Introduction to Leadership Concepts Homework Questions

8

Transformational Leadership

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One of the current and most popular approaches to leadership that has been the focus of much research since the early 1980s is the transformational approach. Transformational leadership is part of the "New Leadership" paradigm (Bryman, 1992), which gives more attention to the charismatic and affective elements of leadership. In a content analysis of articles pub­ lished in The Leadership Quarterly, Lowe and Gardner (2001) found that one third of the research was about transformational or charismatic leader­ ship. Similarly, Antonakis (2012) found that the number of papers and citations in the field has grown at an increasing rate, not only in traditional areas like management and social psychology, but in other disciplines such as nursing, education, and industrial engineering. Bass and Riggio (2006) suggested that transformational leadership's popularity might be due to its emphasis on intrinsic motivation and follower development, which fits the needs of today's work groups, who want to be inspired and empowered to succeed in times of uncertainty. Clearly, many scholars are studying trans­ formational leadership, and it occupies a central place in leadership research. However, others (i.e., Andersen, 2015; Anderson, Baur, Griffith, & Buckley, 2017) have suggested that the interest in transformational leadership may be exaggerated and that this approach to leading may be less significant as millennials continue to flood into the workplace.

As its name implies, transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms people. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals. It includes assessing followers' motives, sat­ isfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings. Transformational leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to

164 LEADERSHIP ITHEORY AND PRACTICE

accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. It is a process that often incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership.

An encompassing approach, transformational leadership can be used to describe a wide range ofleadership, from very specific attempts to influence followers on a one-to-one level, to very broad attempts to influence whole organizations and even entire cultures. Although the transformational leader plays a pivotal role in precipitating change, followers and leaders are inextri­ cably bound together in the transformation process. In fact, transformational leadership focuses so heavily on the relationship between leader and follower that some (Andersen, 2015) have suggested that this bias may limit explana­ tions for transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness.

Transformational Leadership Defined

The emergence of traniformational leadership as an important approach to leadership began with a classic work by political sociologist James MacGregor Burns titled Leadership (1978). In his work, Burns attempted to link the roles of leadership and followership. He wrote of leaders as people who tap the motives of followers in order to better reach the goals of leaders and follow­ ers (p. 18). For Burns, leadership is quite different from power because it is inseparable from followers' needs.

Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership. Burns distinguished between two types of leadership: transactional and traniformational. Transactional leadership refers to the bulk ofleadership models, which focus on the exchanges that occur between leaders and their followers. Politicians who win votes by promising "no new taxes" are demonstrating transactional leadership. Similarly, managers who offer promotions to employees who surpass their goals are exhibiting transactional leadership. In the classroom, teachers are being transactional when they give students a grade for work completed. The exchange dimension of transactional leadership is very com­ mon and can be observed at many levels throughout all types of organiza­ tions. While exchanges or transactions between leader and member are a natural component of employment contracts, research suggests that employ­ ees do not necessarily perceive transactional leaders as those most capable of creating trusting, mutually beneficial leader-member relationships (Notgrass, 2014). Instead, employees prefer managers to perform transformational leadership behaviors such as encouraging creativity, recognizing accomplish­ ments, building trust, and inspiring a collective vision (Notgrass, 2014).

In contrast to transactional leadership, transformational leadership is the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower. This type ofleader is attentive to the needs and motives of followers

Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 165

d tries to help followers reach their fullest potential. Burns points to a~ohandas Gandhi as a classic example of transformational leadership. Gandhi raised the hopes and demands of millions of his people and, in the process, was changed himself

Another good example of transformational leadership can be observed in the life of Ryan White. This teenager raised the American people's awareness about AIDS and in the process became a spokesperson for increasing gov­ ernment support of AIDS research. In the organizational world, an example of transformational leadership would be a manager who attempts to change his or her company's corporate values to reflect a more humane standard of fairness and justice. In the process, both the manager and the followers may emerge with a stronger and higher set of moral values. In fact, Mason, Griffin, and Parker (2014) demonstrated that through transformational leadership training, leaders were able to enhance their self-efficacy, positive affect, and ability to consider multiple perspectives. Their findings suggest that transformational leadership can result in positive psychological gains for both leader and follower.

Pseudotransformational Leadership. Because the conceptualization of transformational leadership set forth by Burns ( 1978) includes raising the level of morality in others, it is difficult to use this term when describing a leader such as Adolf Hitler, who was transforming but in a negative way. To deal with this problem, Bass (1998) coined the term pseudotraniformational leadership. This term refers to leaders who are self-consumed, exploitive, and power oriented, with warped moral values (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Pseudotransformational leadership is considered personalized leadership, which focuses on the leader's own interests rather than on the interests of others (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Authentic transformational leadership is socialized leadership, which is concerned with the collective good. Socialized transformational leaders transcend their own interests for the sake of others (Howell &Avolio, 1993).

In a series offour experimental studies, Christie, Barling, and Turner (2011) set forth a preliminary model of pseudotransformational leadership that reflected four components of transformational leadership discussed later in this chapter: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimula­ tion, and individualized consideration. This model helps to clarify the meaning of pseudotransformational leadership. It suggests that pseudotransforma­ tional leadership is inspired leadership that is self-serving, is unwilling to encourage independent thought in followers, and exhibits little general car­ ing for others. A pseudotransformational leader has strong inspirational tal­ ent and appeal but is manipulative and dominates and directs followers toward his or her own values. It is leadership that is threatening to the wel­ fare of followers because it ignores the common good.

166 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

To sort out the complexities related to the "moral uplifting" component of authentic transformational leadership, Zhu, Avolio, Riggio, and Sosik (2011) proposed a theoretical model examining how authentic transformational leadership influences the ethics of individual followers and groups. The authors hypothesize that authentic transformational leadership positively affects followers' moral identities and moral emotions (e.g., empathy and guilt) and this, in turn, leads to moral decision making and moral action by the followers. Furthermore, the authors theorize that authentic transforma­ tional leadership is positively associated with group ethical climate, decision making, and moral action. In the future, research is needed to test the validity of the assumptions laid out in this model.

Transformational leadership and Charisma

At about the same time Burns's book was published, House (1976) pub­ lished a theory of charismatic leadership. Since its publication, charismatic leadership has received a great deal of attention by researchers (e.g., Conger, 1999; Hunt & Conger, 1999). It is often described in ways that make it similar to, if not synonymous with, transformational leadership.

The word charisma was first used to describe a special gift that certain indi­ viduals possess that gives them the capacity to do extraordinary things. Weber (1947) provided the most well-known definition of charisma as a special per­ sonality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader. Despite Weber's emphasis on charisma as a personality characteristic, he also recognized the important role played by followers in validating charisma in these leaders (Bryman, 1992; House, 1976).

In his theory of charismatic leadership, House suggested that charismatic leaders act in unique ways that h ave specific charismatic effects on their followers (Table 8.1) . For House, the personality characteristics of a charis­ matic leader include being dominant, having a strong desire to influence oth­ ers, being self-confident, and having a strong sense of one's own moral values.

In addition to displaying certain personality characteristics, charismatic leaders demonstrate specific types of behaviors. First, they are strong role models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to adopt. For example, Gandhi advocated nonviolence and was an exemplary role model of civil disobedience. Second, charismatic leaders appear competent to fol­ lowers. Third, they articulate ideological goals that h~ve moral overtones. Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech is an example of this type of charismatic behavior.

Fourth, charismatic leaders communicate high expectations for followers, and they exhibit confidence in followers' abilities to meet these expectations.

chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 167

ality Characteristics, Behaviors, and Effects on Person . d h" Followers of Charismatic Lea ers 1p

Behaviors

Sets strong role model

Shows competence

Articulates goals

Communicates high expectations

Expresses confidence

Arouses motives

Effects on Followers

Trust in leader's ideology

Belief similarity between leader and follower

Unquestioning acceptance

Affection toward leader

Obedience

Identification with leader

Emotional involvement

Heightened goals

Increased confidence

impact of this behavior is to increase followers' sense of competence and ,elf. 1 ·,Ky (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988), which in turn improves their performance.

fifth, charismatic leaders arouse task-relevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power, or esteem. For example, former U.S. president John , Kennedy appealed to the human values of the American people when he tar d, ''Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for

ur ountry."Within the organizational context, charismatic CEOs may m rivate members of their organization by modeling and fostering a trans­ formational leadership climate (Boehm, Dwertmann, Bruch, & Shamir, 2015), which may result in increases in employee identification with their or , nization and in overall organizational performance.

• ·cording to House's charismatic theory, several effects are the direct result of dw-ismatic leadership. They include follower trust in the leader's ideology, simi­ larity between the followers'beliefs and the leader's beliefs, unquestioning accep­ tance of the leader, expression of affection toward the leader, follower obedience, Identification with the leader, emotional involvement in the leader's goals, height­ ened goals for followers, and increased follower confidence in goal achievement. Consistent with Weber, House contends that these charismatic effects are more likely to occur in contexts in which followers feel distress because in stressful ituations followers look to leaders to deliver them from their difficulties.

• • •

168 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

House's charismatic theory has been extended and revised through the years ( Conger, 1999; Conger &Kanungo, 1998). One major revision to the theory: made by Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993). They postulated that charismati leadership transforms followers' self-concepts and tries to link the identity ~

0 followers to the collective identity ofthe organization. Charismatic leaders forge this link by emphasizing the intrinsic rewards ofwork and de-emphasizing the extrinsic rewards. The hope is that followers will view work as an expression of themselves. Throughout the process, leaders express high expectations for fol­ lowers and help them gain a sense of confidence and self-efficacy.

In summary, charismatic leadership works because it ties followers and their self-concepts to the organizational identity.

A Model of Transformational Leadership

In the mid.:.1980s, Bass (1985) provided a more expanded and refined ver ion of transformational leadership that was based on, but not fully consistent with, the prior works of Burns (1978) and House (1976). In his approach, Bass ex~ended Burns's work by giving more attention to followers' rather than leaders' needs, by suggesting that transformational leadership could apply to situations in which the outcomes were not positive, arid by describing trans­ actional and transformational leadership as a single continuum (Figure 8.1) rather than mutually independent continua (Yammarino, 1993). Bass extended House's work by giving more attention to the emotional elements and origins of charisma and by suggesting that charisma is a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership (Yammarino, 1993).

Figure 8.1 Leadership Continuum From Transformational to Laissez-Faire Leadership

Transformational Transactional Laissez-Faire Leadership Leadership Leadership

Bass (1985, p. 20) argued that transformational leadership motivates follow­ ers to do more than expected by (a) raising followers' levels of consciousness about the importance and value of specified and idealized goals, (b) getting followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team or organization, and (c) moving followers to address higher-level needs. An elaboration of the dynamics of the transformation process is provided in his model of transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985, 1990; Bas~ &Avolio, 1993, 1994). Additional clarification of the model is provided by Avolio in his book Full Leadership Development: Building the Vital Forces in Organizations (1999).

Chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 169

Leadershi p Factors

influence arisma

r2

Factor 3

Factor 4

lized consideration

Transactional leadership Factor 5

Contingent reward Constructive transactions

Factor 6

Management by exception Active and passive

Corrective transactions

laissez-Faire leadership Factor 7

Laissez-faire Nontransactional

an be seen in Table 8.2, the model of transformational and transactional leadershipincorporates seven different factors. These factors are also illustrated in

Full Range ofLeadership modeL which is provided in Figure 8.2 on page 170. discussion of each of these seven factors will help to clarify Bass's model. This

discussion will be divided into three parts: transformational factors (4), transac­ tional factors (2), and the nonleadership, nontransactional factor (1).

Transformational Leadership Factors

Transformational leadership is concerned with improving the performance of followers and developing followers to their fullest potential (Avolio, 1999; Bass &Avolio, 1990a). People who exhibit transformational leader­ ship often have a strong set of internal values and ideals, and they are effec­ tive at motivating followers to act in ways that support the greater good rather than their own self-interests (Kuhnert, 1994). Individuals' intentions to lead in a transformational manner appear related to effective transforma­ tional leadership behaviors (Gilbert, Horsman, & Kelloway, 2016) .

ldeafized Influence. Factor 1 is called charisma or idealized influence. It is the emotional component ofleadership (Antonakis, 2012). Idealized influ­ ence describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers; followers identify with these leaders and want very much to emulate them. These leaders usually have very high standards of moral and ethical conduct and can be counted on to do the right thing. They are deeply respected by fol­ lowers, who usually place a great deal of trust in them. They provide follow­ ers with a vision and a sense of mission.

170 LEADERSHIP ! THEORY AND PRACTICE

Figure 8.2 Full Range of Leadership Model

Effective

Passive

LF

Ineffective LEGEND

Nonleadership LF Laissez-Faire

Transactional MBE-P Management by Exception, Passive MBE-A Management by Exception, Active CR Contingent Reward

Transformational 4 l's Idealized Influence Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration

SOURCE : From Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership, by B. M. Bass and B. J. Avolio, 1993, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Copyright 1994 by SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

The idealized influence factor is measured on two components: an attribu­ tional component that refers to the attributions ofleaders made by followers based on perceptions they have of their leaders, and a behavioral component that refers to followers' observations ofleader behavior.

In essence, the charisma factor describes people who are special and who make others want to follow the vision they put forward. A person whose leadership exemplifies the charisma factor is Nelson Mandela, the first non-White pres­ ident of South Africa. Mandela is viewed as a leader with high moral standards

Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 171

'sion for South Africa that resulted in monumental change in how the ..,d ~ Vlof South Africa would be governed. His charismatic qualities and the ~1:•respan e to them transformed an entire nation. Ii ,rational Motivation. Factor 2 is called inspiration or inspirational ~vation. This factor is descriptive of leaders who communicate high

tlW ctations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to become ~ mitted to and a part of the shared vision in the organization. In prac­ :e, leaders use symbols and emotional appeals to focus group members' efforts to achieve more than they would in their own self-interest. Team spirit is enhanced by this type of leadership. An example of this factor would be a sales manager who motivates members of the sales force to excel in their work through encouraging words and pep talks that clearly com­ municate the integral role they play in the future growth of the company.

Intellectual Stimulation. Factor 3 is intellectual stimulation. It includes lead­ ership that stimulates followers to be creative and innovative and to challenge their own beliefs and values as well as those of the leader and the organization.

This type of leadership supports followers as they try new approaches and develop innovative ways of dealing with organizational issues. It encourages followers to think things out on their own and engage in careful problem solving. An example of this type of leadership is a plant manager who pro­ motes workers' individual efforts to develop unique ways to solve problems that have caused slowdowns in production.

Individualized Consideration. Factor 4 of transformational leadership is called individualized consideration. This factor is representative ofleaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully to the individual needs of followers. Leaders act as coaches and advisers while trying to assist followers in becoming fully actualized. These leaders may use delegation to help followers grow through personal challenges. An example of this type of leadership is a manager who spends time treating each employee in a caring and unique way. To some employees, the leader may give strong affiliation; to others, the leader may give specific directives with a high degree of structure.

In essence, transformational leadership produces greater effects than transac­ tional leadership (Figure 8.3). Whereas transactional leadership results in expected outcomes, transformational leadership results in performance that goes well beyond what is expected. In a meta-analysis of 39 studies in the transformational literature, for example, Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubram~am (1996) found that people who exhibited transformational leadership were per­ ceived to be more effective leaders with better work outcomes than those who exhibited only transactional leadership. These findings were true for higher­ and lower-level leaders, and for leaders in both public and private settings.

172 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

Figure 8.3 The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Idealized +Influence

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Contingent Reward

+ Management by Exception

Inspirational Intellectual Individualized+ +Motivation Stimulation Consideration

PerformanceExpected BeyondOutcomes

Expectations

SOURCE : Adapted from "The Implications of Transactional and Transformational Leadership for Individual, Team, and Organizational Development," by B. M. B_ass and B. J. Avolio, 1990a, Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4, pp. 231-272 .

Transformational leadership has an additive effect; it moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. They become moti­ vated to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or orga­ nization (Bass & Avolio, 1990a). In fact, transformational leaders are most likely to have a positive impact on followers when followers identify with or find meaning in their work (Mohammed, Fernando, & Caputi, 2013) .

In a study of 220 employees at a large public transport company in Germany, Rowold and Heinitz (2007) found that transformational leadership aug­ mented the impact of transactional leadership on employees' performance and company profit. In addition, they found that transformational leadership and charismatic leadership were overlapping but unique constructs, and that both were different from transactional leadership.

Similarly, Nemanich and Keller (2007) examined the impact oftransformational leadership on 447 employees from a large multinational firm who were going through a merger and being integrated into a new organization. They found that transformational leadership behaviors such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation were pos­ itively related to acquisition acceptance,job satisfaction, and performance.

Tims, Bakker, and Xanthopoulou (2011) examined the relationship between transformational leadership and work engagement in 42 employees and their supervisors in two different organizations in the Netherlands. Findings revealed that employees became more engaged in their work (i.e., vigor,

Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 173

. and nb orption) when their supervisors were able to boost employ­ . ism through a transformational leadership style. These findings

:optin1. the important role played by personal characteristics (i.e., opti­ ) in the transformational leadership-performance process. Similarly,

, Van Yperen, Wisse, and Sassenberg (2014) found that transforma- 1 ders were more likely than transactional leaders to promote achieve­ of followers' mastery goals. This suggests that transformational leaders

be c pecially effective in environments where followers need to focus on ng, development, and mastering job- related tasks rather than a more

'tive or performance-based work context. Transformational leaders can followers to even greater levels of success when they have a high-quality n hip based on trust, loyalty, and mutual respect (Notgrass, 2014).

ional Leadership Factors

_,.,...__·actional leadership differs from transformational leadership in that the ••;111'l111isactional leader does not individualize the needs of followers or focus on

personal development. Transactional leaders exchange things of value followers to advance their own and their followers' agendas (Kuhnert,

99 ). Transactional leaders are influential because it is in the best interest of Dowers for them to do what the leader wants (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987).

Contingent Reward. Factor 5, contingent reward, is the first of two transac- al leaden.hip factors (Figure 8.3). It is an exchange process between leaders

and fullowets in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards. 1th this kind ofleadership, the leader tries to obtain agreement from follow­ on what must be done and what the payoffs will be for the people doing it. example of this type of constructive transaction is a parent who negotiates

'th a child about how much time the child can spend playing video games after doing homework assignments. Another example often occurs in the aca­ demic setting: A dean negotiates with a college professor about the number and quality ofpublications he or she needs to have written in order to receive tenure and promotion. Notgrass (2014) found that contingent rewards, or the leader's use of clarifying or supporting achievement behaviors, are most effective when followers feel that they have a high-quality relationship with their leader.

Management by Exception. Factor 6 is called management by exception. It is leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative tti nforcement. Management by exception takes two forms: active and passive.

leader using the active form of management-by-exception watches follow­ ers closely for mistakes or rule violations and then takes corrective action. An cnmple of active management by exception can be illustrated in the leader­ hip of a sales supervisor who daily monitors how employees approach cus­

tomers. She quickly corrects salespeople who are slow to approach customers

174 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

in the prescribed manner. A leader using the passive form intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisen. An example of passive management by exception is illustrated in the leadership of a supervi­ sor who gives an employee a poor performance evaluation without ever talk­ ing with the employee about her or his prior work performance. In essence

' both the active and passive management types use more negative reinforce- ment patterns than the positive reinforcement pattern described in Factor 5 under contingent reward.

Nonleadership Factor

In the model, the nonleadership factor diverges farther from transactional leadership and represents behaviors that are nontransactional.

Laissez-Faire. Factor 7 describes leadership that falls at the far right side ofthe transactional-transformational leadership continuum (Figure 8.1). This factor represents the absence ofleadership. As the French phrase implies, the laissez­ faire leader takes a "hands-off, let-things-ride" (nontransactional) approach. This leader abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs. There is no exchange with fol­ lowers or attempt to help them grow. An example of a laissez-faire leader is the president of a small manufacturing firm who calls ilo meetings with plant supervisors, has no long-range plan for the firm, acts detached, and makes little contact with employees. While laissez-faire leadership has traditionally been viewed negatively, recent research (Yang, 2015) argues that laissez-faire leader­ ship may not be the absence ofleadership, but instead may be a strategic behav­ ioral choice by the leader to acknowledge and defer to followers' abilities, decrease their dependency, and increase their self-determination, self­ competence, and autonomy. In this case, the leader would be strategically per­ forming laissez-faire leadership by empowering followers to lead.

Interestingly, research does indicate that leaders may be most effective when they combine transformational leadership behaviors with elements of laissez­ faire and transactional leadership (Antonakis & House, 2014). This reiterates what most of the leadership theories in this book suggest: All approaches to leadership have strengths and weaknesses, and because leading effectively means consistently surveying follower, task, and environmental needs and pres­ sures, oftentimes the best approach is a combination ofleadership approaches.

Other Transformational Perspectives

In addition to Bass's (1985, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994) work, two other lines of research have contributed in unique ways to our understanding of the nature of transformational leadership. They are the research of Bennis

Chapter 8 I Transformational leadership 175

(1 985) and the work of Kouzes and Posner (2002, 2017). These .-1 imilar research methods. They identified a number of middle- or

leaders and conducted interviews with them, using open­ aemi trucrured que tionnal re . From this information, they con­ their models o leader hip.

and , anus (2007) asked 90 leaders basic questions such as "What trengths and weaknesses?" "What past events most influenced

leadership approach?" and "What were the critical points in your ?" From the answers leaders provided to these questions, Bennis and

identified four common strategies used by leaders in transforming

transforming leaders had a clear vision of the future state of their ations. It was an image of an attractive, realistic, and believable

(Bennis & Nanus, 2007, p. 89). The vision usually was simple, under­ lc, beneficial, and energy creating. The compelling nature of the

touched the experiences of followers and pulled them into support­ the organization. When an organization has a clear vision, it is easier people within the organization to learn how they fit in with the overall

·on of the organization and even the society in general. It em powers bcLause they feel they are a significant dimension of a worthwhile rise (pp. 90-91). Bennis and Nanus found that, to be successful, the

n had to grow out of the needs of the entire organization and to be l'i!.lllim~ by those within it. Although leaders play a large role in articulating

· ion, the emergence of the vision originates from both the leaders and fullowers.

nd, transforming leaders were social architects for their organizations. · means they created a shape or form for the shared meanings people

maintained within their organizations. These leaders communicated a direc­ t transformed their organization's values and norms. In many cases,

I aders were able to mobilize people to accept a new group identity or new philo ophy for their organiza tion .

Third, transforming leaders created trust in their organizations by making their own positions clearly known and then standing by them. Trust has to

with being predictable or reliable, even in situations that are uncertain. For organizations, leaders built trust by articulating a direction and then ~ istently implementing the direction even though the vision may have UlV lved a high degree of uncertainty. Bennis and Nanus (2007) found that

hen leaders established trust in an organization, it gave the organization a nse ofintegrity analogous to a healthy identity (p. 48).

176 LEADERSHIP !THEORY AND PRACTICE

Fourth, transforming leaders used creative deployment efselfthrough positive self-regard. Leaders knew their strengths and weaknesses, and they empha­ sized their strengths rather than dwelling on their weaknesses. Based on an awareness of their own competence, effective leaders were able to immerse themselves in their tasks and the overarching goals of their organizations. They were able to fuse a sense of self with the work at hand. Bennis and Nanus also found that positive self-regard in leaders had a reciprocal impact on followers, creating in them feelings of confidence and high expectations. In addition, leaders in the study were committed to learning and relearning, so in their organizations there was consistent emphasis on education.

Kouzes and Posner

Kouzes and Posner (2002, 2017) developed their model by interviewing leaders about leadership. They interviewed more than 1,300 middle- and senior-level managers in private and public sector organizations and asked them to describe their "personal best" experiences as leaders . Based on a content analysis of these descriptions, Kouzes and Posner constructed a model of leadership.

The Kouzes and Posner model consists of five fundamental practices that enable leaders to get extraordinary things accomplished: model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart. For each of the five practices of exemplary leadership, Kouzes and Posner also have identified two commitments that serve as strat­ egies for practicing exemplary leadership.

Model the Way. To model the way, leaders need to be clear about their own values and philosophy. They need to find their own voice and express it to others. Exemplary leaders set a personal example for others by their own behaviors. They also follow through on their promises and commit­ ments and affirm the common values they share with others.

Inspire a Shared Vision. Effective leaders create compelling visions that can guide people's behavior. They are able to visualize positive outcomes in the future and communicate them to others. Leaders also listen to the dreams of others and show them how their dreams can be realized. Through inspiring visions, leaders challenge others to transcend the status quo to do something for others.

Challenge the Process. Challenging the process means being willing to change the status quo and step into the unknown. It includes being willing to innovate, grow, and improve. Exemplary leaders are like pioneers: They want to experiment and try new things. They are willing to take risks to make things better. When exemplary leaders take risks, they do it one step at a time, learning from their mistakes as they go.

Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 177

Others to Act. Outstanding leaders are effective a~ working with The>' build trust with others and promote collaboration. Teamwork

tion are highly valued by these leaders. They listen closely to •nrs of view and treat others with dignity and respect. They also$ers co make choices, and they support the decisions that others

ln short, they create environments where people can feel good about and how it contributes to the greater community.

· h·,research indicates that women tend to display transformational hip through more enabling behaviors whereas men tend to enact

challenging behavior (Brandt & Laiho, 2013).

,age the Heart. Leaders encourage the heart by rewarding others for accomplishments. It is natural for people to want support and recognition.

leaders are attentive to this need and are willing to give praise to fo r jobs well done. They use authentic celebrations and rituals to

appreciation and encouragement to others. The outcome of this kind rt is greater collective identity and community spirit.

, the Kouzes and Posner model emphasizes behaviors and has a pre­ quality: It recommends what people need to do in order to become

·ve leaders. The five practices and their accompanying commitments 'de a unique set of prescriptions for leaders. Kouzes and Posner (2002,

f, 13) tressed that the five practices of exemplary leadership are available to ne and are not reserved for those with "special" ability. The model is

IIOt about personality: It is about practice.

To mcasure the behaviors described in the model, Kouzes and Posner developed die Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). The LPI is a 360-degree leadership

ment tool that consists of 30 questions that assess individual leadership mmpctend.e .1t has been widely used in leadership training and development.

HOW DOES THE TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP APPROACH WORK? - - - ----

Th tta.a formarional approach to leadership is a broad-based perspective that encompasses many facets and dimensions of the leadership process. In general, it describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out signifi­ cant changes in organizations. Although not definitive, the steps followed by transformational leaders usually take the following form.

Transformational leaders set out to empower followers and nurture them in change. They attempt to raise the consciousness in individuals and to get diem to transcend their own self-interests for the sake of others. For example, Jung, how, and Wu (2003) studied upper-level leadership in 32 Taiwanese

178 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

companies and found that transformational leadership was directly related to organizational innovation. Transformational leadership created a culture in which employees felt empowered and encouraged to freely discuss and l

. ry newthmgs.

To create change, transformational leaders become strong role models for their followers. They have a highly developed set of moral values and a self­ determined sense of identity (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988). They are confident competent, and articulate, and they express strong ideals. •

They listen to followers and are not intolerant of opposing viewpoints. A spirit of cooperation often develops between these leaders and their followers. Followers want to emulate transformational leaders because they learn to trust them and believe in the ideas for which they stand.

It is common for transformational leaders to create a vision. The vision emerges from the collective interests of various individuals and units in an organization. The vision is a focal point for transformational leadership. It gives the leader and the organization a conceptual map for where the orga­ nization is headed; it gives meaning and clarifies the organization's identity. Furthermore, the vision gives followers a sense of identity within the orga­ nization and also a sense of self-efficacy (Shamir et al., 1993).

The transformational approach also requires that leaders become social archi­ tects. This means that they make clear the emerging values and norms of the organization. They involve themselves in the culture of the organization and help shape its meaning. People need to know their roles and understand how they contribute to the greater purposes of the organization. Transformational leaders are out front in interpreting and shaping for organizations the shared meanings that exist within them. As Mason et al. (2014) pointed out, enact­ ing transformational behaviors changes leaders too, not just followers .

Throughout the process, transformational leaders are effective at working with people. They build trust and foster collaboration with others. Transformational leaders encourage others and celebrate their accomplishments. In the end, transformational leadership results in people feeling better about themselves and their contributions to the greater common good.

STRENGTHS

In its present stage of development, the transformational approach has several strengths. First, transformational leadership has been widely researched from many different perspectives, including a series of qualita­ tive studies of prominent leaders and CEOs in large, well-known organiza­ tions. It has also been the focal point for a large body ofleadership research

Chapter 8 ITransformational Leadership 179

introduction in the 1970s. For example, content analysis of all the blished in The Leadership Quarterly from 1990 to 2000 showed

t' of the articles were about transformational or charismatic ip (Lowe & Gardner, 2001).

tnnsformational leadership has intuitive appeal. The transformational \,c describes how the leader is out front advocating change for others; cept is consistent with society's popular notion of what leadership

conPcople are attracted to transformational leadership because it makes to them. It is appealing that a leader will provide a vision for the future.

transformational leadership treats leadership as a process that occurs _,,.....,_,,.'n followers and leaders. Because this process incorporates both the

rs' and the leader's needs, leadership is not the sole responsibility of a er but rather emerges from the interplay between leaders and followers.

The needs of others are central to the transformational leader. As a result, fi,llowcrs gain a more prominent position in the leadership process because

ir attributions are instrumental in the evolving transformational process (Bryman, 1992, p. 176).

Fourth, the transformational approach provides a broader view ofleadership that augments other leadership models. Many leadership models focus pri­ marilv on how leaders exchange rewards for achieved goals-the transac­ tton ,ii process. The transformational approach provides an expanded picture oflcadership that includes not only the exchange of rewards, but also leaders' attention to the needs and growth of followers (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1985). Transformational leadership has also been demonstrated to contribute to the leader's personal growth (Notgrass, 2014).

Fifth, transformational leadership places a strong emphasis on followers' needs, values, and morals. Burns (1978) suggested that transformational leadership involves attempts by leaders to move people to higher standards of moral responsibility. It includes motivating followers to transcend their own self­ interests for the good of the team, organization, or community (Howell &

volio, 1993; Shamir et al., 1993). Transformational leadership is fundamen­ tally morally uplifting (Avolio, 1999). This emphasis sets the transformational approach apart from all other approaches to leadership because it suggests that leadership has a moral dimension. Therefore, the coercive uses of power by people such as Hitler, cult leader David Koresh, and Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte can be disregarded as models ofleadership.

Finally, there is substantial evidence that transformational leadership is an effective form of leadership (Yukl, 1999). In a critique of transformational and charismatic leadership, Yukl reported that in studies using the Multifactor Leadership C29estionnaire (MLQ} to appraise leaders, transfor­ mational leadership was positively related to follower satisfaction, motivation,

180 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE

and performance. Furthermore, in studies that used interviews and observa­ tions, transformational leadership was shown to be effective in a variety of different situations.

CRITICISMS ----------- ---

Transformational leadership has several weaknesses. One criticism is that it lacks conceptual clarity. Because it covers such a wide range of activities and characteristics-including creating a vision, motivating, being a change agent, building trust, giving nurturance, and acting as a social architect, to name a few-it is difficult to define exactly the parameters of transforma­ tional leadership. Specifically, research by Tracey and Hinkin (1998) has shown substantial overlap between each of the Four Is (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized con­ sideration), suggesting that the dimensions are not clearly delimited. Furthermore, the parameters of transformational leadership often overlap with similar conceptualizations ofleadership. Bryman (1992), for example, pointed out that transformational and charismatic leadership often are treated synonymously, even though in some models ofleadership (e.g., Bass, 1985) charisma is only one component of transformational leadership. Others have questioned whether the four dimensions of transformational leadership (i.e., the Four Is) are the reasons for transformational leadership or if they are simply descriptions of transformational leadership (e.g., Andersen, 2015; Tourish, 2013). At present researchers are not sure if these dimensions predict transformational leadership or just help to explain the presence of transformational leadership.

In addition, Andersen (2015) suggested that transformational leadership was created to be used within social and political contexts-not in corpora­ tions. However, many researchers have been using the theory to explore managerial rather than political leadership.

Another criticism revolves around how transformational leadership is measured. Researchers typically have used some version of the MLQto measure transformational leadership. However, some studies have chal­ lenged the validity of the MLQ In some versions of the MLQ the four factors of transformational leadership (the Four Is) correlate highly with each other, which means they are not distinct factors (Tejeda, Scandura, & Pillai, 2001). In addition, some of the transformational factors correlate with the transactional and laissez-faire factors, which means they may not be unique to the transformational model (Tejeda et al., 2001). It has also been suggested that transformational leadership could be better mea­ sured and understood through a narrative perspective (Andersen, 2015; Tengblad, 2012).

Chapter 8 I Transformational Leadership 181

. • · m is that transformational leadership treats leadership as a per­ . or personal predisposition rather than a behavior that people can

an, 1992, pp. 100-102). If it is a trait, training people in this becomes more problematic because it is difficult to teach people how their traits. Even though many scholars, including Weber, House, and

ized that transformational leadership is concerned with leader such as how leaders involve themselves with followers, there is an to see this approach from a trait perspective. Perhaps this problem

because the word transformational creates images of one person most active component in the leadership process. For example, even

creating a vision" involves follower input, there is a tendency to see · nal leaders as visionaries. There is also a tendency to see transfor­

leaders as people who have special qualities that transform others. images accentuate a trait characterization oftransformational leadership.

researchers have not established that transformational leaders are able to transform individuals and organizations (Antonakis, 2012). evidence that indicates that transformational leadership is associ­ positive outcomes, such as organizational effectiveness; however,

have not yet clearly established a causal link between transforma­ leadcrs and changes in followers or organizations. However, there may

glimmer of hope in this regard as Arthur and Hardy (2014) were able an experimental design to evaluate the effectiveness of a transformational

·pintervention in rerriediating poor performance in an organization. rovides initial evidence that transformational leadership behaviors

result in some expected positive changes.

criticism some have made is that transformational leadership is elitist and atic (Avolio, 1999; Bass &Avolio, 1993).Transformational leaders

pla ·a direct role in creating changes, establishing a vision, and advocating dirtttions. This gives the strong impression that the leader is acting inde­

dy of followers or putting himself or herself above the followers' needs. h this criticism of elitism has been refuted by Bass and Avolio (1993)

~ o (1999), who contended that transformational leaders can be directive participative as well as democratic and authoritarian, the substance of the · raises valid questions about transformational leadership.

_to this criticism, some have argued that transformational leadership from a "heroic leadership"bias (Yukl, 1999). Transformational leader­

ltn ses that it is the leader who movesfollowers to do exceptional things. focusing primarily on the leader, researchers have failed to give attention

shared leadership or reciprocal influence. Followers can influence leaders as leaders can influence followers. More attention should be directed

how leaders can encourage followers to challenge the leader's vision hare in the leadership process.

182 LEADERSHIP ! THEORY AND PRACTICE

Another criticism of transformational leadership is that it has the potential to be abused. Transformational leadership is concerned with changing people's values and moving them to a new vision. But who is to determine whether the new directions are good and more affirming? Who decides that a new vision is a better vision? If the values to which the leader is moving his or her followers are not better, and if the set of human values is not more redeeming, then the leadership must be challenged. However the dynamics of how followers challenge leaders or respond to their vision; are not fully understood. There is a need to understand how transforma­ tional leaders affect followers psychologically and how leaders respond to followers' reactions. In fact, Burns (1978) argued that understanding this area (i.e., charisma and follower worship) is one of the central problems in leadership studies today (Bailey &Axelrod, 2001). The charismatic nature of transformational leadership presents significant risks for organizations because it can be used for destructive purposes (Conger, 1999; Howell & Avolio, 1993).

History is full of examples of charismatic individuals who used coercive power to lead people to evil ends. For this reason, transformational leadership puts a burden on individuals and organizations to be aware of how they are being influenced and in what directions they are being asked to go. Christie et al. (2011) warn that astute followers need to be vigilant and pay careful attention to the vision of their leader, whether the vision is collective or self­ focused, whether the leader is tolerant or intolerant of opposing viewpoints, and whether or not the leader is caring of followers . The potential for abuse of transformational leadership is mitigated when followers are aware and engaged in how they are being led.

A final potential weakness of transformational leadership is the fact that it may not be well received by millennials (Anderson et al., 2017) . As millenni­ als continue to replace baby boomers, organizations are recognizing that they are having to modify previous ways of doing things to meet millennials' needs. Transformational leadership is one such example. Drawing from the indi­ vidualistic orientation of many millennials, Anderson and colleagues predict that transformational leaders may be less effective because this cohort may be less willing to collaborate with others to achieve common goals. Relatedly, today's transformational leaders communicate in a way to encourage follow­ ers to prioritize organizational and task needs and goals over individual inter­ ests (Anderson et al., 2017). However, it is predicted that this will be met with resistance as millennials have expressed a greater desire for work-life balance and want to "work to live" rather than "live to work" (Ng, Schweitzer, & Lyons, 2010). Finally, it has been suggested that because millennials expect frequent promotions and value extrinsic rewards, two of the fundamental components of transformational leadership-idealized influence and inspi­ rational motivation-may be ineffective (Anderson et al., 2017).