Physician-Assisted Suicide
CHAPTER 20
Labor Relations
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It’s Your Gavel… |
UNFAIR LABOR PRACTICES
Ms. Welton attended a union organization meeting on July 5. At a hearing before an administrative law judge, she testified that the day after the meeting, her supervisor asked whether she or anyone from the dietary department attended the meeting. Welton’s supervisor denied having any conversation with Welton about the union meeting. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) found that the questioning of Welton constituted unlawful interrogation.
Mr. Hopkins worked as a janitor for the nursing facility. He also attended the meeting on July 5. He testified that his supervisor approached him at work and questioned him as to whether any of the nurses or aides harassed him about the union. The board credited Hopkins’s and Welton’s version of the events, noting that they had nothing to gain by fabricating their testimony.
On July 18, the facility circulated a memorandum to all employees that stated: “This is to advise that the NLRB has tentatively set a hearing on Wednesday, July 25th, to decide who can vote in a union election. Our position is that supervisors, RNs, and LPNs cannot vote. We will keep you advised.”
On July 19, the facility held a mandatory meeting for all nurses and supervisors. The facility’s administrator, Mr. Wimer; the facility’s attorney, Mr. Yocum; and the chief executive officer, Mr. Colby, told the nurses that, in the facility’s opinion, nurses could not vote in the upcoming election but must remain loyal to the facility. When asked by Sands, a union supporter, what he meant by loyalty, Yocum replied that all nurses were prohibited from engaging in union activities. When asked by Sands why the facility opposed the union, Yocum responded, “Well, for one thing, they cost too … much money…. Do you think those dues come out of thin air?”
The board concluded that the facility, through Yocum, violated the National Labor Relations Act by telling nurses present at the meeting that they could not vote in the upcoming union election or participate in union activities and that such activities could subject them to dismissal.1
WHAT IS YOUR VERDICT?
Learning Objectives
The reader, upon completion of this chapter, will be able to:
• Describe the various federal labor acts.
• Discuss the rights and responsibilities of unions and management.
• Describe the purpose of an Affirmative Action Plan.
• Describe a patient’s rights during labor disputes.
• Discuss the types of discrimination that occur in the workplace.
• Describe what sexual harassment is and what forms it can take.
Federal or state regulation generally pervades all areas of employer–employee relationships. Healthcare organizations are not exempt from the impact of these laws and therefore are required to take into account such matters as employment practices (wages, hours, and working conditions), union activity, workers’ compensation laws, occupational safety and health laws, and employment discrimination law.
The most significant piece of federal legislation dealing with labor relations is the National Labor Relations Act. Although federal laws generally take precedence over state laws when there is a conflict between the state and the federal laws, state laws are applicable and must be considered, especially when state regulations are more rigid than federal legislation. This chapter provides an overview of a variety of laws affecting the healthcare industry.
20.1 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
The U.S. Department of Labor is a department within the executive branch of government. The Secretary of Labor advises the president on labor policies and issues. The functions of the department of labor are to foster, promote, and develop the welfare of wage earners; to improve working conditions; and to advance opportunities for profitable employment. In carrying out this mission, the department administers a variety of federal labor laws guaranteeing workers’ rights to safe and healthful working conditions, a minimum hourly wage and overtime pay, freedom from employment discrimination, unemployment insurance, and workers’ compensation. As the department seeks to assist all Americans who need and want to work, special efforts are made to meet the unique job market problems of older workers, youths, minority group members, women, the handicapped, and other groups. Within the Department of Labor are various agencies responsible for carrying out the purpose of the department (e.g., Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA]).
20.2 UNIONS AND HEALTHCARE ORGANIZATIONS
Union organizational activity in the healthcare industry was minimal until the late 1950s. Many labor organizations have attempted to become the recognized collective bargaining representatives for employees in healthcare settings. Craft unions devote their primary organizing efforts to skilled employees, such as carpenters and electricians, and industrial unions and unions of governmental employees seek to represent large groups of unskilled or semiskilled employees. Professional and occupational associations, such as state nurses’ associations, historically known for their social and academic efforts, have involved themselves in collective bargaining for their professions. To the extent that professional organizations seek goals directly concerned with wages, hours, and other employment conditions and engage in bargaining on behalf of employees, they perform the functions of labor unions.
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Equal Pay for Equal Work |
The annual Health Systems Consulting conference was held at the New York City Hilton. During the closing session on Friday, the company’s leadership sat onstage summarizing the week’s training and conducting a question-and-answer period. Prior to the session, Frank, an administrator consultant, had asked his manager, “The grapevine is telling me that nurses have been placed at a higher pay rate than administrators. Is that true?” His manager replied, “You asked a direct question, so I will give you a direct answer, even though per company policy we don’t generally share such information. The answer is yes. It was implemented several weeks ago. The consulting process is more and more clinical and therefore nurses are getting a higher starting salary.” Frank answered, “That is true, but we still all do the same work.” Frank’s manager replied, “That’s the way it is,” and walked away.
Discussion
1. Discuss the legal issue as it relates to equal pay for equal work.
2. What ethical concerns do you see in this case?
3. If you were Frank, what action would you pursue, if any?
Limitations on Bargaining Units
A major area of concern for healthcare institutions is the number of bargaining units allowed in any one institution. Rules and regulations issued on April 21, 1989, by the NLRB allow up to eight collective bargaining units in healthcare organizations, as opposed to the three normally allowed before the regulations. The American Hospital Association brought an action to enjoin the NLRB from enforcing the newly promulgated regulation recognizing up to eight bargaining units in American Hospital Association v. NLRB.2 A federal district court enjoined enforcement of the rule. The NLRB and intervening unions appealed. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that the rule was not arbitrary and was within the authority of the NLRB. No rule is necessary to confer the rights already conferred by statute entitling guards and professional employees to form separate bargaining units.
In making unit determinations, the NLRB is required to strike a balance among the competing interests of unions, employees (whose interests are not always compatible with those of unions), employers, and the broader public. The statute can be read to suggest that the tilt should be in favor of unions and toward relatively many, rather than relatively few, units.
This balancing act is not spelled out in the statute, thus requiring an NLRB decision. The decision is particularly difficult and delicate in the healthcare industry because the workforce of a hospital, nursing home, or rehabilitation center tends to be small and heterogeneous.
On appeal, the U.S. Supreme Court, on April 23, 1991, by unanimous decision, upheld an NLRB rule allowing hospital workers to form up to eight separate bargaining units, including those for physicians, registered nurses, other professionals, technical employees, clerical employees, skilled maintenance employees, other nonprofessional employees, and security guards.3
20.3 NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT
Congress enacted the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA)4 in July 1935 to govern the labor–management relations of business firms engaged in interstate commerce. The act is generally known as the Wagner Act, after Senator Robert R. Wagner of New York. The Act defines certain conduct of employers and employees as unfair labor practices and provides for hearings on complaints that such practices have occurred. The NLRA was modified by the Taft–Hartley amendments of 1947 and the Landrum–Griffin amendments of 1959.
National Labor Relations Board
The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), which is entrusted with enforcing and administering the NLRA, has jurisdiction over matters involving proprietary and not-for-profit healthcare organizations. The NLRB is an agency, independent of the Department of Labor, that is responsible for preventing and remedying unfair labor practices by employers and labor organizations or their agents. The NLRB conducts secret ballot elections among employees in appropriate collective bargaining units to determine whether they desire to be represented by a labor organization and among employees under union-shop agreements to determine whether they wish to revoke their union’s authority. The general counsel of the NLRB has final authority to investigate charges of unfair labor practices, issue complaints, and prosecute such complaints before the NLRB. There are regional directors, under the direction of the general counsel, who are responsible for processing representation, unfair labor practice, and jurisdictional dispute cases.
The NLRB’s basic method of operation is to investigate claims or complaints of unfair practices submitted by the employer, employees, or both. The board reviews the claim to determine whether there have been unfair labor practices and recommends a remedy. Most questions submitted to the board involve claims by employees that their rights of self-organization or of choosing their collective bargaining representative have been interfered with by the employer. Employers also may submit complaints to the NLRB (e.g., when two unions are seeking recognition and one of them intimidates employees by making allegations that a sweetheart relationship exists between the employer and the competing union in an effort to disrupt the certification process).
An exemption for governmental institutions was included in the 1935 enactment of the NLRA, and charitable healthcare institutions were exempted in 1947 by the Taft–Hartley Act amendments to the NLRA. However, a July 1974 amendment to the NLRA extended coverage to employees of nonprofit healthcare organizations, who previously had been exempted from its provisions. In the words of the amendment, a healthcare facility is “any hospital, convalescent hospital, health maintenance organization, health clinic, nursing home, extended care facility, or other institution devoted to the care of the sick, infirm or aged.”5
The amendment also enacted unique, special provisions for employees of healthcare organizations who oppose unionization on legitimate religious grounds. These provisions allow a member of such an organization to make periodic contributions to one of three nonreligious charitable funds selected jointly by the labor organization and the employing institution rather than paying periodic union dues and initiation fees. If the collective bargaining agreement does not specify an acceptable fund, the employee may select a tax-exempt charity.
Elections
The NLRA sets out the procedures by which employees may select a union as their collective bargaining representative to negotiate with healthcare organizations over employment and contract matters. A healthcare organization may choose to recognize and deal with the union without resorting to the formal NLRA procedure. If the formal process is adhered to, the employees vote on union representation in an election held under NLRB supervision.
The NLRA provides that the representative, having been selected by a majority of employees in a bargaining unit, is the exclusive bargaining agent for all employees in the unit. The scope of the bargaining unit is often the subject of dispute, for its boundaries may determine the outcome of the election, the employee representative’s bargaining power, and the level of labor stability.
When the parties cannot agree on the appropriate unit for bargaining, the NLRB has broad discretion to decide the issue; however, the NLRB’s discretion is limited to determining appropriate units for only those employees who are classified as professional, supervisory, clerical, technical, or service and maintenance employees when they are included in units outside their particular category. This is the case unless there has been a self-determination election in which the members of a certain group vote, as a class, to be included within the larger bargaining unit. For example, nurses and other professional employees can be excluded from a bargaining unit composed of service and maintenance employees unless the professionals are first given the opportunity to choose separate representation and reject it. Supervisory nurses also have been held entitled to a bargaining unit separate from the unit composed of general-duty nurses.
Although the NLRA does not require employee representatives to be selected by any particular procedure, the act provides for the NLRB to conduct representation elections by secret ballot. The NLRB may conduct such an election when an employee, a group of employees, an individual, a labor union acting on the employees’ behalf, or an employer has filed a petition for certification. When the petition is filed, the NLRB must investigate and direct an election if it has reasonable cause to believe a question of representation exists. Any party to an election who believes that certain conduct created an atmosphere that interfered with free choice may file objections with the NLRB.
Unfair Labor Practices
The NLRA prohibits healthcare organizations from engaging in certain conduct classified as employer unfair labor practices. For example, discriminating against an employee for holding union membership is not permitted. The NLRA stipulates that the employer must bargain in good faith with representatives of the employees; failure to do so constitutes an unfair labor practice. The NLRB may order the employer to fulfill the duty to bargain.
If the employer dominates or controls the employees’ union or interferes with and supports one of two competing unions, the employer is committing an unfair labor practice. Such employer support of a competing union is illustrated clearly in a situation in which two unions are competing for members in the same facility, as well as for recognition as the employees’ bargaining organization. If the organization permits one of the unions to use its facilities for its organizational activities but denies the use of the facilities to the other union, an unfair labor practice is committed. Financial assistance to one of the competing unions also constitutes an unfair labor practice.
The NLRA places duties on labor organizations and prohibits certain employee activities that are considered unfair labor practices. Coercion of employees by the union constitutes an unfair labor practice; such activities as mass picketing, assaulting nonstrikers, and following groups of nonstrikers away from the immediate area of the facility plainly constitute coercion and can be ordered stopped by the NLRB. Breach of a collective bargaining contract by the labor union is another example of an unfair labor practice.
State Employees Excluded from Paying Union Dues
The U.S. Supreme Court, in a 5-4 decision in Harris v. Quinn,6 on June 28, 2014, struck down an Illinois “fair share” statute that compelled home healthcare workers to pay union dues even if they were not members of the union. The Court ruled that home care workers in Illinois paid by the state are not similar enough to government employees to be compelled to pay union dues. Government employees who provide in-home care for family members and others with disabilities were not considered full-fledged public employees. The decision left undisturbed its 1977 Michigan ruling in Abood v. Detroit Bd. of Educ.7 that allowed unions to collect compulsory dues used for nonpolitical activities under collective bargaining agreements. Michigan statute allows for an agency shop arrangement, whereby employees represented by a union, even though not union members, must pay to the union, as a condition of employment, a service charge equal in amount to union dues.
20.4 NORRIS–LAGUARDIA ACT
Congress enacted the Norris–LaGuardia Act 8 to limit the power of federal courts to issue injunctions in cases involving or growing out of labor disputes. The Act’s strict standards must be met before such injunctions can be issued. Essentially, a federal court may not apply restraints in a labor dispute until after the case is heard in open court and the finding is that unlawful acts will be committed unless restrained and that substantial and irreparable injury to the complainant’s property will follow.9
The Norris–LaGuardia Act is aimed at reducing the number of injunctions granted to restrain strikes and picketing. An additional piece of legislation designating procedures limiting strikes in healthcare institutions is the 1974 amendment to the NLRA. This amendment sets out special procedures for handling labor disputes that develop from collective bargaining at the termination of an existing agreement or during negotiations for an initial contract between a healthcare institution and its employees. The procedures were designed to ensure that the needs of patients would be met during any work stoppage (strike) or labor dispute in such an institution.
The amendment provides for creating a board of inquiry if a dispute threatens to interrupt health care in a particular community. The board is appointed by the director of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) within 30 days after notification of either party’s intention to terminate a labor contract. The board then has 15 days in which to investigate and report its findings and recommendations in writing. After the report is filed with the FMCS, both parties are expected to maintain the status quo for an additional 15 days. The board’s findings provide a framework for arbitrators’ decisions, while recognizing both the community’s need for continuous health services and the good faith intentions of labor organizations to avoid a work stoppage whenever possible and to accept arbitration when negotiations reach an impasse.
The amendment also mandates certain notice requirements by labor groups in healthcare institutions: (1) the institution must be given 90 days’ notice before a collective bargaining agreement expires, and (2) the FMCS is entitled to 60 days’ notice. Previously, only 60 days’ notice to the employer and 30 days’ notice to the FMCS were required. However, if the bargaining agreement is the initial contract between the parties, only 30 days’ notice needs to be given to the FMCS.
More significantly, 10 days’ notice is required in advance of any strike, picketing, or other concerted refusal to work, regardless of the source of the dispute. This allows the NLRB to determine the legality of a strike before it occurs and also gives healthcare institutions ample time to ensure the continuity of patient care. At the same time, any attempt to use this period to undermine the bargaining relationship is implicitly forbidden. The 10-day notice may be concurrent with the final 10 days of the expiration notice. Any employee violation of these provisions amounts to an unfair labor practice and automatically may result in the discharge of the employee. Also, injunctive relief may be available from the courts if circumstances warrant. In summary, the amendment’s provisions are designed to ensure that every possible approach to a peaceful settlement is explored fully before a strike is called.
20.5 LABOR–MANAGEMENT REPORTING AND DISCLOSURE ACT
The Labor–Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 10 was enacted to place controls on labor unions and the relationships between unions and their members. Also, it requires that employers report payments and loans made to officials or other representatives of labor organizations or any promises to make such payments or loans. Expenditures made to influence or restrict the way employees exercise their rights to organize and bargain collectively are illegal unless the employer discloses them. Agreements with labor consultants, under which such persons undertake to interfere with certain employee rights, also must be disclosed.
Reports required under the Act must be filed with the Secretary of Labor and are then made public. Both charitable and proprietary healthcare organizations that make such payments or enter into such agreements must file reports. Penalties for failing to make the required reports or for making false reports include fines up to $10,000 and imprisonment for 1 year.
20.6 FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT
The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)11 of 1938 established a national minimum wage, guaranteed time and one half for overtime, established maximum hours of employment, and prohibited most employment for minors. The Wage and Hour Division of the U.S. Department of Labor, which conducts audits and workplace inspections, administers the FLSA. The FLSA provides for direct federal actions by employees and offers substantial financial incentives for private litigants and their counsel.
Employees of all governmental, charitable, and proprietary healthcare organizations are covered by the FLSA. Employers must conform to the minimum wage and overtime pay provisions. However, bona fide executive, administrative, and professional employees are exempted from the wage and hour provisions.
The law permits employers to enter into agreements with employees, establishing a work period of 14 consecutive days as an alternative to the usual 7-day week. If the alternative period is chosen, the employer must pay the overtime rate only for hours worked in excess of 80 hours during the 14-day period. The alternative 14-day work period does not relieve a facility from paying overtime for hours worked in excess of 8 hours in any 1 day, even if no more than 80 hours are worked during the period.
Hospital’s Unfair Labor Practice
The NLRB, in St. John’s Mercy Health Systems v. National Labor Relations Board,12 was found to have properly upheld a union’s unfair labor practice charge against a hospital that had refused to discharge registered nurses who had not paid union dues, as required by the applicable collective bargaining agreement. There was no Missouri public policy that prevented enforcement of union-security provision of the collective bargaining agreement, notwithstanding statistical evidence of a regional or national nursing shortage that would make it difficult to replace nurses. In addition, the hospital was not exempt from the NLRA union-security provisions.
20.7 CIVIL RIGHTS ACT
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended by the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972,13 prohibits private employers and state and local governments from discrimination in employment in any business based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The Act prohibits harassment based on one’s affiliation (e.g., religion), physical and cultural traits and clothing (e.g., skin color, headscarf), perception (e.g., as a result of national origin: he is from Pakistan and must, therefore, be a terrorist), and association (e.g., discrimination based on association with an individual or organization). The federal antidiscrimination law provides that it is unlawful for most public and private employers to discriminate against, fail or refuse to hire, or to discharge any individual, with respect to his or her compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), or national origin.
Title VII also prohibits retaliation against employees who oppose such unlawful discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces Title VII. The EEOC investigates, mediates, and sometimes files lawsuits on behalf of employees. Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit.
An exception to prohibited employment practices may be permitted when, for example, religion, sex, or national origin is a bona fide occupational qualification necessary to the operation of a particular business or enterprise.
This Act does not apply to a religious corporation (e.g., hospital), association, educational institution, or society with respect to the employment of individuals of a particular religion to perform work connected with the carrying on by such corporation, association, educational institution, or society of its activities.
Many states have enacted protective laws with respect to the employment of women. The EEOC guidelines on sex discrimination make it clear that state laws limiting the employment of women in certain occupations are superseded by Title VII and are no defense against a charge of sex discrimination.
20.8 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT
Congress enacted the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 14 to establish an administrative mechanism for the development and enforcement of standards for occupational health and safety. The legislation was enacted based on congressional findings that personal injuries and illnesses arising out of work situations impose a substantial burden on and are substantial hindrances to interstate commerce in terms of lost production, wage loss, medical expenses, and disability compensation payments. Congress declared that its purpose and policy were to ensure, so far as possible, every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve human resources by implementing the following:
1. by encouraging employers and employees in their efforts to reduce the number of occupational safety and health hazards at their places of employment, and to stimulate employers and employees to institute new and to perfect existing programs for providing safe and healthful working conditions;
2. by providing that employers and employees have separate but dependent responsibilities and rights with respect to achieving safe and healthful working conditions;
3. by authorizing the Secretary of Labor to set mandatory occupational safety and health standards applicable to businesses affecting interstate commerce, and by creating an Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission for carrying out adjudicatory functions under the Act;
4. by building upon advances already made through employer and employee initiative for providing safe and healthful working conditions;
5. by providing for research in the field of occupational safety and health, including the psychological factors involved, and by developing innovative methods, techniques, and approaches for dealing with occupational safety and health problems;
6. by exploring ways to discover latent diseases, establishing causal connections between diseases and work in environmental conditions, and conducting other research relating to health problems, in recognition of the fact that occupational health standards present problems often different from those involved in occupational safety;
7. by providing medical criteria which will assure insofar as practicable that no employee will suffer diminished health, functional capacity, or life expectancy as a result of his work experience;
8. by providing for training programs to increase the number and competence of personnel engaged in the field of occupational safety and health; affecting the OSH Act since its passage in 1970 through January 1, 2004;
9. by providing for the development and promulgation of occupational safety and health standards;
10. by providing an effective enforcement program which shall include a prohibition against giving advance notice of any inspection and sanctions for any individual violating this prohibition;
11. by encouraging the States to assume the fullest responsibility for the administration and enforcement of their occupational safety and health laws by providing grants to the States to assist in identifying their needs and responsibilities in the area of occupational safety and health, to develop plans in accordance with the provisions of this Act, to improve the administration and enforcement of State occupational safety and health laws, and to conduct experimental and demonstration projects in connection therewith;
12. by providing for appropriate reporting procedures with respect to occupational safety and health which procedures will help achieve the objectives of this Act and accurately describe the nature of the occupational safety and health problem; and
13. by encouraging joint labor-management efforts to reduce injuries and disease arising out of employment.15
The employer must comply with the occupational and health standards under the act, and employees must follow the rules, regulations, and orders issued under the Act that are applicable to their actions and conduct on the job. The duties of employers and employees under the act are as follows:
a) Each employer—
1. shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which is free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees;
2. shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act.
b) Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all rules, regulations, and orders pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his own actions and conduct.16
Promulgation and Enforcement of OSHA Standards
OSHA develops and promulgates occupational safety and health standards for the workplace. It develops and issues regulations, conducts investigations and inspections to determine the status of compliance, and issues citations and proposes penalties for noncompliance. Inspections are conducted without advance notice.
Employers are responsible for becoming familiar with standards applicable to their businesses and for ensuring that employees have and use personal protective equipment when required for safety. Employees must comply with all rules and regulations that are applicable to their work environment. Where OSHA has not promulgated specific standards, the employer is responsible for following the Act’s general duty clause. The general duty clause states that each employer must furnish a place of employment that is free from recognized hazards that are causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm.
Recordkeeping
Employers of 11 or more employees are required to maintain records of occupational injuries and illnesses. The purpose of maintaining records is to permit the Bureau of Labor Statistics to help define high-hazard industries and to inform employees of the status of their employer’s record.
Education
Employers are responsible for keeping employees informed about OSHA and about the various safety and health matters with which they are involved. OSHA requires that employers post certain material at a prominent location in the workplace (e.g., a job safety and health protection workplace poster informing employees of their rights and responsibilities under the Act).
Infectious Body Fluids
OSHA issued standards on December 2, 1991, that are to be followed by employers to protect employees from blood-borne infections. Universal precautions are mandatory, and employees who are likely to be exposed to body fluids must be provided with protective clothing (e.g., masks, gowns, gloves). In addition, post-exposure testing must be available to employees who have been exposed to body fluids.
Employee Complaints
Employees should inform their supervisors if they suspect or detect a dangerous situation in the workplace, and employers are expected to address reported hazards in the workplace. Employees or their representatives have the right to file complaints with an OSHA office and request a survey when they believe that conditions in the workplace are unsafe or unhealthy. If a violation of the Act is found at the time of a survey, the employer may receive a citation stating a time frame within which the violation must be corrected.
State Regulation
The states have statutes charging employers with the duty to furnish employees with a safe working environment. The city and county in which a healthcare facility is located also may prescribe rules regarding the health and safety of employees. Many communities have enacted sanitary and health codes that require certain standards.
Legal Liability
From a liability point of view, an employer can be held legally liable for damages suffered by employees through exposure to dangerous conditions that are in violation of OSHA standards. Proof of an employee’s exposure to noncompliant conditions is generally necessary to find an employer liable.
20.9 REHABILITATION ACT
The essential purpose of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 17 is to provide protection to handicapped people from discrimination. The law basically is administered by the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), which derives its jurisdiction from the fact that healthcare organizations participate in such federal programs as Medicare, Medicaid, and the Hill–Burton Act. Therefore, the law is applied to both public and private organizations, because both participate in these programs.
Section 503 of the Act applies to government contractors whose contracts exceed $2,500 in value. Section 504, which applies to employers who are recipients of federal financial assistance, states, “[n]o … qualified handicapped individual in the United States … shall solely by reason of his handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program as actively receiving federal financial assistance.” Section 504 applies to virtually every area of personnel administration, including recruitment, advertising, processing of applications, promotions, rates of pay, fringe benefits, and job assignments.
Since July 1977, all institutions receiving federal financial assistance from the DHHS have been required to file assurances of compliance forms. Each employer must designate an individual to coordinate compliance efforts. A grievance procedure should be in place to address employee complaints alleging violation of the regulation. All employment decisions must be made without regard to physical or mental handicaps that are not inherently disqualifying (e.g., an employer is not obligated to employ a person with a highly contagious disease that can be easily transmitted to others).
Employers receiving federal funds are required to perform a self-evaluation as to their compliance with Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. If discriminatory practices are identified through the self-evaluation process, remedial steps are to be taken to eliminate the effects of any discrimination. Records of the evaluation are to be maintained on file for at least 3 years after the review for public inspection.18
Jobs should not be purposely designed so as to eliminate the hiring of disabled persons. Employers, however, are not required to change the essential elements of a job in order to create a position for a disabled person. The Iowa Supreme Court, in Schlitzer v. University of Iowa Hosp. and Clinics,19 decided that an employer is not required to create a vacancy or a job for a disabled person. The court found that a nurse’s 20-pound lifting restriction, as a result of a car accident, limited her ability to lift, thus making the demands of her job incompatible with her physical disability. The law does not require that an employer change the essential elements of a job in order to meet a claimant’s disability. In this case, the job required that the nurse be able to work with severely disabled persons. The 20-pound limitation, in this case, was an impossible hurdle to overcome.
20.10 FAMILY AND MEDICAL LEAVE ACT
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) was enacted to grant temporary medical leave to employees under certain circumstances. The Act provides that covered employers must grant an eligible employee up to a total of 12 workweeks of unpaid leave during any 12-month period for one or more of the following reasons: the birth and care of an employee’s child, placement of an adopted or foster child with the employee, the care of an immediate family member (spouse, child, or parent) with a serious health condition, or inability to work because of a serious health condition. It is illegal to terminate health insurance coverage for an employee on FMLA leave. Following an FMLA leave, the employee’s job—or an equivalent job with equivalent pay, benefits, and other terms and conditions of employment—must be restored.
20.11 STATE LABOR LAWS
The federal labor enactments serve as a pattern for many state labor laws that comprise the second labor regulation system affecting healthcare organizations. State labor acts vary from state to state; therefore, it is important that each institution familiarize itself not only with federal regulations but also with state regulations affecting labor relations within the institution.
Because the NLRA excludes from coverage healthcare organizations operated by the state or its political subdivisions, regulation of labor–management relations in these organizations is left to state law. Unless the constitution in such a state guarantees the right of employees to organize and imposes the duty of collective bargaining on the employer, healthcare organizations do not have to bargain collectively with their employees. However, in states that do have labor relations acts, the obligation of an organization to bargain collectively with its employees is determined by the applicable statute.
State laws vary considerably in their coverage, and often employees of state and local governmental organizations are covered by separate public employee legislation. Some of these statutes cover both state and local employees, whereas others cover only state or only local employees.
Some of the states that have labor relations acts granting employees the right to organize, join unions, and bargain collectively have specifically prohibited strikes and lockouts and have provided for compulsory arbitration whenever a collective bargaining contract cannot otherwise be executed amicably. Anti-injunction statutes would not forbid injunctions to restrain violations of these statutory provisions.
The doctrine of federal preemption, as applied to labor relations, displaces the states’ jurisdiction to regulate an activity that is arguably an unfair labor practice within the meaning of the NLRA. Nonetheless, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that states can still regulate labor relations activity that also falls within the jurisdiction of the NLRB when deeply rooted local feelings and responsibility are affected.
Union Security Contracts and Right-to-Work Laws
Labor organizations frequently seek to enter union security contracts with employers. Such contracts are of two types: (1) the closed-shop contract, which provides that only members of a particular union may be hired, and (2) the union-shop contract, which makes continued employment dependent on membership in the union, although the employee does not need to have been a union member when applying for the job.
Various states have made such contracts unlawful. Statutes forbidding such agreements generally are called right-to-work laws on the theory that they protect everyone’s right to work even if a person refuses to join a union. Several state statutes or court decisions purport to restrict union security contracts or specify procedures to be completed before such agreements may be made.
Wage and Hour Laws
When state minimum wage standards are higher than federal standards, the state’s standards are applicable.
Child Labor Laws
Many states prohibit the employment of minors younger than a specified age and restrict the employment of other minors. Child labor legislation commonly requires that working papers be secured before a child may be hired, forbids the employment of minors at night, and prohibits minors from operating certain types of dangerous machinery.
This kind of legislation rarely exempts charitable institutions, although some exceptions may be made with respect to the hours when student nurses may work.
20.12 WORKERS’ COMPENSATION
Workers’ compensation is a program by which an employee can receive certain wage benefits because of work-related injuries. An employee who is injured while performing job-related duties is generally eligible for workers’ compensation. Workers’ compensation programs are administered by the states.
State legislatures have recognized that it is difficult and expensive for employees to recover from their employers and, therefore, have enacted workers’ compensation laws. Employers are required to provide workers’ compensation as a benefit. Workers’ compensation laws give the employee a legal way to receive compensation for injuries incurred while on the job. The acts do not require the employee to prove that the injury was the result of the employer’s negligence. Workers’ compensation laws are based on the employer–employee relationship and not on the theory of negligence.
The scope of workers’ compensation varies widely. Some states limit an employee’s compensation to the amount recoverable by the workers’ compensation law, and further lawsuits against the employer are barred. Other states permit employees to choose whether to accept the compensation provided by law or to institute a lawsuit against the employer. Some acts go farther and provide a system of insurance that may be under the supervision of state or private insurers.
Physical Injury
The courts have been somewhat liberal in allowing workers’ compensation benefits to be paid to employees injured while on duty, even when challenged by the employer under seemingly justifiable circumstances. The employee in Fondulac Nursing Home v. Industrial Commission 20 was entitled to workers’ compensation despite orders that she was not to lift patients because of a back injury. When a patient was being transferred from her wheelchair to her bed and began to fall, the nurse attempted to prevent the fall, injuring herself. The nurse acted within her scope of employment by attempting to prevent the fall to her own detriment and in her employer’s best interests by protecting the patient from injury.
Job Stress
Workers’ compensation has been awarded for depression related to job stress. In Elwood v. SAIF,21 a registered nurse filed a workers’ compensation claim for an occupational disease based on depression. The referee and the workers’ compensation board affirmed the insurer’s denial of the claim, and the claimant sought judicial review. The questions that needed to be answered to determine job stress were as follows:
• What were the “real” events and conditions of the plaintiff’s employment?
• Were those real events and conditions capable of producing stress when viewed objectively, even though an average worker might not have responded adversely to them?
• Did the plaintiff suffer a mental disorder?
• Were the real stressful events and conditions the major contributing cause of the plaintiff’s mental disorder?
The record established that many events and conditions of her employment, including her termination, were real and capable of producing stress when viewed objectively. The claimant’s treating physician advised her that she was suffering from anxiety, depression, and stress and advised her to seek a psychiatric evaluation. The court held that the claimant established that her condition was compensable.
Influenza Vaccination
A hospital employee’s reaction to an influenza vaccination given by an emergency department employee while he or she is on duty most likely will be a compensable injury under workers’ compensation. A housekeeping employee in Monette v. Manatee Memorial Hospital 22 suffered a serious reaction to the influenza vaccination administered to her while on duty and was entitled to workers’ compensation.
Exposure to Hazardous Materials
Workers’ compensation benefits, in Caldwell v. District of Columbia Dep’t of Employment Svcs.,23 were found to have been improperly denied to an employee of a university hospital who had sought benefits for medical problems and expenses resulting from her contact with certain chemical agents. There was no substantial evidence to support a finding that the employee’s initial symptoms were not attributable to the laboratory environment. Doctors all agreed that chemical solvents in the laboratory, when combined with defective ventilation at the laboratory, could cause or significantly contribute to various conditions of which the employee complained. The medical reports revealed no substantial evidence that the effects of conditions at the hospital had been entirely resolved.
20.13 LABOR RIGHTS
Rights and responsibilities run concurrently. Employee rights include the following:
• The right to organize and bargain collectively
• The right to solicit and distribute union information during nonworking hours (i.e., mealtimes and coffee breaks)
• The right to picket (Picketing is the act of patrolling, by one or more persons, a place related to a labor dispute. It varies in purpose and form. It may be conducted by employees or nonemployees, and, like strikes, some picketing may be legislatively or judicially disapproved and subject to regulation.)
• The right to strike (A strike may be defined as the collective quitting of work by employees as a means of inducing the employer to assent to employee demands. Employees possess the right to strike, although this right is not absolute and is subject to limited exercise. The 1974 amendments to the NLRA have added requirements with respect to strikes and picketing in an attempt to reduce the interruption of healthcare services. The NLRB is urged to give top priority to settling labor–management disputes resulting in the loss of healthcare personnel or medical services.)
Employees granted these rights have the concomitant responsibility to perform their work duties properly. A nursing home housekeeper, for example, was terminated properly after repeated oral and written reprimands concerning her improper cleaning of rooms in Ford v. Patin.24 Her substandard performance, despite repeated warnings, evidenced willful and wanton disregard of her employer’s interest and constituted misconduct within purview of Section 23:1601(2) of the Louisiana Revised Statutes Annotated.
20.14 MANAGEMENT RIGHTS
As with labor, management also has certain rights and responsibilities. Specific management rights are reviewed here.
Receive Strike Notice
Management has a right to a 10-day advance notice of a bargaining unit’s intent to strike.
Hire Replacement Workers
Although management may not discharge employees in retaliation for union activity, concomitant with the employees’ right to strike is management’s right to hire replacement workers in the event of a strike. The nursing home in Charlesgate Nursing Center v. State of Rhode Island 25 brought an action against the state, seeking a determination that a state statute prohibiting strike-affected employers from using the services of a third party to recruit replacement workers during a strike was unconstitutional. Employees of the nursing home went on strike on June 2, 1988, and Charlesgate hired temporary replacement workers to provide continued services for its patients. The temporary employees were hired through employment agencies. The actions of Charlesgate and the agencies violated Sections 28-10-10 and 28-10-12 of the General Laws of Rhode Island (1956) (1986 Reenactment), which read:
28-10-10. Recruitment prohibited—It shall be unlawful for any person, partnership, agency, firm or corporation, or officer or agent thereof, to knowingly recruit, procure, supply or refer any person who offers him or herself for employment in the place of an employee involved in a labor strike or lockout in which such person, partnership, agency, firm, or corporation is not directly interested.
28-10-12. Agency for procurement—It shall be unlawful for any person, partnership, firm or corporation, or officer or agent thereof, involved in a labor strike or lockout to contract or arrange with any other person, partnership, agency, firm or corporation to recruit, procure, supply, or refer persons who offer themselves for employment in the place of employees involved in a labor strike or lockout for employment in place of employees involved in such labor strike or lockout.
Citing these statutes, the labor unions involved in the strike notified nursing pools throughout the state that it was unlawful to provide Charlesgate with replacement workers. At the same time, the unions urged the city of Providence and the Rhode Island attorney general to prosecute Charlesgate, at which time Charlesgate filed its suit claiming that the Rhode Island statutes were unconstitutional.
Although the strike was settled, the federal district court held that the statute was unconstitutional because it prohibited activity that Congress had intended to leave open to strike-affected employers as a peaceful weapon of economic self-help.
Restrict Union Activity to Prescribed Areas
Management has the right to reasonably restrict union organizers to certain locations in the healthcare facility and to certain time periods to avoid interference with facility operations.
Prohibit Union Activity During Working Hours
Management has the right to prohibit union activities during employee working hours.
Prohibit Supervisors from Participating in Union Activity
Management has the right to prohibit supervisors from engaging in union organizational activity. A nursing supervisor brought a lawsuit for wrongful discharge against a nursing facility and its director of nursing. She was dismissed for her activities in attempting to form an organization to represent the nurses. The circuit court granted summary judgment for the defendants, and the appeals court affirmed. On review, the Wisconsin Supreme Court held, in Arena v. Lincoln Lutheran of Racine,26 that after the NLRB had determined that the nurse in this case was a supervisor rather than an employee within the meaning of the NLRA, federal labor law preempted the state court from determining whether the nurse’s discharge for engaging in concerted activities was wrongful under Wisconsin law. Employees who are supervisors as defined in the NLRA are treated differently than professional employees. The definition of the term supervisor found in Section 2(11) provides:
The term “supervisor” means any individual having authority, in the interest of the employer, to hire, transfer, suspend, lay off, recall, promote, discharge, assign, reward, or discipline other employees, or responsibly to direct them, or to adjust their grievances, or effectively to recommend such action, if in connection with the foregoing the exercise of such authority is not merely a routine or clerical nature, but requires the use of independent judgment.
The petitioner alleged in her complaint that she had become concerned with certain policies that included nurses being treated in an arbitrary manner. The petitioner held a meeting outside of Racine with the nurses to discuss their concerns and the possibility of forming an association to represent the collective interests of the nurses. The NLRA did not protect the nursing supervisor because she was a supervisor rather than an employee. Congress excluded supervisors from protection afforded rank-and-file employees engaged in concerted activity for their mutual benefit to assure management of the undivided loyalty of its supervisory personnel by making sure that no employer would have to retain as its agent one who is obligated to a union.
Seven registered nurses (RNs) at a small, 72-bed nursing home were found not to function as supervisors and were, therefore, eligible for a separate bargaining unit in NLRB v. Res-Care, Inc.27 Although the nurses had the authority to assign nurses’ aides, their exercise of this authority was merely routine and did not require independent judgment. The nurses were not shown to have any authority to hire, discipline, and/or fire any of the nursing aides. Such authority, if present, would have indicated some sort of supervisory status. Allowing seven nurses to form their own collective bargaining unit rather than merging them into a unit consisting of nurses’ aides and other workers was not found to be improper and was not an undue proliferation of bargaining units at the facility.
Certification of 17 RNs as an employee bargaining unit in NLRB v. American Medical Services 28 was shown to be improper. The nursing home contended that a very low ratio of supervisors to employees would occur if the NLRB’s decision was upheld. Substantial evidence had been presented to the court showing that the nurses exercised substantial supervisory powers, including the authority to issue work assignments and discipline employees.
The Taft–Hartley Act, as applied in this case, illustrates the importance of balancing the rights of both employees and employers.
Taft-Hartley applied some brakes, so that the balance of power between companies and unions would not shift wholly to the union side. The exclusion of supervisors is one of the brakes. If supervisors were free to join or form unions and enjoy the broad protection of the Act for concerted activity, see Sec. 7, 29 U.S.C. Sec. 157, the impact of a strike would be greatly amplified because the company would not be able to use its supervisory personnel to replace strikers. More important, the company with or without a strike could lose control of its work force to the unions, since the very people in the company who controlled hiring, discipline, assignments, and other dimensions of the employment relationship might be subject to control by the same union as the employees they were supposed to be controlling on the employer’s behalf.29
20.15 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PLAN
Healthcare organizations are required to comply with all applicable DHHS regulations “including but not limited to those pertaining to nondiscrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin (45 C.F.R. part 80), nondiscrimination on the basis of handicap (45 C.F.R. part 84), nondiscrimination on the basis of age (45 C.F.R. part 91), protection of human subjects of research (45 C.F.R. part 46), and fraud and abuse (42 C.F.R. part 455). Although these regulations are not in themselves considered requirements under this part, their violation may result in the termination or suspension of or the refusal to grant or continue payment with federal funds.”30 To comply with the spirit of these regulations and Executive Order 11246, healthcare organizations should have an equal employment opportunity or affirmative action plan in place.
An affirmative action program includes such things as the collection and analysis of data on the race and sex of all applicants for employment, as well as a statement in the personnel policy/procedure manuals and employee handbooks that would read, for example, “Health Care Facility, Inc., is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap, or veteran status.”
20.16 PATIENT RIGHTS DURING LABOR DISPUTES
Patient rights take precedence over employee and management rights when a patient’s right to privacy and health are in jeopardy as a result of labor disputes. Patients have a right to receive continuing quality care and not be used as a sounding board for disgruntled employees.
20.17 INJUNCTIONS
An injunction is an order by a court directing that a certain act be performed or not performed. Persons who fail to comply with court orders are said to be in contempt of court. The earliest use of injunctions in labor relations was by employers to stop strikes or picketing by employees. Today, the general rule limits the availability of injunctive relief to halt work stoppages. The federal government and many states have enacted anti-injunction acts. These acts restrict the power of the courts to limit injunctions in labor disputes by setting strictly defined standards that must be met before injunctions can be granted to restrain activities such as strikes and picketing.
20.18 ADMINISTERING COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AGREEMENT
When a collective bargaining agreement has been negotiated in good faith, it should be administered with care and good faith as well. The first-line supervisors are responsible for administering the agreement at the grassroots level. They should familiarize themselves with the provisions of the agreement. Educational programs should be provided by the organization, with special emphasis on the use of corrective discipline, as provided under the contract, and on how to respond to grievances. The organization’s management, through its human relations department, maintains the ultimate responsibility in the facility for the fair and effective administration of its union contract(s).
Maintaining propitious records of all grievances, grievance meetings, and grievance resolutions is the responsibility of supervisors and management. Regardless of whether a grievance is meritorious and settled by management or whether it is spurious and therefore denied, clear and complete records should be maintained. The ability to document resolutions of particular problems, as well as management’s approach to grievances, is especially important if arbitration is required to settle a grievance.
Arbitration procedures are set in motion when the union files a demand for arbitration either with the employer or with the arbitration agency named in the contract. The arbitration hearing is a relatively informal proceeding at which labor and management frequently choose to be represented by counsel. The arbitrator’s decision is binding on both parties.
Showing any of the following can upset the arbitrator’s decision:
• The arbitrator has clearly exceeded his or her authority under the collective bargaining agreement.
• The decision is the product of fraud or duress.
• The arbitrator has been guilty of impropriety.
• The award violates the law or requires a violation of the law.
20.19 DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Discrimination in the workplace comes in many forms and occurs in numerous ways, and each has its own little twist of facts: You are either too old or too young for the job; you are either overqualified or underqualified. There are laws prohibiting discrimination against any individual because of his or her race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, or to classify or refer for employment any individual on the basis of his or her race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Unfortunately, prohibition and practice do not always match up. A variety of cases are presented in this section that describe but a few of the various forms of discrimination prohibited by law.
Age Discrimination
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)31 prohibits age-based employment discrimination against persons 40 years of age or older. The purpose of this law is to promote employment of older persons based on their ability without regard to their age. The law prohibits arbitrary age discrimination concerning hiring, discharge, pay, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment. The ADEA covers private employers with 20 or more employees, state and local governments, employment agencies, and most labor unions. The Age Discrimination and Claims Assistance Amendment of 1990 extends the suit filing period for ADEA charges meeting certain criteria. There are strict time frames in which charges of age discrimination must be filed.
According to the U.S. Supreme Court in Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine,32 a prima facie case of age discrimination requires that evidence sufficient to support a finding for the complainant must establish all of the following:
• The complainant is in a protected age group.
• The complainant is qualified for his or her job.
• The complainant was discharged.
• The discharge occurred in circumstances that give rise to the inference of age discrimination.
Disability
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) was enacted by Congress to prohibit employers from discriminating against job applicants and employees based on disability.33 It applies to employers with 15 or more employees working for 20 or more weeks during a calendar year. The ADA protects employees who are qualified individuals with disabilities capable of performing the essential functions of the job in question, with or without reasonable accommodation, from discrimination by the employer.
The number of disabled Americans is increasing as the population grows older. Society tends to isolate and segregate individuals with disabilities. Despite some improvements, discrimination against individuals with disabilities continues to be a serious and pervasive social problem. Discrimination continues in such crucial areas as employment, housing, public accommodations, education, transportation, and health services. Unlike individuals who have experienced discrimination based on race, color, sex, national origin, religion, or age, those who are disabled have had no legal recourse to redress such discrimination. Individuals with disabilities continually encounter different forms of discrimination, including outright intentional exclusion; the discriminatory effects of architectural, transportation, and communication barriers; the failure to make modifications to existing organizations and practices; exclusionary qualification standards and criteria; segregation; and relegation to lesser services, programs, activities, benefits, jobs, or other opportunities.
Census data, national polls, and other studies have documented that people with disabilities, as a group, occupy an inferior status in society. The nation’s proper goals regarding individuals with disabilities are to ensure equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for such individuals.
The ADA prohibits job discrimination in hiring, promotion, or other provisions of employment against qualified individuals with disabilities by private employers, state and local governments, employment agencies, and labor unions. On July 26, 1991, the EEOC issued final regulations implementing Title 1 of the ADA. The purpose of the ADA is to:34
• Provide a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination against individuals with disabilities
• Provide clear, strong, consistent, enforceable standards addressing discrimination against individuals with disabilities
• Ensure that the federal government plays a central role in enforcing the standards established in the act on behalf of individuals with disabilities
• Invoke the sweep of congressional authority, including the power to enforce the Fourteenth Amendment and to regulate commerce to address the main areas of discrimination faced day to day by people with disabilities
The general rule of discrimination under Title I of the act provides that “no covered entity shall discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability because of the disability of such individual in regard to job application procedures, the hiring, advancement, or discharge of employees, employee compensation, job training, and other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment.”35
A defense to a charge of discrimination under the Act would require showing that the screening out of a specific disability was job-related and consistent with business necessity and that performance cannot be accomplished by reasonable accommodation.
Disability Requires Reasonable Accommodation
The appellee Alley, in Alley v. Charleston Area Med. Ctr., Inc.,36 worked for Charleston Area Medical Center (CAMC) for over 17 years and suffered from epilepsy and asthma, with the asthma becoming increasingly aggravated by on-the-job exposure to certain chemicals. Alley requested a 12-week family medical leave of absence, which the hospital approved, with the agreement that the leave could be taken intermittently as needed. Alley began seeing Dr. Douglas with CAMC Physician Health Group for treatment of her asthma and epilepsy.
Alley’s physician wrote a letter explaining her physical conditions and requested that Alley be allowed to work in an outpatient setting and not be exposed to people with multiple infections. Although Alley presented her request for accommodation to various CAMC supervisory personnel and to employee health services at the hospital, she was told that no accommodation would be made. The employee health services physician, Dr. Ranadive, met with Alley for 5 minutes. He did not perform any tests. Ranadive called the physician who had written the request and summarily concluded that there was no medical reason why Alley could not continue her employment and that CAMC would not accommodate her.
Alley was eventually terminated, and she filed suit against CAMC in the circuit court alleging that she had been subjected to retaliatory discharge based on physical and mental impairment. Alley claimed that CAMC refused to make reasonable accommodations for her known impairments, that this was a violation of the West Virginia Human Rights Act, and that CAMC, with knowledge of Alley’s asthma, exposed her to substances that exacerbated her condition.
The jury returned a verdict in favor of Alley, awarding $325,000 in damages. On appeal, the court determined that the evidence was sufficient for a jury to find that Alley was a qualified person with a disability, that CAMC was aware of her disability, and that a reasonable accommodation could have been made. The jury award was fair, considering all of the evidence and the instructions it received. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to grant a new trial.
National Origin
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, 1990, and 1996 (IRCA) prohibits most employers from discriminating against employees or applicants because of national origin or U.S. citizenship status with respect to hiring, referral, or discharge. The Act establishes penalties for employers who knowingly hire undocumented immigrants.
Determining the legality of the employee’s status is the employer’s responsibility. Consider the following example:
A 1999 settlement with Woodbine Healthcare Center resolving allegations that the defendant recruited Filipino nurses with promises of hiring them as registered nurses in the United States, but instead placed them in nurse assistant positions at substantially lower pay, or in registered nurse assignments at reduced pay. EEOC also claimed that the employer harassed the victims with threats of deportation when they complained. EEOC obtained relief of $2.1 million for sixty-five class members.37
Pay Discrimination
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 were violated when a female nurse’s aide was paid less than male orderlies for similar work in Odomes v. Nucare, Inc.38 The nursing facility argued that the orderlies performed heavy lifting chores and provided a form of security for the mostly all-female shift. Testimony of the orderlies for Odomes indicated that the orderlies did little or nothing more than the nurse’s aides. The security aspects of an orderly’s job were at best his presence on the shift and his periodic checking of the facility’s premises. The facility argued that the orderlies were involved in a training program that justified higher pay. The court considered this an “illusory post event justification for unequal pay for equal work.”39
The Supreme Court stated, in Corning Glass Works v. Brennan,40 that Congress’s purpose in enacting the Equal Pay Act was to remedy what was perceived to be a serious and endemic problem of employment discrimination in private industry. The wage structure of many segments of American industry has been based on an ancient outmoded belief that a man, because of his role in society, should be paid more than a woman even though his ideas are the same.
Pregnancy Discrimination
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act is an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Discrimination based on pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions constitutes unlawful sex discrimination under Title VII. Women affected by pregnancy or related conditions must be treated in the same manner as other applicants or employees with similar abilities or limitations by, for example, providing modified tasks, alternative assignments, disability leave, or leave without pay. The X-ray technician in Hayes v. Shelby Memorial Hospital 41 brought an employment discrimination action against the hospital. The technician had been fired by the hospital when it learned that she was pregnant. The federal district court found that the hospital had violated the Pregnancy Discrimination Act. In affirming the lower court’s decision, the appellate court held that the hospital failed to consider less discriminatory alternatives to firing the technician.
Race Discrimination
Discharge of an employee based on racial bias is actionable under state and federal laws. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 “requires the elimination of artificial, arbitrary, and unnecessary barriers to employment that operate invidiously to discriminate on the basis of race.”42 An at-will employee’s claim of racially motivated retaliatory discharge for filing a discrimination complaint can be actionable in tort as a violation of public policy.
The Civil Service Commission was found to have acted improperly in suspending a black licensed practical nurse as a result of a physical altercation with a white coworker in Theodore v. Department of Health & Human Services.43 A crib being pushed by the black nurse had accidentally struck the white nurse. Evidence at trial supported the black nurse’s contentions that she apologized for the accident. The white nurse struck the first blow and spoke inflammatory slurs. The black nurse’s reaction had been defensive. The facts revealed no grounds for suspension or disciplinary action against the black nurse.
The Bethany Methodist Corporation’s medical and skilled nursing care facility terminated a black certified nursing assistant because of its determination that she abused a patient on four separate occasions in Billups v. Methodist Hospital of Chicago.44 The appellate court upheld a lower court order entering a summary judgment in favor of the defendant. The plaintiff did not offer traditional forms of indirect evidence to prove racial discrimination, such as statistics or evidence of comparable situations. There was no evidence in the record suggesting that Bethany terminated black employees more frequently for physically abusing a patient, while retaining nonblack employees.
In Buckley Nursing Home v. Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination,45 Young, a black applicant for a nurse’s aide position, filed a complaint alleging racial discrimination. Young responded to a newspaper advertisement for a nurse’s aide position, filing her application on March 1, 1974, and was interviewed by the acting supervisor of nursing. The applicant called to inquire about the position on several occasions and eventually was told that the position had been filled. The advertisement ran again in the newspaper, and the applicant again called in response to the advertisement. Young was told that her application was on file and that she would be called as needed. The facility hired four full-time and one part-time nurse’s aides for the evening shifts between March 1, 1974, and July 1, 1974.
On the upper right hand corner of Young’s application, there is a handwritten notation reading “no openings,” even though during the relevant time periods there were openings and other persons were hired for the evening shift. That notation does not appear on any other application, and none of Buckley’s witnesses could identify who wrote it or when it appeared.
Despite testimony to the contrary, the commission found that Buckley had entered discussion about Young’s race and had decided not to hire her on that basis. The commission thus concluded that Buckley’s reason for not hiring Young (that she was not the best-qualified applicant for the job) was a pretext and that she would have been hired but for her race.
The commission awarded Young $6,986 plus interest for lost wages and $2,000 for emotional distress. Besides the monetary award to Young, the nursing facility had been instructed by the commission to develop a minority recruitment program. On appeal by the facility, the trial court upheld the commission’s decision. On further appeal, the appeals court held that the evidence was sufficient to support a reasonable inference that the nursing facility’s rejection of the applicant occurred after consideration of her race.
Religious Discrimination
Discrimination based on religion is valuing a person or group lower because of their religion or treating someone differently because of what they do or do not believe. Although many religious and secular authorities tend to stress that religion is something personal, the highly social nature of most religions makes conflicts between religious groups, and thus discrimination, still very probable. Reasonable accommodations should be made for an employee’s religious beliefs.
Sex Discrimination
In Jones v. Hinds General Hospital,46 a prima facie case of sex discrimination was established by evidence showing that a hospital laid off female nursing assistants while retaining male orderlies who performed the same functions. The court, however, held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act was not violated by the hospital’s use of gender as a basis for laying off employees. Gender was a bona fide occupational qualification for orderlies because a substantial number of male patients objected to the performance of catheterizations and surgical preparation by female assistants.
Sexual Harassment
Section 703 of Title VII and the EEOC define sexual harassment in employment as unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual’s employment; unreasonably interferes with an individual’s work performance; or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.
Sexual conduct becomes unlawful only when it is unwelcome by the victim. The victim must not have solicited or invited the actions and must have considered the conduct undesirable or offensive. To determine if the victim may have solicited or encouraged the claimed sexual harassment, a court may assess the victim’s sexual aggressiveness or consistent use of sexually oriented language in the work environment. Of course, indications of an employee’s sexually aggressive nature will not necessarily negate a claim of sexual harassment, just as voluntary participation in sexual conduct by the victim will not necessarily negate the claim. An employee may participate in sexual conduct for fear of repercussions; thus, each claim must be examined individually to determine whether the particular conduct complained of was unwelcome. Unwelcome sexual conduct becomes harassment when it creates a working environment that is unreasonably intimidating or offensive. A reasonable person must find the work environment offensive, and the complaining employee must have perceived the conduct as offensive.
When sexual conduct is determined to be unwelcome, the court must evaluate its level of interference with the employee’s job and whether the harassment created a hostile work environment. The court will consider the type of harassment (verbal, physical, or both), as well as the frequency of the harassment. A hostile work environment usually requires a pattern of conduct that has a repetitive effect. An isolated incident of physical advance is more likely to constitute a hostile environment (such as unwanted touching of the intimate body parts) than would a single case of verbal advance. In the same respect, sexual flirtation or vulgar language will not often constitute a hostile work environment as readily as would pervasive and continuous proliferation of pornography and demeaning comments.
An employer may be held liable for harassment inflicted by a supervisor that results in a tangible employment action or a significant change in the victim’s employment status. Such tangible employment action may fall under categories such as hiring, firing, promotion, demotion, undesirable reassignment, decision causing a significant change in benefits, compensation decisions, and work assignment. The victim of sexual harassment and the harasser may be a man or woman. The harasser can be the victim’s supervisor, an agent of the employer, a supervisor in another area, a coworker, or a nonemployee. The victim does not have to be the person harassed but could be anyone affected by the offensive conduct. Unlawful sexual harassment may occur without economic injury.
An employee who claims harassment based on a hostile work environment must demonstrate that the conduct complained of was sufficiently severe and/or pervasive to alter the conditions of employment and create a work environment that would qualify as hostile or abusive to employees because of their sex. An employer, however, will not always be held liable for sexual harassment that occurs in the workplace if the employer can prove: (1) it had in place an antiharassment policy with an effective complaint procedure; (2) it promptly took action to prevent and correct any harassment; and (3) the employee unreasonably failed to avoid further harm by complaining to management. If a nonsupervisor commits the harassment, the lower courts have held that the employer will only be liable if it knew or should have known about the conduct and failed to take appropriate corrective action.
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The Court’s Decision |
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit found that the employer’s interrogation of nursing facility employees about a union meeting constituted an unfair labor practice. On the record as a whole, substantial evidence supported the board’s conclusions that the questioning of Welton and Hopkins amounted to unlawful interrogation.
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. The U.S. Department of Labor is a department within the executive branch of government.
2. Functions of the department of labor include:
• Fostering, promoting, and developing the welfare of wage earners
• Improving working conditions
• Advancing opportunities for profitable employment
3. The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) governs the labor–management relations of business firms engaged in interstate commerce.
4. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) is responsible for administering and enforcing the NLRA.
• Provides procedures through which employees can choose a union as a collective bargaining representative.
5. The Norris–LaGuardia Act was enacted by Congress to limit the power of the federal courts to issue injunctions in cases that involve or have grown out of labor disputes.
6. In 1974, an amendment designating procedures that limit strikes in healthcare organizations was added to the NLRA. The amendment:
• Requires a 10-day strike notice
• Allows the NLRB to determine the legality of the strike
• Gives the organization time to put in place provisions to protect the level of patient care
7. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended by the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
8. The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) established minimum wages and maximum hours of employment.
9. The Equal Pay Act, essentially an amendment to the FLSA, prohibits sex discrimination in the payment of wages.
10. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 addresses age discrimination.
11. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 was enacted by Congress to ensure safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve human resources. Employers are required to provide a place of employment that is without recognized hazards that cause or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm.
12. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 provides protection from discrimination to handicapped employees and is applied to both public and private organizations.
13. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is legislation that further protects the rights of the disabled. The Act prohibits job discrimination in hiring, promotion, and other requirements of employment against qualified individuals with disabilities.
14. There are two kinds of union security contracts:
• Closed-shop contracts provide that only members of a particular union may be hired.
• Union-shop contracts hold that continued employment is dependent on membership in the union.
• A majority of states hold both such contracts as unlawful.
15. Workers’ compensation is a reimbursement program for employees with work-related injuries. These programs are administered on a state-by-state basis.
16. Labor rights include the right to organize and bargain collectively, solicit and distribute union information, picket, and strike.
17. Management rights include the right to receive a strike notice, hire replacement workers, restrict union activity to prescribed areas, prohibit union activity during working hours, and prohibit unionization of supervisors.
18. Affirmative action programs include:
• Collection and analysis of data on the race and sex of all applicants for employment
• Nondiscrimination statement in personal policy/procedure manuals and employee handbooks
19. An injunction is an order by a court that instructs that a certain act be performed or not performed.
20. Arbitration procedures begin when a union files a demand for arbitration either with the employer or with the arbitration agency named in the contract. The arbitrator’s decision is binding on both parties.
21. Discrimination in the workplace is often based on age, disability, national origin, pay, pregnancy, race, religion, and sexual harassment.