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Roman Empire at Greatest Extent

The Roman Era

April 21, 753 BCE – the legendary founding of Rome by Romulus & Remus
753- 509 BCE – Roman monarchy
509 – 27 BCE – Roman Republican Period
264 – 241 BCE First Punic War – Rome vs Carthage – Rome gains Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica
218 – 201 BCE – Second Punic War – Hannibal invades Italy with elephants traveling through the Alps – Rome vs Carthage – Rome wins – gains southern Spain, coastal France and part of North Africa
149 -146 BCE – Third Punic War – Rome vs Carthage – Rome wins – gains modern day Tunisia and names it Africa as Roman province- Carthage is destroyed

The Roman Era

88 – 79 BCE – First Roman Civil War – Marius vs Sulla – Sulla wins – implements first dictatorship without time limit
73-71 BCE – Spartacus leads slave revolt – eventually crushed by Crassus
60 BCE – formation of the First Triumvirate – Julius Caesar, Pompey & Crassus rule Rome illegally
58 – 50 BCE – Gaul conquered by G. Julius Caesar
49-46 BCE Second Roman Civil War – Caesar vs Pompey – Caesar wins – becomes dictator for life – beginning of end for Rome as a Republic
March 15, 44 BCE – Julius Caesar is assassinated by Senators led by Brutus and Cassius

The Roman Era

43 BCE – Second Triumvirate formed by Octavian Caesar, Mark Antony and Lepidus in order to catch Caesar’s murderers
31 BCE – Third Roman Civil War – Octavian vs Mark Antony & Cleopatra – Octavian wins becomes sole ruler of Roman world – Egypt becomes Roman province
27 BCE – Octavian changes his name to Augustus (revered one) – Official End of Roman Republic: Rome becomes an Empire – Augustus its first Emperor
27 BCE – 476 CE – Roman Imperial Period (Roman Empire)
27 BCE – 68 CE – Julio-Claudian Dynasty rules in Rome (Augustus, Tiberias, Caligula, Claudius & Nero)
64 CE – Great Fire in Rome – Nero blames and then persecutes Christians – Saints Peter and Paul are martyred
69 – 96 CE – Flavian Dynasty rules Rome (Vespasian, Titus and Domitian)

The Roman Era

August 24, 79 CE – Mount Vesuvius erupts destroying Pompeii, Stabiae and Herculaneum
96 – 180 CE – Reign of the 5 Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius & Marcus Aurelius)
98 – 117 – Reign of Trajan – Roman Empire reaches its largest extent
180 CE – reign of Commodus ends the Pax Romana (200 years of peace in Rome)
192 – 395 Late Imperial Period – decay in art and leadership with few exceptions
193 – 235 – Severan Dynasty rules Rome (Septimus Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus)
235-284 – Rule of the Barracks Emperors (Emperors came from army) – chaotic period of rulers
284 – 305 – Reign of Diocletian – forms tetrarchy (rule of 4) to stop chaos of succession- starts Great Persecution of Christians – destroys churches and kills many people

The Roman Era

305 – 337 CE – Reign of Constantine the Great – legalizes Christianity in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan, becomes first Christian Emperor in 337 CE on his deathbed.
330 CE – Constantine moves capital of empire from Rome to Byzantium and renames the city Constantinople
395 CE – Emperor Theodosius issues the Edict of Theodosius which makes Christianity the only legal religion in the Empire – Christians now persecute other religions
410 CE – Visigoths sack Rome
455 CE – Vandals sack Rome
476 CE – Ostrogoths sack Rome and depose last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus – Ostrogoth leader Odovacer takes title king of Italy – Roman Empire in the West is no more

Roman Era - Religion

Romans were polytheistic (many gods)
Romans had more gods than any other culture because whenever they conquered a civilization they adopted the local gods too instead of forcing their religion upon others
Head of the Roman religion was called the “pontifex maximus” – chief priest
Augurs were the priests who used divination to tell the future
Household gods of the house and fields were called lares and penates
The main Roman gods were the same as the Greek gods but had different names

Major Roman Gods and their Greek Equivalents

Roman
Jupiter (Giove)
Juno
Neptune
Pluto
Vulcan
Vesta
Apollo
Venus
Mars
Minerva
Diana
Mercury
Bacchus
Hercules

Greek
Zeus
Hera
Poseidon
Hades
Haphaestus
Hestia
Apollo
Aphrodite
Ares
Athena
Artemis
Hermes
Dionysios
Herakles

Roman Era

The Romans wrote plays as well, though their preference was for comedies.
Plautus and Terence were early playwrights.
The ‘father of Latin literature’ was Quintus Ennius
The Romans were also interested in science as T. Lucretius writes in his On the Nature of Things - http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.1.i.html
The greatest poet of Rome was Catullus who wrote to his lost love Clodia - http://intranslation.brooklynrail.org/latin/eleven-poems-of-catullus
And the greatest Latin Epic was written by Virgil called the Aeneid (the story of the only surviving Trojan who escaped and founded Rome) in Book 6, here, Aeneas , the hero travels to the underworld - http://www.theoi.com/Text/VirgilAeneid6.html
The world’s first novel written by Petronius, the raunchy Satyricon - https://www.gutenberg.org/files/5225/5225-h/5225-h.htm

Roman Era

Key Roman innovations
1) The arch
2) Cement
3) Use of brick
4) Republican form of government
5) Plumbing

Roman Era

Key Terms
Veristic - true to natural appearance
Coffers – recessed panels usually on a ceiling
Pantheon – temple to all the gods
Tetrarchy – rule by 4
Aqueduct – water conduit

Roman Art Characteristics

Practical – buildings had a purpose
Realistic not idealistic in portraits and sculpture
Beauty saved for interiors not exterior
Use of arch which allows for larger buildings and the dome
Use of cement for stronger more durable buildings
Heavy use of brick

Arch, Barrel Vault and Groin Vault

Roman Art

Appian Way
312 BCE
Rome, Italy
Appius Claudius Caecus
Built as the queen of the roads leading to Rome
Built for a faster route for reinforcements and military supplies originally
One of the earliest roads connecting to Rome from Brindisi in the south

Roman Art

Aqua Appia
312 BCE
Rome, Italy
Appius Claudius Caecus
First aqueduct in Rome

Roman Art

Circus Maximus
600-400 BCE
Rome, Italy
Circus’ were where chariot races and other Ludi (games) were held
Largest circus in Roman world – over 2000 ft long and 400 ft wide.
150,000 people could sit here and as such, major public executions were held here

Roman Art

Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Portunas)
1st century BCE
Rome, Italy
Typical Roman temple in Greek style
Exceptions: Roman temples had more than 3 steps and had only one entrance

Roman. Plan: Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Temple of Portunus), Forum Boarium (cattle market), Rome. Late second century BCE.

Roman Art

Temple of Hercules
80 BCE
Rome, Italy
Romans also introduced the circular temple into their architecture
Although circular there was still only one entrance
Roof has hole like the Pantheon

Roman Art

Bocca della Verita
80 BCE
Rome, Italy
Probably served as a drain cover in the Temple of Hercules
The god Oceanus is represented here.
It is standing in front of the Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, where tourists place their hands in the mouth to test if they are telling the truth

Roman Art

Ponte Rotto (Pons Aemilius remains)
2nd century BCE
Rome, Italy
Ponte Rotto means broken bridge, it is the only surviving piece of the original Pons Aemilius
Oldest stone bridge in Rome

Roman Art

Julius Caesar
1st century BCE
Rome, Italy
All Roman portraits were realistic – even the great Julius Caesar can be seen with all his faults
Long aquiline nose, receding hairline, wrinkles
Caesar changed the calendar to the one we use today and invented the newspaper

Caesar

Caesar was also a prolific writer
He wrote about his wars in France - http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.1.1.html as well as the Civil War that happened on his return.
Caesar also built or repaired many buildings in Rome
But he grew too powerful as Cicero wrote http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Cic.%20Phil.

Roman Art

Theater of Marcellus
44 – 13 BCE
Rome, Italy
Julius Caesar
Caesar cleared space and design during his lifetime but died long before it was built, it was inaugurated by Augustus
Fit 12,000 people
Largest theater in ancient Rome

Roman Art

Basilica Aemilia
179 BCE
Rome, Italy
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
It was 300 x 100 feet
Public building for court cases and civic things

Roman Art

Basilica Julia
46 -42 BCE
Rome, Italy
Julius Caesar
Housed more law courts as well as shops
In particular inheritance cases were heard here

Roman Art

Curia Julia (Senate House)
44 – 29 BCE
Rome, Italy
Julius Caesar
Survived in one piece because it was converted to a church , Sant’Adriano al Foro.
This was where the Senate met for discussions and passing of laws

Roman Art

Rostra
500 BCE
Rome, Italy
Rostra comes from the Latin Rostrum (the front part of warships). There were originally 6 placed here after the victory of the Battle of Antium in 338 BCE
All important public speeches and announcements were done from here

Roman Art

Temple of Saturn
497 BCE, 283 BCE
Rome, Italy
Tarquinius Superbus
Rebuilt many times
This temple housed the treasury of Rome since Saturn the god represented wealth
The official scales for weighing metals was here

Roman Art

Temple of Castor and Pollux
484 BCE, 117 BCE
Rome,Italy
Aulus Albus Regillensis
Rebuilt after fire by Tiberius in 14 BCE
Castor and Pollux are known as the Dioscuri
According to legend they helped on the battlefield in a Roman victory over its last king
The senate often met here in secret

Roman Art

Temple of Vesta
6th century BCE
Rome, Italy
Temples to Vesta were always round
One of earliest structures in the forum
The legal wills of citizens were stored here
The sacred fire of Vesta was here, believed that if it went out Rome would fall

Roman Art

House of the Vestal Virgins
6th century BCE, rebuilt 64 CE
Rome, Italy
Home of the Vestal Virgins who tended the sacred fire
Vestals were to remain virgins until they died or retired – punishment for violating the oath was death by being buried alive

Roman Art

Julian Forum (Forum of Caesar)
54-46 BCE
Rome, Italy
Julius Caesar
The Roman Forum had grown overcrowded, so Caesar had a smaller one built attached to larger one in the northeast corner

Roman Art

Temple of Venus Genetrix
54-46 BCE
Rome, Italy
Julius Caesar
This temple was dedicated to Venus the ancestor – Caesar claimed direct ancestry to Venus
Venus Genetrix is the goddess of motherhood and domesticity, the mother of Aeneas
Dedicated September 26, 46 BCE at the end of Caesar’s triumphal parade

Roman Art

Portrait of a Roman
80 BCE
Rome, Italy
Realism was key to Romans – even if it meant the portrayal of unpleasant features
Note – brow, cheeks, chin. Bags under eyes

Roman Art

Roman Forum
4th century BCE – 5th century CE
Rome, Italy
The forum was the center of Rome, like the agora in Athens
All major businesses, temples, courts and offices were located here

Roman. Closer Look: The Forum Romanum and Imperial Forums, Rome: Model. 117 BCE - 46 CE.

Imperial Rome

Roman Art

Augustus Prima Porta
20 - 15 BCE
Rome, Italy
Even with Emperors Romans preferred reality rather than idealism in portraiture – although Augustus’ body may be idealized his facial features are certainly individualized.

Roman Art

Ara Pacis
13 – 9 BCE
Rome, Italy
Artist: Augustus?
Reliefs and altar are considered the masterpiece of the Augustan Era
Specific people and specific events are depicted in Augustus’ life

Roman Art – Ara Pacis Reliefs

Imperial Art

Temple of Mars Ultor
42-2 BCE
Rome, Italy
Augustus
Mars Ultor – means Mars the Avenger, it was built to celebrate Augustus win over the assassins of Julius Caesar at Philippi
All military decisions were made here

Imperial Art

Mausoleum of Augustus
28 BCE
Rome, Italy
Augustus
Large tomb for Augustus and his family
Building began after victory at Battle of Actium over Marc Antony and Cleopatra

Maison Carée

Nimes, France

ca. 1-10 C.E.

Much larger in scale the Fortuna Virilis – same rules followed

Later turned into a guest room in a mansion

Imperial Art

Aqueduct of Nimes (Pont de Gard)
40-60 CE
Vers-Pont-du-Gard, France
31 miles long brings water from Uzes to Nimes
Was used until 1800s

Imperial Art

Domus Tiberianus
50 – 70 CE
Rome, Italy
Caligula and Nero
The palace was linked by a bridge to the temple of Castor and Pollux
Not built by Tiberius, despite its name

Imperial Art

Porta Maggiore
52 CE
Rome, Italy
Claudius
One of the gates into Rome
Built decoratively at the end of 2 aqueducts

Roman Art

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)
72 – 80 CE
Rome, Italy
The largest amphitheater in the Roman world
It seated 50,000 in under 5 minutes.
It included a sail that was used to cover the top in bad weather
It was used for free entertainment.

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

Arch of Titus

Rome, Italy

81 C.E.

Triumphal arches were built to

celebrate major victories over foreign enemies

This one celebrates Titus victory over the Jews

Pompeii

Eyewitness description of Pompeii’s destruction by Pliny - http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm
Pompeii, Herculaneum in 4k HD - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBLVODvvAyI

Roman Art

Temple of Apollo
2nd century BCE – 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
Most important temple in Pompeii
A high podium entrance and columns imported from Nocera

Roman Art

Basilica
184 BCE – 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
Oldest known basilica in Roman world
Similar to a Greek stoa

Roman Art

Large Theater
1st century BCE, 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
Seated around 5000 people
Built into a natural hill like those in Greece
Bigger plays and dramas were performed here

Roman Art

Odeon
80 BCE, 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
Seated around 1500 people
Musical performances and educational material delivered here to smaller audiences

Roman Art

Gymnasium
1st century BCE, 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
This gymnasium was built for gladiator training

Amphitheater

Pompeii, Italy

ca. 70 C.E.

Used for gladiator fights, mock naval battles, animal hunts, and some public executions

All entertainment was free

Roman Art

Public Baths
1st century BCE
Pompeii, Italy
Bath houses were open to all members of the public
This bath house has only one dressing room which suggests men and women shared it

Roman. Plan, House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii. First century BCE.

Roman. Atrium, House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii. First century BCE.

Roman Art

House of the Faun
80 BCE, 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
One of the largest houses in Pompeii
A luxurious aristocrats home
The impluvium is seen here, the place that caught rain water

Roman Art

Battle of Issus
100 BCE
Pompeii, Italy
Mosaic copy of famous Greek painting
Shows Alexander the Great defeating the Persian king Darius III

Roman Art

Villa of the Mysteries
80 bCE , 79 CE
Pompeii, Italy
One of the best preserved homes in Pompeii
Named for the frescos found in the house showing the mystery cult of Bacchus

Roman Art – Mystery Murals

Roman Art

Domus Augustana
92 CE
Rome, Italy
Rabirius
Not related to Augustus
This was actually the private section of the Emperor Domitian’s home

Roman Art

Domus Flavia
92 CE
Rome, Italy
Rabirius
Public part of the Palace of Domitian
Used for entertaining and ceremonies

Roman Art

Trajan’s Market
100 – 110 CE
Rome, Italy
Apollodorus of Damascus
The world’s oldest shopping mall
Also included administrative offices and even a library

Roman Art

Trajan’s Forum
100-112 CE
Rome, Italy
Apollodorus of Damascus
Built with money from spoils of war from the Dacians (Romania)
It includes an open space of 300 x 380 feet

Forum of Trajan, restored view

Roman. Closer Look: The Forum Romanum and Imperial Forums, Rome: Forum of Trajan, restored view by Gilbert Gorski (color drawing).
110-112 CE.

Roman Art

Column of Trajan
106-113 CE
Rome, Italy
Some emperors chose Columns rather than arches to celebrate their victories
This one by Trajan celebrates his victory over the Dacians (modern day Romania)
Which explains both the name of the country and why they speak a language based on Latin (Romance Languages)
Column served as Trajan’s tomb

Roman Art

Hadrian’s Wall
122 CE
River Tyne to Solway Frith, northern Britain
A stone wall with forts and turrets spaced along side
73 miles long

Hadrian’s Villa
120-130 CE
Tivoli, Italy
Built as a vacation retreat from Rome for the emperor
He moved here permanently around 128 and ruled from here instead of Rome

Canopic Pool
123-124 CE
Tivoli, Italy
The Canopus pool represents a branch of the Nile River
Used for summer banquets

Hadrian’s Tomb
134-139 CE
Rome, Italy
Today it is part of the Vatican and renamed Castel Sant’Angelo
A secret passage from the Pope’s palace comes to this tomb
Many emperors ashes were placed here including Caracalla

Roman Art

Pantheon
118-125 CE
Rome, Italy
Architect: Hadrian
Best preserved imperial temple in Roman world
Rebuilt by emperor Hadrian originally built on orders of Agrippa
Temple to all the gods
More famous for its interior

Roman. The Pantheon, Rome, schematic drawing showing original forecourt. 118-125 CE.

Pantheon - Interior

Rome, Italy

ca. 118-125 C.E.

Roman Art

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
141 CE
Rome, Italy
Antoninus Pius
Later converted into a church San Lorenzo in Miranda
Only the portico survives as the rest was scavenged

Triumphal Column of Marcus Aurelius
176 -193 CE
Rome, Italy
A triumphal column that shows Marcus Aurelius’ defeat of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians

Roman Art

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
161- 180 CE
Rome, Italy
Bronze – this is the only surviving Roman equestrian statue, the others were melted down or destroyed (mainly by Christians) – this one survived because it was erroneously believed to be the Christian Emperor Constantine.

Model of an Insula

Ostia, Italy

2nd century C.E.

Typical Roman apartment, stores on ground floor, apartments above

Higher floors = poorer people

Late Imperial Rome

Bust of Commodus
192 CE
Rome, Italy
Marble portrait sculpture shows Commodus as Hercules
Son of Marcus Aurelius ended the reign of the 5 Good Emperors and began the end of the Pax Romana

Arch of Septimus Severus
203 CE
Rome, Italy
Triumphal arch commemorating Septimus Severus victory over the Parthians
Included images of his 2 sons until Caracalla erased his brother

Baths of Caracalla, Rome, aerial view. 211-217 CE.

Roman. Baths of Caracalla, Rome, aerial view. 211-217 CE.

Roman Art

Caracalla
215 CE
Rome, Italy
Caracalla was often described as angry – and it seems the artist captured that look here
Note the detail of the beard on the face

Late Imperial Period

Aurelian Walls
271 – 275 CE
Rome, Italy
Emperor Aurelian
Enclosed all 7 Hills of Rome
Covers 3500 acres

Baths of Diocletian
298 – 306 CE
Rome, Italy
Public bath house built for people of the Viminal Hill
A church was built with using the baths walls and design over them, designed by Michelangelo , who did not want to destroy the original structures

Palace of Diocletian (model)

Split, Croatia

ca. 300 - 305 C.E.

Retirement home of Roman Emperor

Portraits of the four tetrarchs

St. Mark’s, Venice

ca. 305 C.E.
porphyry

51 in. high

Borders on early Byzantine style - deteriorated

Amphitheater of Verona
30 CE
Verona, Italy
Seats 30,000 people
Still in use today

Circus of Constantine and Maxentius
306-312 CE
Rome, Italy
Started by Maxentius and Completed by Constantine
On the Appian Way
Best preserved circus in Rome and 2nd largest

Basilica Maxentius and Constantine

Rome, Italy

306-312 C.E.

Basilica would become major Christian building, originally served as court houses and public offices

Roman. Continuity & Change: Christian Rome: The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, also known as the Basilica Nova, Rome: plan.
306–313 CE.

Roman Art

Arch of Constantine
312-315 CE
Rome, Italy
Built to Celebrate Constantine’s victory at Milvian Bridge
Art work has so decayed that the rondels (round items) were actually stolen off of other Emperor’s monuments
There is no Christian symbolism on this arch – it is strictly pagan

Roman Art

Constantine the Great
325 -326 CE
Rome, Italy
As the 4th century dawned (301-400) – skilled artisans were less abundant and the quality of work declined
Note how disproportionate these parts are.
Realism fades as symbolism prevails – size = power

Roman Art

Roman Era

The End . . .
Next Lecture . . .
Judaism, Early Christian and Byzantine Era