Introduction to Leadership Concepts.

Followership While leader-centric studies have dominated the scholarship sphere on this topic, there is increasing evidence that follower-centric studies are showing significant promise in helping us understand the dynamics of the leader-follower relationship. 54 55 Most schol­ ars would agree that there is increasing use of the words follower and followership in discussions of organizational leadership. 56 Past leadership research has focused on lead­ ers and ignored the role of followers in explaining organizational successes or failures. 57

This has led to criticism of existing leadership theories for being too "leader-centric."58

The focus of these theories has been almost exclusively on the impact of leader traits and behaviors on follower outcomes. However, like leadership, good followership is

241 240 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

increasingly being recognized as an important component for strong organizational performance. 59 Good followership is about 'upward influencing.'60 Leaders have to put aside their egos and recognize that there are times when they have to listen to and take their followers' counsel on how to proceed. This is a cultural change that needs top man­ agement support, else nothing happens. 61 Robert Kelley, a pioneer and early proponent of followership, states that "without followers, leadership is meaningless and leaders don't exist."62 To adequately understand the cognitions, attributes, behaviors, and contexts of followership, researchers have focused on such questions as the following: Why do some people choose to follow? Are there different types of followers? How does one become an effective follower? Can the leadership-followership relationship be nurtured? In this section, we address these questions and more. But first, we start with a definition of followership.

Defining Followership Followership is not merely the actions of a subordinate who blindly follows the dic­ tates of formal authority figures in an organization. As such, followership is not the same as following. Following is reacting (consciously or unconsciously) to a leader's orders. In contrast, followership is a self-conscious choice of the follower in the con­ text of his or her relationship to the nominal leader. Issues of rank and authority play little or no role in such a choice. Followers are in control of the situation by the choices made. 63 Therefore, followership refers to the behavior offollowers that result from the leader-follower mutual influencing relationship. It is an interactive concept. To a large extent, societal views about followers have contributed to our limited understanding of followership. From an early age we are taught that organizations succeed because of the leader, with very little or no mention of the role of followers. The follower is seen as someone whose sole duty is to carry out the instructions of the leader. From this perspective, the follower is defined as someone who is under the direct influence and authority ofa leader.

Leaders are just one part of a duality, because there can be no leaders without follow­ ers. Effective leadership requires effective followership. Kelley and Chaleff are two early pioneers who brought focus to the role of followers in the leadership process. No work unit or organized effort can succeed and be sustained without followers; this, according to Kelley, is the power of followership. 64 Chaleff discussed the fact that effective followers are also courageous followers who tend to demonstrate certain behaviors. He identifies the five behaviors as courage to accept responsibility, courage to serve, courage to ques­ tion , courage to be part of necessary change, and courage to take a moral stand when

65 66necessary. Effective followers do more than fulfill the vision laid out by their leader; they are

partners in creating the vision. 67 They take responsibility for their actions, they take initiative in fixing problems, and they question leaders when they think they are wrong. According to Kelley, "Effective followers have the vision to see both the forest and the trees, the social capacity to work well with others, the strength of character to flourish without heroic status, the moral and psychological balance to pursue personal and corpo­ rate goals at no cost to either, and above all, the desire to participate in a team effort for the accomplishment of some greater purpose."68

Learning S Describe the two behaviors identified in the Kelley Model and the resulting f,ve Outcome follower types.

CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND FOLLOWERSHIP

Types of Followers !h~re are contextual influences that may affect both followership constructions and behav­ ~or m the foll~we: r?~e. ~or example, personal qualities such as obedience, expressing opin- 10ns, and takmg m1tiatlve have been found to be most disparate across different types of

69 ~ollowers. In her book titled Followership: How Followers Are Creating Change and Chang­ ing Leaders, Barbara Kellerman classifies followers into five categories based on their level of engagement: is~lates, bystanders, participants, activists, or diehards. 70 Another typology of_f?llower types_ 1s that of_Robert Kelley. 71 Based on their intellectual capacity to think ~ntlcally and th~ir level of mvolvement in organizational affairs- Kelley groups followers mto five categones that we will elaborate on next.

. Ex~ibit 7.1 depicts these two behavioral dimensions-level of independent critical thmkmg and the level of involvement. The high independent critical thinker refers to the fo~lo"'.er ~~o is able to examine, analyze, and evaluate matters of significance in the orga~1zati~n_s hfe. Conversely, the opposite of this person is someone who is low in ability to thmk critically. The second behavior dimension-level of involvement-refers to the followe: who takes a visible and active role in organizational affairs. The opposite of this person 1s someone who prefers to be in the background and take a passive role in organi­ zational affairs.

. A~c?rding to Kelley,_comb~ning these dimensions results in five basic follower types, 1dentif1ed as the followmg: alienated, passive, conformist, pragmatic, and effective fol­ lower (see Exhibit 7.1):

• Follower Types

EXHIBIT

High

Conformist. Efl'eaive.... C followerQI follower !: ~

0 > .!: ....

] 0

Passive. follower

low low High

Critical Thinking

• The lower-left quadrant identifies the Passive Follower. The passive follower is some­ one who is low on critical thinking and low on involvement. The passive follower looks to t~e leader or ot_hers to do all the thinking and does not get involved. Lacking in initia­ tive and commitment to the team, this invisible follower requires constant supervision and never goes beyond the job description. They are often described by their leaders as lazy, unmotivated, and incompetent.

• The upper-left quadrant identifies the Conformist Follower. The conformist follower is someone who is high on involvement but low on critical thinking. In other words, conformists are the "yes people" of the organization. They carry out all orders without

243 242 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

considering the consequences of such orders. A conformist would do anything to avoid conflict. Authoritarian leaders prefer conformist followers.

• The upper-right quadrant identifies the Effective Follower. The effective follower is someone who is high on critical thinking and involvement. Effective followers are not risk­ averse, nor do they shy from conflict. They have the courage to initiate change and put themselves at risk or in conflict with others, even their leaders, to serve the best interest of the organization. As such, they are often described as proactive. Effective followers tend to function very well in self-managed teams. They are a manager's best asset in that they complement the leader and can be relied upon to relieve the leader of many tasks.

• The lower-right quadrant identifies the Alienated Follower. The alienated follower is someone who is low on involvement, yet is high on critical thinking. The alienated follower is someone who feels cheated, or unappreciated, by his or her organization for exemplary work. Often cynical in their behavior, alienated followers are capable but unwilling to participate in developing solutions to problems. They are just happy to dwell on the negatives and ignore the positives as far as organizational life goes.

• Th e pragmatic follower exhibits a little of all four styles-depending on which style fits the prevailing situation. Pragmatic followers are "stuck in tne middle" most of the time. Because it is difficult to discern just where they stand on issues, they present an ambiguous image, with positive and negative sides. On the positive side, when an organization is going through desperate times , the pragmatic follower knows how to "work the system to get things done:' On the negative side, this same behavior can be interpreted as "playing political games:' or adjusting to maximize self-interest.

OPENING CASE Application

5. According to the followership model of follower types, what types of followers has Facebook generally attracted?

Facebook has been able to recrurt and hire some of the best minds in the industry. According to one analyst, everyone at Facebook was a star in their previous employment. Sheryl Sandberg, a veteran of Google, was the chief of staff for former

treasury secretary Lawrence Summers. She joined Facebook as the company's chief operating officer (COO) . Chns Cox,

Facebook's vice president of product, was doing a master's 1n artificial 1ntell1gence at Stanford when Zuckerberg personally

convinced him to join Facebook. "You don't get a lot of shy, retiring types at Facebook; ' said one writer. These are intelligent,

experienced, productive, and highly sought-after talents, "power nerds" to say the least. Remember, the effective follower is

someone who is high on cnt,cal thinking and involvement It is a safe bet that Zuckerberg and Facebook have mostly attracted effective followers.

Becoming an Effective Follower How individuals see their role as foilowers informs how they function. While some scholars construct follower definitions around passivity, deference, and obedience, others emphasize the importance of constructively questioning and challenging their leaders.72

To be effective as a follower, it is important to acquire the skills necessary to combine two opposing follower roles-namely, to execute decisions made by a leader, and yet be able to raise issues about those decisions when they are deemed misguided or unethical. This is often referred to as "speaking truth to power." 73 Although this is not always easy to do, followers must be willing to risk the leader's displeasure with such feedback . Moral integ­ rity and a willingness to take stands based on principle are distinguishing characteristics of the effective follower. 74 It could be argued that the effective follower has the greatest

CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND FOLLOWERSHIP

potential to become an effective leader. Developing a high level of mutual trust and re­ spect between the leader and follower can mitigate the risk of falling out of favor with the leader. In such a relationship, a leader is likely to view criticism and dissenting views as an honest effort to facilitate achievement of shared objectives, rather than as an intentional expression of personal disagreement or disloyalty: 75

The effective follower has a high self-efficacy compared to the ineffective follower. Self-efficacy is defined as a person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to produce at a certain level ofperformance. 76 Self-efficacy determines how people feel, think, and see themselves, which in turn influences their work ethic.

How followers perceive a leader plays a critical role in their ability to help the leader grow and succeed. 77 Just as leaders make attributions about follower competence, followers make attributions about leader competence and intentions. Followers assess whether the leader's primary motivation is more for his or her personal benefit or career advancement than for their own welfare and the organization's well-being. Credibility is increased and follower commitment is enhanced when the leader makes self-sacrifices to gain support for his or her ideas, rather than imposing on followers. Leaders who appear insincere or motivated only by personal gain create an atmosphere in which integrating the two opposing follower roles is impossible. Here, followers would play the passive role of conforming to the leader's expectations without offering any constructive criticism, even when it is called for in a leader's decisions and actions. Complete Self-Assessment 7-4 to learn how effective you are as a follower.

SELF-ASSESSMENT 7-4 Effective Followers

Select a present or past boss and answer each question describing your behavior using the following scale.

5 4 3 2 I I do this regularly I do not do this

I . I offer my support and encouragement to 7. I show my appreciation to my boss, such as my boss w hen th ings are not going well. saying thanks when the boss does some­

2. I take initiative to do more than my nor­ thing in my interest. mal job without havi ng to be asked to do 8. I keep the boss informed; I don't withhold t hings. bad news,

3. I counsel and coach my boss when it is 9. I wou!d resist inappropriate influence by appropriate, such as with a new, inexoe­ the boss; if asked, i would not do anything rienced boss, and in a unique situatio~ in illegal or unethical. which the boss needs help.

4. When the boss has a bad idea, I raise Add up the numbers on lines I through 9 and place

concerns and try to improve the plans, your score here __ and on the continuum below.

rather than simpl y implement a poor 9 - i 5 - 25 - 3 5 - 45

decision. Ineffective Follower Effective Follower -- 5. I seek and encourage the boss to give me

honest feedback, rather than avoid it and The higher your score, generally, the more effective

act defensively when it is offered. you are as a follower. However, your boss also has an 6. I try to clarify my rol e in tasks by mak­ effect on your followership.A poor boss can affect your

ing sure I understand my boss's expec­ followership behavior; nevertheless, make sure you do tations of me and my performance try to be a good follower. Read on to better understand standards. how to be an effective follower.

244 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

EXHIBIT •

Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower Research focused on followership has identified certain behaviors that are associated with effective followers. 78 79 These behaviors distinguish followers on top-performing teams from their counterparts on marginally performing teams. Exhibit 7.2 presents nine guidelines for effective followership; note that the nine questions in Self-Assessment 7-4 are based on these guidelines.

Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower

a. Offer support to leader.

b. Take 1nrt1ative.

c. Play counseling and coaching roles to leader when appropriate

d. Raise issues and/or concerns when necessary

e. Seek and encourage honest feedback from the leader.

f Clarify your role and expectations. g. Show appreciation.

h. Keep the leader informed.

1. Resist inappropriate influence of leader.

Offer Support to Leader A good follower looks for ways to express support and encouragement to a leader who is encountering resistance in trying to introduce needed change in his or her organization. Successful organizations are characterized by followers whose work ethic and philosophy are in congruence with those of the organization and the leader.

Take Initiative Effective followers take the initiative to do what is necessary without being told, includ­ ing working beyond their normally assigned duties. They look for opportunities to make a positive impact on the organization's objectives. When serious problems arise that impede the organization's ability to accomplish its objectives, effective followers take the risk to initiate corrective action by pointing out the problem to the leader, suggesting alternative solutions, or, if necessary, resolving the problem outright. While taking the initiative often involves risks, if done carefully and properly, it can make the follower a valuable part of the team and a member of the leader's trusted circle.

Counsel and Coach the Leader When Appropriate • Contrary to the myth that leaders have all the answers, most people now recognize that followers also have opportunities to coach and counsel leaders, especially when a leader is new and inexperienced. 80 A mutually trusting relationship with a leader facilitates upward coaching and counseling. An effective follower must be alert for opportunities to provide helpful advice, and ask questions, or simply be a good listener when the leader needs someone to confide in. Because some leaders may be reluctant to ask for help, it is the follower's responsibility to recognize such situations and step in when appropri­ ate. For example, a leader whose interpersonal relationship with another follower may be having a different effect than the leader intended could be counseled to see the inef­ fectiveness of his approach or style by another follower: "I am sure you intended for Bob to see the value of being on time when you said ... , but that is not how he took it." When coaching and counseling a leader is done with respect, it is most effective. Respect creates

CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND FOLLOWERSHIP 245

symmetry, empathy, and connection in all kinds of relationships, including that between a leader and a follower. 81

Raise Issues and/or Concerns When Necessary When there are potential problems or drawbacks with a leader's plans and proposals, a follower's ability to bring these issues or concerns to light is critical. How the follower raises these issues is crucial, because leaders often get defensive in responding to negative feedback. Followers can minimize such defensiveness by acknowiedging the leader's su­ perior status and communicating a sincere desire to be of help in accomplishing the orga­ nization's goals, rather than personal interest. When challenging a leader's flawed plans and proposals, it is important for the follower to pinpoint specifics rather than vague generalities, and to avoid personalizing the critique. This guideline is consistent with the prevailing view of the courageous follower as a person who is highly involved and very much an independent thinker with initiative and a well-developed sense of responsibility.

Seek and Encourage Honest Feedback from the Leader Followers can play a constructive role in how their leaders evaluate them. Some leaders are uncomfortable with expressing negative concerns about a follower's performance, so they tend to focus only on the follower's strengths. One way to overcome this tendency is for the follower to show willingness to accept both positive and negative feedback without being defensive. Encourage the leader to point out the strongest and weakest aspects of your work.

Clarify Your Role and Expectations Where there is evidence of role ambiguity or uncertainty about job expectations, this must be clarified with the leader. As will be revealed in Chapter 8 on leading effective teams, it is the leader's responsibility to clearly communicate role expectations for fol­ lowers. Nevertheless, some leaders fail to communicate clear job expectations, scope of authority and responsibility, performance targets, and deadlines. Followers must insist on clarification in these areas by their leaders. In some cases the problem is that of role conflict. The leader directs a follower to perform mutually exclusive tasks and expects results on all of them at the same time. Followers should be assertive but diplomatic about resolving role ambiguity and role conflict.

Show Appreciation Everyone, including leaders, loves to be appreciated when they perform a good deed that benefits others. When a leader makes a special effort to help a follower, such as help­ ing to protect the follower's interest, or nurturing and promoting the follower's career, it is appropriate for the follower to show appreciation. Even if the leader's actions don't directly benefit a particular follower but represent a significant accomplishment for the organization, it is still an appropriate gesture for followers to express their appreciation and admiration for the leader. Recognition of this kind only reinforces desirable leader­ ship behavior. Although some may argue that praising a leader is a form of ingratiation easily used to influence the leader, when sincere, it can help to build a positive leader­ follower exchange relationship.

Keep the Leader Informed Accurate and timely information enables a leader to make good decisions and to have a complete picture of where things stand in the organization. Leaders who appear not to know what is going on in their organizations do feel and look incompetent in front of their peers and superiors. It is embarrassing for a leader to hear about events or changes taking place within his or her unit from others. This responsibility of relaying information to the

247 246 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

WORK Application 7-5 Give examples of how you or someone you worked with employed some of the suggested guidelines to becoming an effective follower.

CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND FOLLOWERSHIP

leader includes both positive and negative information. Some followers tend to withhold amongst their peers. It is not uncommon for a follower of such stature to exert greater bad news from their leaders. This is just as detrimental as providing no information at all. influence over other followers than even the leader of the group can. Leaders who under­

stand this "follower-follower" dynamic can use it to their advantage. Resist Inappropriate Influence from the Leader It is not always the case that influential followers use their influence appropriately. A leader may be tempted to use his or her power to influence the follower in ways that

Some may employ their influence in negative ways to make the leader's job difficult. are inappropriate (legally or ethically). Despite the power gap between the leader and fol­ This section examines some of the key factors that have been found to enhance follower lower, the follower is not required to comply with inappropriate influence attempts, or influence. We will discuss the follower's relative power position, locus of control, andto be exploited by an abusive leader. 82 Effective followers challenge the leader in a firm, education/experience (see Exhibit 7.3).tactful, and diplomatic way. Reminding the leader of his or her ethical responsibilities,

insisting on your rights, and pointing out the negative consequences of complying are Factors That Can Enhance Follower Influencevarious ways in which a follower can resist inappropriate influence attempts by a leader.

EXHIBIT It is important to challenge such behavior early, before it becomes habitual, and to do it without personal hostility. Taking a moral stand may sometimes require the follower to psychologically and/or physically separate from the leader. •

Power Position

Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower Identify each guideline using the letters a-1 from Exhibit 7.2 on page 244.

Locus of Education ro IO I understand the leader's needs, goals, and constraints, and I work hard to help meet them. Control and Experience w

w

~ ro

I I. I make a pornt to internally question the wisdom of the leader's decision rather than Just dorng what I am told u w C

<9 12. When the leader asks me to do something that runs contrary to my professional or personal preferences, I do

you say "no" rather than "yes'.' Power Position 13. I do you assert my views on important issues, especially when I know it will help the organization achieve its

Leaders need to realize that they are no longer the sole possessors of power and .influ­ goals, even though it might mean conflict with my group

ence in their work units. The new reality is that no matter what position a person holds !4 I am actively developing my abilities in some critical areas so that I can become more valuable to the leader and in the workplace, they can be a force for change. Some followers distinguish themselves

the organization. as innovators, self-managers, or risk-takers. These are terms that have traditionally been 15. We have a new boss, and I've been filling her in on how we do things in our department. reserved for describing leaders, not followers. Some followers may have personal, referent,

!6. We only have performance reviews once a year But I wanted to know what my boss thinks of my work sooner; expert, information, and connection power that can be used to boost upward influence. so we had a meeting to discuss my performance. These power sources are discussed in Chapter 5. Any of these sources of power can give

the follower the ability to influence others at different levels of the organization. As more17 My boss hinted about having a sexual relationship, so I reminded her that I was happily married and clearly told and more employees come to rely on a particular follower for information, expertise, orher I was not interested and not to talk about rt again . simply because of his or her personality, the follower's relative power position increases. 83

18 We started a new project today but I drd not understand what I was supposed to be doing or expected to do. These are the followers that can influence other followers to slow down performance, file

So I went to talk to my boss about what to do. grievances, stage demonstrations, or even sabotage operations-all actions that can hurt a leader's reputation.

Locus of Control Learning As discussed in Chapter 2, locus of control is on a continuum between an external

6 Briefly describe the three factors than can enhance a follower's influence. Outcome and internal belief over who has control ofa person's destiny. People who believe they are

"masters of their own destiny" are said to have an internal locus of control; they believe that they can influence people and events in their workplace. People who believe they are "pawns of fate" (external locus ofcontrol) tend to believe they have no influence or control Factors That Can Enhance Follower Influence at work. The literature mostly supports the view that leadership qualities are predomi­

In every organization or work setting, some followers seem to have more influence over nantly present in those with an internal locus of control. 84 Followers with an internal

their peers (and even their leaders) than others. These are the followers that command locus of control prefer a work environment that encourages honest and open communi­

respect, trust, and loyalty from everyone, including the leader. They are opinion leaders cation with leaders, participation in decision making, and opportunities to be creative.

248 PART 2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

WORK Application 7-6 Recall a work-related incident when you felt more qualified to do the job than your boss because of your education and experience. Describe how this characteristic enabled you to infiuence your boss

They are likely to be more influential with other followers than are those with external

locus of control.

Education and Experience Not all followers have the same level of education and/or experience. These differences can have a major impact on the influencing ability of followers. Followers with valuable skills and experience may be able to use their expert power to influence other followers and even the leader. Leaders have to create opportunities to learn from others, including followers. Today's workforce is far more educated, mobile, diverse, and younger than the workforce of 30 years ago. The experienced and educated follower can be much more influential with other followers than cari the leader.

As workers' education and experience increase, they tend to reject top-down directive leadership. Leaders who ignore this fact will face higher employee dissatis­ faction and turnover and miss out on the benefits of utilizing the talents of effective

followers.

Determinants of Follower Influence Identify the speofic fo/Jower-inpuencing characteristic in each of these statements, a. power position b. locus of control c education and expenence

19. Given my technical background and long tenure in my department, I do help out other coworkers, making them look good, even when I don't get any credit

20. I try to solve the tough problems (technical or organizational), rather than look to the leader or others to do it for me

21. I believe that no matter what I do to try to get ahead, there are always people out there trying to sabotage my plans.

22. Many of my peers depend on rne for technical assis'..ance because I am the only one in the department who has been trained to work with this new machine successfuily

23 When it comes to selling my points to peers, I easily get them to see things my way rather than the boss's way due to my senionty and popularity in this division

. , ,, . ~:r~-\.. -~ .OPENING CASE Application l 1' '\.. -s

S. The text discusses factors that can determine follower influence, when applied to Facebook employees; which factor(s) in your opinion stands out?

It is clear from the case that Facebook employees are highly skilled and experienced software engineers.They are highly sought-after 1n the tech world.As mentioned in the case, everyone at Facebook was a star somewhere else and you don't find a lot of shy; retiring types there .They are described as "power nerds." Even those who have left Facebook have gone on to create their own ventures. Facebook employees have expert, connection, and referent power. By all 1ndicat1ons, they have internal locus of control. Finally, Facebook employees are highly educated and experienced given the competitive and high-tech environment in which they operate.

CHAPTER 7 LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE AND FOLLOWERSHIP 249

Dual Role of Being a Leader and a Follower As the guidelines for becoming an effective follower reveal, effective leadership is found in highly effective followers. It is important to recognize that even when someone is identified as a leader, the same person is also a follower to someone higher up the orga­ nizational hierarchy. 85 It is not at all uncommon to switch between being a leader and being a follower several times during the course of a day's work. For example, within an organization, mid-level managers answer to vice presidents, who answer to the CEO, who answers to the board of directors; within the school system, teachers answer to the prin­ cipal, who answers to the school superintendent, who answers to school board members. Regardless of one's position in an organization, we are all in a follower role to someone else. To execute both roles effectively is a challenge, but one that can be done effectively.

Delegation We now focus on developing followers by delegating tasks to them. Delegation is the process of assigning responsibility and authority for accomplishing objectives. Telling employees to perform the tasks that are part of their job design is issuing orders, not delegating. Delegating refers to giving employees new tasks. The new task may become a part of a redesigned job, or it may simply be a onetime task. The true art of delegation lies in a manager's ability to know what cannot be delegated and what should be delegated. Some management experts believe that if there were a top ten list of managerial mistakes, failure to delegate would be one ofthem. 86 In this section, we discuss delegating, delega­ tion decisions, and delegating with a model.

Delegating Effective delegation requires that a leader carefully consider several factors relating to the task, time requirement, and follower characteristics before delegating. 87 A leader should delegate work when there is not enough time to attend to priority tasks, when followers desire more challenges and opportunities, and when the tasks match follower skill levels and experiences. Also a leader must find the proper person for the job and provide careful instructions. Effective delegation allows people to prosper in their own uniqueness.

Let's begin by discussing the benefits of delegation, the obstacles to delegation, and signs of delegating too little.

Benefits of Delegation When managers delegate, they have more time to perform high-priority tasks. Delegation gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity. Delegation can empower followers and give them more confidence. 88 Delegating both responsibility and authority pushes decision making down the ladder, encourages input from operational employees who are closest to problems, and promotes a participative work environment. It enables leaders to mobilize resources and secure better results than they could have gotten alone. Delega­ tion trains employees and improves their self-esteem, as well as eases the stress and bur­ den on managers. By delegating responsibilities, leaders can focus on doing a few tasks well instead of many tasks less effectively. Consequently, they improve their management and leadership potential while training others to succeed them. It is a means of develop­ ing followers by enriching their jobs. From the organization's perspective, delegating can result in increased performance and work outcomes. 89 It can also lead to more communi­ cation between leaders and followers, thus encouraging followers to voice their opinions on how to improve the work environment.90