Introduction to Leadership Concepts.

174 Module 2 • Design Leadership Relationsh ips

Leadership style This is how a leader goes about addressing the four elements of defining the goal, clarifying the path, removing obstacles. and providing support. Styles include Directive: The leader provides guidance and psychological structure; Supportive: The leader provides nurturance; Participative: The leader provides involvement; and Achievement oriented: The leader challenges others to work to the next level.

The key to maximizing follower motivation lies in how the leader goes about addressing these four elements, often called a leadership style. What does each of these elements look like from your perspective as a leader? How would you go about accomplishing these for each follower? ·

A leader's style represents the beginning of you understanding your tendencies but only as a springboard from which to shift and alter your behaviors to maximize follower and organizational success. Many leaders will justify their ineffective behavior by saying (and thinking), "Well, that is my leadership style; my followers will just have to get used to it." Maybe ... or maybe they (your followers) will disengage, sabotage the mission, or just find another organization.

The great news: With work, you can change your default leadership style, and doing so is as easy as refocusing on what each follower needs, their goals, the path to those goals, and what the task/s requires. The fit between these variables, as shown by leadership scholar Peter Northouse, 5 is shown in Table 7.1 below.

- --- - - --- TABLE 7.1 • Fitting Leadership Behavior With Follower and Task

----- --- -

Leadership Behavior laka, your style) , Follower Characteristics Task Characteristics

- -

Directive Dogmatic, authoritarian Ambiguous, unclear rules,

Provides guidance and complex

psychological structure

Supportive Unsatisfied, need affiliation, Repetitive, unchallenging,

Provides nurturance need human touch mundane

Participative Autonomous, need for Ambiguous, unclear,

Provides involvement control, need for clarity unstructured

Achievement oriented High expectations, need to Ambiguous, challenging,

Provides challenge excel complex

Effective leaders discern what style will work best given the situation, to what degree, at what point, and with whom.6 If you are working with high-achieving individuals who are very self-directed, using a directive style will not only be ineffective but also be perceived as condescending and an obstacle in the path. We will explore this notion in greater detail later in the chapter.

There are many leadership styles-including more to this particular theory. However, the essential message remains: To be effective, leaders need to fadlitate followers by providing those things that will help their progress and by removing obstacles from that progress.

LEADERSHIP THAT MAKES A DIFFERENCE

A challenge that has plagued college campuses for decades is hazing. For instance, in a study of more than 325,000 NCM athletes, more than 80% reported hav• ing been exposed to "questionable to unacceptable activities." 7 Hazing most often occurs in Greek societies,

athletic teams, and the band. And while one would like to think the problem has gotten better, there have been a number of high-profile cases in recent years that have brought shame and disgrace to individuals and their institutions.

Chapter 7 • Influence, Power, and Motivation 175

The roots of hazing likely stem back to the military and other rites-of-passage ceremonies that new or younger members have endured. From a power and influence perspective, 1t is a fascinating topic because on a college campus the desire for inclusion can be overwhelming, and seemingly good people engage in activities that are dangerous, abusive, and demeaning. It would seem that the individuals engaged in the hazing have a great deal of influence and power over the individuals being hazed. According to Chaney, the practice of hazing continues in many organizations on college campuses, even though

illegal in 44 states and highly discourage d by college administrations. 8

Unfortunately, the leadership that makes a difference m this instance is the toxic leadership. While not all bands, teams, or fraternities haze, in this instance, the common vision is warped, lacks morality, and 1s illegal in many places. Perhaps even more disturbing is the number of bystanders who may not actively engage but do not have the fortitude and courage to stand up to the ringleaders. Why? What influence tactics are used? How 1s power being used or abused? What motivates someone to haze or be hazed?

At the heart of effective leadership is a strong sense of self and the values that guide the leader's work. Alignment between expressed values and actions is paramount when work- ing with others. Individuals who align values and activities not only serve as role models for others, they build trust-a key ingredient for leadership and relationships.

Forms of Influence

Learning Objectives

7.1 Describe the role of influence in leadership

7.2 Describe the difference between influence, manipulation, and authority

Just like many other topics, there is an entire literature base on the topic of influence.9 It is a complex subject and requires self-awareness, awareness and empathy for others, and a sound grounding in your values. Influence is the process of moving individuals or groups to the desired mindset, position, behavior, or place. Leaders need to consider an even more fundamental idea of influence, namely, that while they are influencing others, they too are subject to being influenced. Once this reality is understood, leaders can more fully understand their motivations. The leader can consider five dichotomous elements. For instance, what would be more effective? Direct influenc~, like an appeal to why this task is important, or an indirect influence, like appealing to a follower's colleagues who then influence the follower? Should the influence be overt such that they know you are trying to influence them in a specific manner, or covert such that the influence is masked?

There are also physical, psychological, and contextual dimensions to influence, as shown in Table 7 .2 on page 17 6. For instance, are you using some kind of psychological/ cognitive means of influence (e.g., appeal to relationship, guilt inducement, etc.); a physi- cal means (i.e., something more tangible like bonus pay); or contextual, where you alter the environment as part of influencing (e.g., play soothing music, take away the chairs so folks have to stand and talk)?

• REFLECTION QUESTION Which of the forms of influence listed above have you used in the last couple days with your peers, at your job, or in your student organization?

Influence The process of moving individuals or groups to a desired mindset, position, behavior, or place

....___

..........

176 Module 2 • Design Leadership Relationships

TABLE 7.2 • Forms of Influence

Form of Influence Form of Influence

Direct-Leader focuses influence efforts on the specific subject of influence.

Indirect-Leader seeks to influence the subject by way of other individuals.

Overt-Leader's efforts to mfluence are clearly seen.

Conscious-Leader wants subject to be aware of efforts to influence.

Active-Leader is currently purposefully trying to influence others.

Covert-Leader's efforts to influence are hidden

Unconscious-Leader wants subject to be unaware they are being influenced.

Passive-Leader 1s mfluencing others even without purposefully trying

Individual-Influence is focused on a single person.

Group-Influence is focused on a group and utilizes group dynamics.

-

LEADERSHIP BY DESIGN

Design Principle: Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Definition: The ratio of relevant to irrelevant information .

In Other Words: How much junk is in the way of impor- tant stuff?

For Example: How does a mascot clearly express themselves or tell a story without using any words? They have a strong signal-to - noise ratio since their actions are not muddled by spee ch. Likewise, PowerPoint presentations with too much information on each slide are filled with noise that distracts from key points.

For Leaders: What is your signal-to-noise ratio when it comes to your followers? How much of what you commun icate is relevant [to them) versus not rel- evant? Leaders influence others through the many ways they communicate, but those messages need to be clear, focused, and relevant. Be mindful of the

signal-to -noise ratio that you put forth in all the ways you and your organization communicate. Confirm shared meaning. Edward Tufte said, "There 's no such thing as information overload, only bad design." What noise is getting in the way of your designing leader- ship relationships?

6 vi g ,,. i-, 0 3 ;;;, ., :::r m

,:, .. a.

Authorityfigu r e an individual whose role provides them with formal power to determine the fate of individuals or groups

The Difference Between Influence and Authority In addition to forms of influence, leaders should understand the difference between influ- ence and authority or what is called legitimate or formal power. An authority figure ls an

Chapter 7 • Influence, Power, and Motivation 177

individual whose role provides them with formal power to determine the fate of individuals or groups. Formal power is legitimate power bestowed upon an individual who holds a position or role ( e.g., judge, police officer). For instance, a police officer has the formal power to give you a ticket, a judge can put you in jail, and your professor has the authority to issue you a grade. And while you may not agree with their decisions, they have the authority afforded to them by a larger body because of their role. Leadership scholar Ron Heifetz has a unique and interesting perspective on this concept.

Our language fails us, too, when we discuss, analyze and practice leadership. We commonly talk about "leaders" in organizations or politicswhen we actually mean people in positions of managerial or political authority. Although we have confounded leadership with authority in nearly every journalistic and scholarly article written on "leadership" during the last one hundred years, we know intuitively that these two phenomena are distinct when we complain all too frequently in politics and business that "the leadership isn't exercising any leadership," by which we actually mean to say that "people in authority aren't exercising any leadership."10

It is important to remember that leadership is not about the use of formal power and authority. In many ways, it is about using informal power, which is derived from an individual cha.racteristic such as charisma, expertise, experience, wisdom, and so forth. Leadership is about influencing others toward a shared vision. They are partners in the process and want to engage and commit to a better future.

The Difference Between Influence and Manipulation There is also a very important difference between influencing someone and manipula- tion. Manipulation is similar to influence but often with more of a hidden or inauthen- tic intent. Manipulation usually involves an ulterior or hidden motive.11 There is a level of deceit in manipulation. A general objective would be that leaders are transparent and upfront about their motives as they work to move individuals or groups to a desired mind- set, position, behavior, or place .

Moving Individuals and Team From A to Z Learning Obj ective

7.3 Identify 11 key approaches to influencing others

Influencing up, down, across- the process of influencing others is multidirectional, and it is likely you have been influencing others your entire life. Whether it is your peers when making plans on a Friday evening or influencing your parents to let you stay out just a little later in high school-you were practicing influence. Organizational life is very simi- lar. Throughout your career, you will be influencing your peers, your subordinates, and your supervisor. An adage goes that "we all answer to someone." If you view your student organizations, your internships, and your job as practice fields, you will be ahead of the game. Likewise, if you pay close attention to how others in the organization are success- fully influencing up, across, and down, you .will glean important data as you progress through the organization.

Formal power legitimate power bestowed upon an individual who holds a position or role le.g., judge, police officer)

Informal power power derived from an individual characteristic such as charisma. expertise, experience, wisdom, and so forth

Manipulation similar to influence but often with more of a hidden or inauthentic intent

178 Module 2 • Design.Leadership Relationships

Influence tactics These are actions designed to move

others to a desired mindset. Examples include [al Rational persuasion: Sharing facts and using logic to persuade others; {bl Lead a coalition: Convening a group of like- minded people to convince

decision makers; lei Win-win: Helping others see how they will benefit from your idea or solution; [di Inspirational appeal: Aligning your proposed direction with the values, mission, and vision of

the group or organization; and

[el Ingratiation: Increasing the level of positive feelings among the key decision makers.

According to authors Ricky Griffin and Jean Phillips, "all influential people have power, but not all powerful people have influence." As discussed, influence is a central activity when leading others, and as a result, it is an important skill whether you have formal authority or not. In other words, even when you are not in charge, you still have an oppor- tunity to influence others. A number of the concepts discussed in this chapter are relevant regardless of your title or formal role.

People with real or perceived power can wield a great deal of influence. 12 An individual who brings a great deal of experience or expertise to a situation will often have influence over the group. People will place trust and confidence in their opinion. But this qual- ity of being believed (i.e., credibility) is a powerful force that must be used with care. Individuals can overestimate their abilities, or they may underesti.Jnate the complexity of the context, which can mean proposed solutions are really not as straightforward and simple as suggested .13 Likewise, group members need to think critically about the sugges- tions from people who have a great deal of expertise or experience. Blindly trusting can be a recipe for disaster.

• REFLECTION QUESTIONS Can you think of a time when you blindly placed too much confidence in an individual who had a great deal of experience or expertise? What was the context? What were the positive or negative results on you or the group?

Influence Tactics for Leaders The following section comprises a list of influence tactics that is by no means exhaustive but provides a strong foundation for anyone hoping to lead others. Influence tactics are actions designed to move others to a desired mindset. Three words need to be top of mind as you influence others-experimentation, authenticity, and intentionality. First, no single resource will tell you exactly how to influence-not your mom, the team, your peers, or your supervisor-but they all will provide clues. In essence, you are running a well-planned experiment. Similar to the sciences, some experiments work, and others do not. The second word, authenticity, means that you are open and honest about your inten- tions. People do not want to feel manipulated or duped because of your ulterior motives. Likewise, tactics such as manipulation and deceit diminish trust-the foundation of stable relationships. The third word is intentionality. Purposefully plan and prepare for how you will influence ·others. An off-the-cuff influence attempt likely will not yield the results that a planned intervention will. As a result, you need to be intentional about how you inter- vene. It is not merely a default reaction or a last-minute, knee-jerk response.

Involve Others/Consulting-By involving others, you are providing them with a voice to help set the course and determine their role in the group 's or organiza- tion's success.14 Also, you are helping them acclimate to the new direction, provide input, and gain enthusiasm based on the energy of the group. By involving others, there is a shared sense of mission and shared vision which can unleash the energy needed to accomplish great things. Where have you seen this approach work in the last week? 15

Design Principle: Horror Vacui

Definition: A fear of emptiness that results in a ten- dency to favor filling that emptiness with objects, sound, or meaning. 16

In Other Words: People fear empty space and are compelled to fill it.

For Example: Essay questio ns on exams should be answered concisely, but if there is still room left over to write more, students may feel compelled to fill in the blank space with redundant information. Likewise, if you post a question with a blank space, people will be compelled to ________ ___,

For Leaders: Leaders who can overcome the horror of empty space add considerably to their influe n ce toolkit. When you leave open space for your followers, they will fill it-with acti vity, with

Chapter 7 • Influence, Power, and Motivation

meaning, with innovative ideas-all of which com- municates that you value and trust their contribu- tions. The simplicity of unfilled spaces can more clearly highlight and focus on what is in the space- like the mission or a particular project. Try sit- ting in silence with someo n e-they are inev itably co mpe lled to speak-t·o fill the space with words. When you are comfor t able with the empty space of silence, it communica t e s confidence, gives you time to think, and provides an opportun ity for oth- ers. What empty spaces are you compelled to fill? When you purposefully leave an empty space, oth- ers will be compelled to fill it, often with their own meaning. Be cautious with horror vacui though. Who or what are you silencing when you choose to fill an empty space versus encouraging others to do so? Taylor Swift even sings about horror va cui-she has a blank space, so she wants to write your name.17

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Facts/Logic/Rational Persuasion-While it is well established that humans do not always make decisions based on what makes logical sense,18 helping others understand the logic behind your thinking is important because it will resonate with a faction of the individuals you are working to influence. 19 The key is to align your logic with the values and needs of the group you are working to influence. For instance, if you are influencing a group of sales managers, you would want to provide concrete information on how your solution could improve sales and increase their return on investment. When have you used this with a professor?

Rational persuasion See Influence tactics

Relationships-Relationships and influence are closely interconnected:20 As a result, it is vital that you do your best to build strong, lasting relationships when possible. While this is easy in concept, building relations~ips takes time and energy, which at times, individu- als do not feel they have. However, strong relationships are an investment and a critical influence strategy. More often than not, people are influenced by others that they trust and like. Do you have a relationship with the last person you asked to write you a letter of recommendation?

Lead a Coalition-The adage of strength in numbers is an important concept when it comes to the topic of influence.21 A lone voice has much less power than a group of indi- viduals with a shared mission or vision for a better future. However, just because you have a coalition of motivated individuals does not mean everything is set. It will be wise to weave in elements such as logic, relationships, win-win, and empathy as well. When was the last time you were part of a collation of friends who wanted to get your way?

Emphasize Win-Win-When influencing others, it is important to emphasize the win-win. In other words, you are helping others see how they will benefit from the approach or strategy you are suggesting.22 Framing an option as a win-win allows all parties

Lead a coalition See Influence tactics

Win-win See Influence tactics

180 Module 2 • Design Leadership Relationships

Inspirational appeal See Influence tactics

Ingratiation See Influence tactics

to benefit from the proposed solution. This approach requires empathy which means that you can place yourself in the shoes of the other individual. You can see the issue from their perspective and identify approaches that will help them accomplish their goals. When have you used this on your parents?

Create Positive Energy-If you have enthusiasm and energy for your proposed solution, it is likely that others will too. 23 Create positive and authentic energy around your recommended course of action. While not a silver bullet, positive energy is a neces- sary ingredient. When combined with other influence tactics in this section,· positivity and optimism have enormous power to influence. One caveat: It is vital that your opti- mism and enthusiasm are authentic, measured, and appropriate. Who among your peers does this best?

Inspirational Appeal-Similar to creating positive energy, inspirational appeal is more focused on aligning your proposed direction with the values, mission, and vision of the group or organization.24 You are appealing to the core of what the group was intended to be. A famous example of this would be Martin Luther King, Jr.'s I Have a Dream speech in which he aligned his words and hopes with the founding tenets of the United States of America. With an inspirational appeal, it is all about bringing your argument back to the mission and living into the purpose of the organization or institution. Can you think of the last cause you gave to? How did the concept of inspirational appeal influence your decision? ·

Negotiation/Bargaining/Exchange-Humans have been influencing one another via bargaining and exchange since the beginning of their existence. Also known as reciprocity, it means an exchange of this for that. 25 It is likely you have been using this influence strategy your entire life with peers, parents, siblings, and supervisors. It is an important tool because if both parties can feel like they are gaining something, it is more likely that an agreement can be made. The key is empathy. What do they need, and how will your exchange help them achieve their goals? How is this similar to but different from win/win?

Personal Appeal-A personal appeal relies heavily on the relationship between two individuals. 26 In a sense, it is using the connection as a primary reason for compliance. While it is true that relationships are critical to the influence process, it is important to observe when you are being asked to make decisions that go against what is ethically appro- priate; fair; or, at an extreme, illegal. Personal appeal is a powerful force. Most people want to see their friends and inner circle succeed and progress. Have you used personal appeal in the last couple of days?

Pressure/Coercion-An individual using this influence strategy is often using their formal power or authority to dictate behavior.27 There are many shades of this influence strategy, from offhand comments, such as "you better start 'studying because you cannot afford to fail this exam," to outright threats and violence. While pressure and coercion can seem extreme, they are valuable tools that most people in leadership have to use at one time or another. For instance, a chronically underperforming employee or an individual working outside of the rules and expectations may need to be pressured to act in line with organizational expectations and nqrms.

Ingratiation-An individual using this influence tactic is concerned with increasing the level of positive feelings among the key decision makers. 28 Making oneself more like- able to followers in order to influence them can be direct, or through association. A state- ment such as, "Under Xiaoting's leadership we have come so far, and this strategy is a way for us to continue his legacy," purposefully appeals to the positive feelings Xiaoting elicited as a leader. A leader using this appeal wants to influence followers to adopt the pro- posed strategy in the statement because followers liked Xiaoting and his actions. Similar to many other influence strategies, this approach combined with logic, win-win, inspirational appeal, and so forth can be a powerful combination. Can you think of a time you could have used this tactic?

Chapter 7 • Influence, Power, and Motivation

TABLE 7.3 • Influence Tactics for Leaders

Involve others/consulting

Facts/log1c/rational persuasion

Relationships

Lead a coalition

Emphasize win-win

Create positive energy

Inspirational a'ppeal

Negotlat1on/bargaining/ exchange

Personal appeal

Pressure/coercion

Ingratiation

Definition

Involving others in the decision-making process

Sharing facts and using logic to persuade others

Using personal relationships to sway opinions

Convening a group of like-minded people to convince decision makers

Helping others see how they will benefit from your idea or solution

Building enthusiasm and energy for your proposed solution

Aligning your proposed direction with the values, mission, and vision of the group or organizat10n

Exchanging this for that or engaging in dialogue to establish a path forward

Appealing to personal relationships as a way to sway opinions

Using formal power or authority to dictate behavior

Increasing the level of positive feelings among the key decision makers

Gaining Power in Groups and Organizations

Learning Objectives

7,4 Analyze how people use power

7. 5 Understand 10 sources of power

At times, the word power can be perceived as a negative thing. In truth, power is neither good nor bad. Humans make it so. In· other words, what people do with their power will make all the difference. As we explored in Chapter 4, some have used their power for destructive purposes or show up as "bosses from hell" as scholar Ron Riggio29 suggests. These individuals are using personalized power, which is about using po.wer for personal gain. 30 Another type of power is called socialized power, which is used to benefit the masses. For instance, for years Kiwanis has had a mission of "serving the children of the world." Through their Eliminate Project,

Kiwanis' current global campaign for children, The Eliminate Project: Kiwanis eliminating maternal/neonatal tetanus, aims to raise US$110 million and save the lives of 129 million mothers and their future babies. In partnership with UNICEF, Kiwanis is committing by 2015 to eliminating maternal/neonatal tetanus, a disease that kills one baby every nine minutes.31

This story is an example of an organization using its power and ability to mobilize hundreds of thousands of men and women toward one cause and make a difference in the world. Leaders should consistently reflect upon how they are using their power. Likewise, a

181