharp all night. Most of our senses, including our sense of pain, are lowest in the morning.
This rhythm continues despite changes in lighting, diet, hormonal state, drugs, and illness (Richter, 1955). People and other animals living in constant light or constant darkness continue to go to sleep and wake up right on schedule according to their biological clocks. However, events in the environment can reset the biological clock. For example, if you live in New York and fly three time zones west to California, you feel very tired at 9:00 p.m. California time because your body is still on New York time (which is midnight). But in a few days, your biological clock is reset, and you adjust to California time and no longer feel like sleeping at 9:00 p.m. Any number of things can reset your biological clock, including natural or artificial light, your alarm clock, or other environmental demands. Anything that resets the biological clock is called a zeitgeber.
Many investigators now believe that genes control the biological clock. Earlier research with fruit flies and bread mold has demonstrated that circadian rhythms in these organisms are controlled by genes. More recent research with hamsters and mice has shown that their biological clocks, too, appear to be controlled by genes (Damdimopoulou et al, 2011; Morris, Viswanathan, Kuhlman, Davis, & Weitz, 1998; Antoch et al., 1997). For example, Joseph Takahashi and his colleagues at Northwestern University have located the gene, which Takahashi has labeled the Clock gene, responsible for producing the circadian rhythm in mice (Sadacca, Lamia, DeLemos, Blum, & Weitz, 2011). Mice with defective Clock genes have a circadian rhythm that is 4 hours longer than normal. Of much interest to researchers is the discovery that one segment of the gene contains the same sequence of amino acids found in the genes that control the biological clocks in fruit flies and bread mold. Similarly, Clock genes, called per genes, have also been discovered in humans. Genetic errors associated with this gene have been reported to produce sleep disorders, mood disorders, infertility, and obesity in humans and other animals (Karatsoreos et al., 2011; McClung, 2007; Miller et al., 2004; Naylor et al., 2000; Turek et al., 2005; Vanselow et al., 2006). Although no one currently understands how these genes ultimately control the biological clock, it may be that all organisms share the same basic clock mechanism.
The Effect of Light
Information about light is relayed from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus by way of the retinohypothalamic tract (Figure 8.6). The suprachiasmatic nucleus processes this information and sends it to the pineal gland. The pineal gland is a structure that is located in front of the midbrain. The main function of the pineal gland appears to be the release of a hormone called melatonin. Information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus directly affects the release of melatonin from the pineal gland. Melatonin, in turn, signals information about the environmental light/dark cycle to the rest of the brain (Arendt, 1988; Cardinali, 1981; Golombek, Pevet, & Cardinali, 1996). In addition, melatonin receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus permit melatonin to influence and even alter the circadian rhythm (Reppert, Weaver, Rivkees, & Stopa, 1988; Reppert 1997; Wulff et al., 2010). The "For Further Thought" box describes how melatonin can reset the biological clock.
Figure 8.6: Pathways to and from the suprachiasmatic nucleus
Information from the retina reaches the suprachiasmatic nucleus via the retinohypothalamic tract. Light striking the retina causes the suprachiasmatic nucleus to signal the pineal gland to reduce its secretion of melatonin.
For Further Thought: Resetting the Biological Clock with Melatonin
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Photo 8.4 Melatonin capsules can be taken to adjust to different time zones quickly, as long as they are taken at the right time of day.
The brain uses the hormone melatonin to signal the presence or absence of environmental light. This signal conveys information about the circadian cycle as well as the light changes associated with seasonal variations. Because melatonin is so closely tied to the sleep-wake cycle, it has been used to treat a number of disorders associated with disturbance of the circadian rhythm. For example, it has been used effectively to reduce sleepiness and lapses in alertness associated with jet lag and shift work (Golombek et al., 1996).
When taken as a drug, melatonin can reset the biological clock. However, the time of day has an important impact on the effect of melatonin in the body. That is, when melatonin is taken at dusk, it shifts the circadian rhythm forward, which is useful if you are traveling to a different time zone in the East. In contrast, when melatonin is taken at dawn, it shifts the biological clock backward in time, preparing a person to adjust to a new time zone in the West.
Dreaming: The Reticular Thalamic Nucleus
The neural pathways between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, called the thalamocortical system, appear to play an important role in determining our conscious experience (Pare & Llinas, 1995; Tononi & Edelman, 1998). Do you see the words thalamus and cortex in the term thalamocortical system? Recall that the reticular formation relays its information to the thalamus for action by the cerebrum. These areas work together to produce a unified consciousness, in which all components of the conscious experience (visual, auditory, taste, olfactory, somatosensory, data from memory, and other components) are integrated, and incongruent elements are combined or ignored (Damasio, 1999).
As you learned in Chapter 4, the thalamus acts as a filter or gate that controls the transmission of sensory information to the cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. EEG studies have indicated that, in non-REM sleep, certain thalamic nuclei, including the reticular thalamic nucleus, produce slow synchronous oscillations that appear to block the access of sensory information to the cerebrum and limbic system (Crunelli & Hughes, 2010; Krystal et al., 1995; Steriade, McCormick, & Sejnowski, 1993). During REM sleep and wakefulness, another EEG pattern is observed in the thalamus; this pattern is believed to promote transmission of sensory stimulation to the cortex. Thus, during dreaming, the thalamocortical system sends internally generated sensory information from the limbic system to the cerebral cortex to create the experience we know as dreams.
Scientists who study brain anatomy have discovered many anatomical interconnections between the brain structures involved in cortical arousal. Interconnections exist between all of the structures described in the preceding sections, including the reticular formation, the raphe system, the locus coeruleus, and various hypothalamic and thalamic nuclei. Information appears to run in both directions, to and from these interconnected sites, which means that a good deal of data is shared among these brain structures. The unified nature of consciousness can be explained by the simultaneous activation of all of these structures (Delacour, 1995; Koch & Tononi, 2011).
8.4 The Function of Sleep
No one knows why we sleep, although people since the dawn of humankind have tried to explain the function of sleep. Primitive people believed that, when we sleep, our spirits leave our bodies to cavort with other spirits (living and dead). According to this primitive view, dreams are a glimpse of our interactions with these other spirits. Today, the evolutionary theory of sleep is the most popular explanation among neuroscientists of sleep.
The evolutionary theory of sleep maintains that all animals occupy an environmental niche and sleep to conserve energy during times when it is dangerous to be awake. For example, humans do not see well in the dark and could not easily escape predators if they were being chased at night. For that reason, according to the evolutionary theory, people sleep at night because it's safer for them to be asleep then. Other animals, known as nocturnal animals, are active at night and sleep during the day. These animals have evolved with sensory abilities (acute olfactory and auditory senses, excellent nighttime vision) that permit them to find food and mates safely at night.
The support for the evolutionary theory of sleep is largely circumstantial. Large grazing animals, like elephants, horses, and cows, spend only a few hours sleeping and many hours each day (up to 20 hours per day) eating because their caloric needs are so great. Prey animals that have safe hiding places, such as rabbits and mice, have long periods of sleep. Prey animals that live in an open, vulnerable environment, like herding antelope, display light sleep for short periods of time. In contrast, predators like wolves and lions sleep deeply for long periods of time. A common domestic cat, for example, will sleep about 18 hours a day.
According to the evolutionary theory of sleep, humans sleep because consciousness has high energy costs. When we are awake or in REM sleep, heart rate, respiration rate, and brain activity are increased. Thus, consciousness and REM sleep are accompanied by high metabolic rates. Even when we are awake, most brain activities are unconscious. Delacour (1995) has suggested that conscious brain activity requires more energy than unconscious brain activity and that, therefore, we engage in conscious behavior sparingly. For this reason, well-learned behaviors are transferred over to the unconscious, or implicit, memory systems for execution (Kavanau, 1997). Conscious processing is reserved for new or unexpected events and for retrieving stored data from declarative memory, although there is evidence that some novel stimuli can be processed in the absence of conscious awareness (Berns, Cohen, & Mintun, 1997; Scott et al., 2011).
The Function of REM Sleep
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Photo 8.5 How much of a newborn baby's sleep time is spent in REM sleep?
If the function of sleep is unknown, the function of REM sleep is even more unclear. For some unknown reason, newborns spend about 50% of their sleeping time in REM sleep. What could they be dreaming about? Many investigators believe that memory consolidation occurs during REM sleep. Other investigators have suggested that REM sleep in newborns is important for strengthening neural networks. Hobson (2009) has theorized that the brain is "warming up" during REM sleep and is preparing itself for the sensations and emotions of the waking state.
Although the function of REM sleep is still unknown, we do know that deprivation of REM sleep can impair thinking and disturb behavior. For example, REM deprivation is associated with increased eating and weight gain, an inability to concentrate, and increased anxiety and irritability. When a REM-deprived person is permitted to get a full night of undisturbed sleep, REM rebound is observed. As you learned earlier in this chapter, REM rebound refers to an increase in REM sleep, which is accompanied by an increase in dreaming.
The Nature of Dreaming
Psychologists and other theorists have proposed a variety of explanations for the function of dreams. Undoubtedly, in other psychology courses, you have learned about Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams. According to Freud, dreams symbolically express our unconscious desires and fears. For example, dreaming about money, Freud believed, might indicate a person's anxiety concerning anal functions.
A more modern view of dreams is the activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming, proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley (1977). According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, our cerebral cortex processes and interprets incoming sensory information, even during sleep. Thus, dreams arise when the brain attempts to make sense out of disjointed sensory input (for example, visual images produced by random activation of the visual system) during sleep. One morning just before awakening, I dreamed that I was at a party dancing to music; I then abruptly awoke to find that my clock radio was playing. I had obviously incorporated the music blaring from my radio into my dream.
Dement and Kleitman (1957) attempted to determine when dreaming occurs during the course of a night. Participants in their study slept in Dement and Kleitman's laboratory, with EEG electrodes pasted to their scalps to permit recording of brain activity while they slept. The investigators monitored the participants' EEG records while they slept and awakened participants during REM and non-REM sleep. When the participants were awakened during REM sleep, they reported dreaming about 80% of the time. In contrast, they reported dreaming about 20% of the time when awakened during non-REM sleep. Hence, dreaming occurs during both REM and non-REM sleep (Hartman & Zimberoff, 2012).
Subsequent research has demonstrated that the quality of REM dreams differs from the quality of dreams generated during non-REM sleep. REM dreams are experienced as vivid and well organized, albeit sometimes illogical or fantastical (for example, dreaming that you are flying with your arms outstretched). The content of non-REM dreams is less organized and appears to be related to ongoing life events or concerns. This difference in dream content and quality may be related to differences in brain physiology during REM sleep and non-REM sleep. REM sleep is characterized by an increase in excitatory input to the cerebral cortex from the ascending reticular activating system and a reduction in inhibitory input to the cortex, with only dopamine pathways being active (Gottesmann, 1999; Hobson, 2009). Thus, dreams during REM sleep are often illogical or irrational, due to the absence of inhibitory influences that normally regulate activity in the cerebral cortex. During non-REM sleep, brain stem input to the cerebral cortex is largely inhibitory, producing less intense and more rational mental activity (Gottesmann, 1999).
Sleep Disorders
Sleep disorders tell us a great deal about the processes underlying the continuum between sleep and consciousness. Let's review a number of these disorders as we seek to understand sleeping and waking states.
Insomnia
Insomnia is a disorder in which the affected individual has difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. All of us have had this trouble at one time or another. In fact, for people between the ages of 18 and 25, insomnia is a common problem. A person may have trouble sleeping because he or she is excited or worried about something. Recall that earlier in the chapter I stressed that a person must be in a relaxed state before sleep can occur. Sometimes a college student can get into a vicious cycle where he or she lies in bed worrying, "Here I go again. I can't fall asleep. If I don't sleep tonight, I'll be too tired to study for my exam tomorrow night. Then I'll fail the exam and end up flunking out of school." These kinds of thoughts are accompanied by beta wave activity, which is not conducive to falling asleep. Whereas younger people have trouble falling asleep, older people who experience insomnia have trouble staying asleep (Montgomery & Shepard, 2010; Reynolds, Buysse, & Kupfer, 1995).
Sometimes prescription sleep medication is prescribed for individuals who have insomnia, although most people with insomnia do not seek medical treatment for this disorder but rather use over-the-counter medications or alcohol to fall asleep (Nowell, Buysse, Morin, Reynolds, & Kupfer, 1998). Many over-the-counter medications contain antihistamines, which block histamine receptors. (Recall from Chapter 3 that histamines cause arousal of the nervous system.) Benzodiazepines have been found to be the most effective for treating insomnia. As you learned in Chapter 3, benzodiazepines bind with GABA receptors, producing relaxation.
Barbiturates can also induce sleep, but tolerance to the drugs occurs in a few days, requiring higher and higher doses to be administered to achieve sleep. Withdrawal from barbiturates can produce insomnia, increased REM sleep, and vivid nightmares (Nishino, Mignot, & Dement, 2001). Also, melatonin has been demonstrated to be somewhat useful in treating insomnia.
Relaxation exercises and meditation can help a person learn to relax and fall asleep. Other behavioral treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy, sleep restriction therapy, and stimulus control therapy. In cognitive behavioral therapy, the patient learns to identify and modify thought patterns that maintain insomnia. Sleep restriction therapy involves initially restricting the amount of time that a person has to sleep and gradually increasing the time for sleep as the person's ability to fall asleep improves. In stimulus control therapy, people with insomnia are allowed to use the bedroom only for sleep. That is, they cannot read, work, or watch television in their bedrooms and must leave their bedrooms if they are unable to sleep for 20 minutes, returning only when they feel sleepy. All of these behavioral techniques have proved to be helpful (Harsora & Kessmann, 2009; Nowell et al., 1998).
Narcolepsy
This disorder is characterized by episodes in which the affected individual suddenly loses all muscle tone and falls asleep. These sleeping attacks resemble epileptic seizures, hence the term narcolepsy. Typically, a person with narcolepsy will experience an aura, or sensory illusion, such as a particular odor or a visual image, immediately before the sleep attack, and different environmental stimuli (especially emotional stimuli) have been observed to trigger a narcoleptic episode. EEG recordings of people during a narcoleptic attack reveal that they go immediately into REM sleep when they collapse into sleep. The loss of muscle tone during a narcoleptic attack also indicates that the affected individual is in REM sleep.
However, the most prominent symptom for most people with narcolepsy is the excessive daytime sleepiness and periods of intense drowsiness that occur every 3 to 4 hours, requiring a short nap. The individual with narcolepsy is typically not aware of these periods of drowsiness and often will deny falling asleep. EEG studies of individuals with narcolepsy have revealed that narcolepsy is associated with decreased delta wave activity during non-REM sleep (Guilleminault, Heinzer, Mignot, & Black, 1998).
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Photo 8.6 Although sleep apnea is much more common with adults than babies, it is notably common in premature babies.
Narcolepsy has also been detected in dogs, and much research has been conducted on narcoleptic dogs in order to gain a better understanding of this puzzling disorder (Takahashi, 1999; Wu et al., 2011). For over a decade, William Dement has maintained a colony of narcoleptic Dobermans and Labradors at Stanford University. Because the genetic pedigree of the Stanford dogs is well known, Mignot and his colleagues have been able to identify the gene that causes canine narcolepsy (Lin et al., 1999). This gene codes for a receptor of a particular neuropeptide called orexin, which regulates eating behavior. By inactivating the orexin gene in mice, Yanagisawa and his colleagues (Chemelli et al., 1999) have been able to produce narcoleptic attacks in mice. Investigators are uncertain as to the role that orexin plays in sleep, but recent evidence suggests that narcolepsy may be caused by the loss of cells in the hypothalamus that produce orexin (Siegel, 2000).
Sleep Apnea
The word apnea literally means "without breath" (a- means "without" and -pnea means "breath" in Latin and Greek). Thus, sleep apnea is a disorder in which breathing is temporarily suspended during sleep. This disturbance can occur at any age from birth to old age and is most prevalent in obese adults. Obviously, when an individual stops breathing, asphyxiation sets in, and death can result. Most cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), in which a healthy infant is placed in its crib and is discovered dead sometime later, have been attributed to sleep apnea. That is, in these infants, the breathing reflex is not fully developed or reliable, and when they stop breathing, the brain does not induce inhalation as it should. Sleep apnea is especially common in premature babies, who have to be monitored constantly for any signs of breathing cessation (Photo 8.6). In addition, some medications can cause sleep apnea. People taking certain muscle relaxants, for example, may wake up gasping for air, which can be a frightening experience.
Somnambulism
Sleepwalking is the common word for somnambulism. As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, people can engage in very complicated behaviors (such as speaking in French or climbing stairs) while sleepwalking. However, sleepwalking generally occurs in non-REM sleep, when the brain is relatively inactive. This means that people are unconscious of their behavior when somnambulating. Remember that during REM sleep the major muscle groups do not have any tone and are incapable of producing movement. On the other hand, muscle tone is present during non-REM sleep, and behavior can be initiated by unconscious or implicit brain systems, out of the person's conscious control.
Nocturnal Enuresis
Nocturnal enuresis is also known as bed-wetting. Many young children have accidents and urinate in their sleep. But persistent bed-wetting after age 9 is regarded as a medical problem. Nocturnal enuresis occurs in non-REM sleep, when conscious processing is absent in the brain. Thus, bed-wetting happens unconsciously, and the person is not aware that he or she is urinating when it happens, which makes this disorder very difficult to treat (Butler, 2001; Jensen & Kristensen, 2001; Lawless & McElderry, 2001).
Psychologists employ classical conditioning to treat bed-wetting. An alarm is used as the unconditioned stimulus (US), which awakens the affected individual. (Waking is the unconditioned response, or UR, to the alarm.) This alarm is wired to a sensor that detects wetness, and the sensor is attached to the individual's pajama bottoms. Therefore, when the individual begins to urinate during sleep, the sensor detects the urine, causing the alarm to ring. Urination is the conditioned stimulus (CS) that is paired with the alarm (the US). This treatment is based on the theory that, when urination (the CS) occurs, the individual will awaken (the conditioned response, or CR).
Night Terror
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Photo 8.7 Night terrors take place during non-REM sleep, causing the individual to wake in a sense of autonomic arousal.
A nightmare, as you know, is a "bad" dream or a dream loaded with negative emotional content. Some nightmares can be so disturbing that the autonomic arousal that they induce wakens us from our sleep. Nightmares occur typically during REM sleep. In contrast, night terror takes place during non-REM sleep. A person experiencing night terror awakens from deep sleep frightened and showing signs of autonomic arousal, including increased heart rate and blood pressure. Often the individual experiencing night terror will begin to scream and then wake up, confused and frightened. Whereas a person awaking from a nightmare can usually describe the content of the bad dream in detail, an individual awaking with night terror has no idea why he or she feels scared. Night terror is common in young children and usually disappears as they get older, although some people continue to experience night terror in adulthood.
Sleep Disorders Associated with Alterations of the Circadian Rhythm
A number of disorders are associated with alterations of the circadian rhythm, including advanced-sleep-phase syndrome, delayed-sleep-phase syndrome, and jet lag. Individuals with advanced-sleep-phase syndrome generally feel tired due to disturbed phasing of their circadian rhythm, several hours earlier than their normal sleep time. A person with advanced-sleep-phase syndrome, for example, may shows signs of sleepiness at 5:00 or 6:00 p.m., instead of at 10:00 or 11:00 p.m. In contrast, those with delayed-sleep-phase syndrome do not feel tired until many hours after their normal sleep time and awake much later than normal. Jet lag is caused by taking long flights that cross several time zones, which causes an abrupt shift in the sleep-wake cycle. Although it lasts only a day or so, people with jet lag feel tired and cannot think clearly during normal waking hours and have trouble falling asleep at bedtime.
Shift work can also produce sleep disorders, especially when the worker is forced to work different shifts during different weeks; for example, working 3:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. one week and 11:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. the next. Changing shifts on a weekly or monthly basis is quite disruptive for the endogenous biological clock, causing the individual to feel sleepy and inattentive while awake and to have problems falling asleep at bedtime. Sleepiness can disrupt performance and cause the sleepy person to make more mistakes than usual (Akerstedt, 1985). In addition, confused and very ill patients often have a reversed sleep-wake cycle, remaining asleep during the day and awake at night (Quera-Salva, Lemoine, & Guilleminault, 2010). Bright light has been used with some success as treatment for all of these disorders (Campbell, Dawson, & Anderson, 1993; Bjorvatn & Pallesen, 2009; Eastman, Stewart, Mahoney, Liu, & Fogg, 1994; Lack, Mercer, & Wright, 1996; Oren & Terman, 1998). Light has an activating effect, probably caused by light-induced release of norepinephrine, and it improves performance.
The research of behavioral neuroscientists is improving our understanding of the states we call sleep and consciousness. Some scholars firmly believe that we will never fully understand consciousness because of the problems presented by the mind studying the mind (Horgan, 1994). They question whether the human mind can really examine itself objectively. Nonetheless, studies that involve recording the electrical activity of the brain or functional brain imaging have greatly enhanced our knowledge of sleep and consciousness and will continue to do so in the future. Most neuroscientists today agree that consciousness results from the integration of many discrete cortical functions that are distributed across the cerebrum.
But remember that brain stem structures also play an important role in sleep and consciousness. For example, the biological clock, which determines when we sleep and when we're awake, is regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. As you will learn in Chapter 9, the hypothalamus directs behaviors associated with a number of drives, in addition to the drive to sleep.
8.5 Chapter Summary
Consciousness
· Consciousness refers to an awareness of one's self and one's surroundings, but investigators disagree as to its exact nature.
· Metacognition is an awareness of one's own mental processes.
· Consciousness appears to involve structures in the frontal lobe, especially the prefrontal cortex.
· The study of disorders of consciousness has provided some insight into the nature of consciousness.
· Amnesia is an impairment of declarative memory and thus interferes with conscious processing.
· Goal neglect is an impairment associated with frontal lobe syndrome.
· In Asperger's syndrome, individuals exhibit a consciousness that is less impaired than that observed in most autistic individuals.
· Coma is a state of unconsciousness in which the eyes are closed. In contrast, a permanent vegetative state is a state of unconsciousness in which the eyes are open, but behaviors are reflexive and primitive.
· Experiments with split-brain patients conducted by Roger Sperry and others have demonstrated the important role that the cerebral hemispheres play in the conscious processing of information.
· Roger Sperry received a Nobel Prize for his research on consciousness in patients who have undergone a surgical division of the corpus callosum. His research demonstrated that each cerebral hemisphere has a consciousness of its own, although the left hemisphere plays a special role in consciousness because it contains the language centers.
Sleep
· EEG studies using scalp electrodes have shown that synchronized brain waves are associated with deep sleep and that desynchronized brain waves are associated with active, conscious states.
· Beta waves are observed when an individual is aroused, and alpha waves are associated with relaxed wakefulness.
· Theta waves are found primarily in Stage I sleep, whereas sleep spindles and K-complexes are present in Stage II sleep.
· Delta waves occur more than 50% of the time in Stage IV sleep and less than 50% of the time in Stage III sleep.
· In REM sleep, brain activity increases, heart rate increases, skeletal muscles are inactivated (except for eye muscles, which cause the eyeballs to jerk about under closed eyelids), and sexual arousal occurs.
· REM rebound is seen in people who are deprived of REM sleep.
Brain Mechanisms of Sleep and Consciousness
· A number of brain structures play crucial roles in sleep and consciousness, including the reticular formation, the raphe system, the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, the pineal gland, and the reticular thalamic nucleus.
· The reticular formation alerts the cerebrum when important stimuli occur.
· The raphe system is the principal source of serotonin in the brain and thus plays a role in regulating sleep.
· The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating the biological clock. The SNC relays information about light to the pineal gland, which releases melatonin.
· The thalamocortical system is the pathway between the thalamus and cerebral cortex that plays a role in determining our conscious experience.
The Function of Sleep
· Many theories have been advanced to explain why we sleep, although the evidence for each theory is largely circumstantial.
· The evolutionary theory of sleep maintains that sleep conserves energy at times when it is dangerous to be awake.
· The function of REM sleep is unknown.
· According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreams, dreams arise when the brain tries to make sense out of incoming sensory information during sleep.
· When subjects were awakened from REM sleep, they reported dreaming 80% of the time, compared to subjects awakened during non-REM sleep, who reported dreaming 20% of the time.
· Deprivation of REM sleep can impair thinking and disturb behavior, as well as produce REM rebound.
Sleep Disorders
· Insomnia is a disorder in which a person has difficulty falling or staying asleep.
· Antihistamines, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates can induce sleep.
· Narcolepsy is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and episodes in which a person loses all muscle tone and falls asleep.
· Sleep apnea is a disorder in which breathing is temporarily suspended during sleeping.
· People with somnambulism typically sleepwalk during non-REM sleep.
· Nightmares generally occur during REM sleep, and night terror takes place during non-REM sleep.
· Individuals with advanced-sleep-phase syndrome generally feel tired several hours earlier than their normal sleep time due to disturbed phasing of their circadian rhythm.
· Individuals with delayed-sleep-phase syndrome do not feel tired until many hours after their normal sleep time and awake much later than normal.
· Jet lag is caused by taking long flights that cross several time zones, which causes an abrupt shift in the sleep-wake cycle.
Questions for Thought
1. Do dogs experience consciousness? Do autistic children experience consciousness? Explain your answers.
2. In a split-brain patient, which hemisphere is most likely to produce a sense of conscious awareness? Why?
3. Can sleepwalking occur during REM sleep? Why or why not?
4. How does shift work affect sleeping and consciousness?
5. List Delacour's criteria for consciousness and give a real-life example of each.
6. What is the difference between being in a coma and having locked-in syndrome?
7. What roles do structures in the hindbrain, hypothalamus, and thalamus play in the production of sleep and consciousness?
8. Explain the difference between advanced-sleep-phase syndrome and delayed-sleep-phase syndrome.