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ch.1Professionalapplicationofpsychology.docxProfessional Applications of Psychology Yolanda Harper, PhD— Ashford University
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
· Explain the types of preparation needed to obtain a career in a field of interest.
· Apply the elements of thought to critical thinking scenarios.
· Compare and contrast representations of the scientific method.
· Scientifically critique claims published in popular and scholarly sources.
· Understand the importance of written communication skills.
· Distinguish credible resources for obtaining information about APA professional ethics.
Nellia, about to graduate with her bachelor’s degree in psychology, says, “I’ve always been the friend that people talked to about their problems. I’m passionate about helping people and I also want to have my own private practice. I would love to earn a PhD or PsyD in clinical or counseling psychology to become a licensed psychologist. If that doesn’t work out, I’ll get my LPC [Licensed Professional Counselor].”
Marcus has worked with his company for eight years and has been promoted twice. His supervisor is pleased with his work and believes Marcus would make an excellent manager, but Marcus must have a bachelor’s degree to be promoted to a management position. He chose psychology because his job requires him to work with people, and he has found that the extra insight has helped him improve his performance. None of the upper management positions in his company require a master’s degree, so he is not interested in a graduate degree.
Janine is graduating in less than two months and is still not sure what she wants to do with her psychology degree. Her grades are average and she is comfortable taking online classes and enjoys engaging with the instructors and her classmates. She ponders, “I think I would enjoy teaching online classes.” She is planning to apply to an online graduate psychology program to earn her master’s degree. She is not yet committed to earning a doctorate degree but is open to the possibility depending on how she does in the master’s program.
Kyle is planning to open his own business eventually. “Before starting my own business, I’ll earn my MBA while obtaining sales, marketing, budgeting, and leadership experience in a retail chain business. Having a psychology background will help me understand my customers and the market.”
Ariel is earning her bachelor’s in psychology with a minor in criminal justice while on active duty in the Air Force. She has a successful military career and is looking forward to her retirement in three years. She tells her instructor, “I am preparing for a position in the justice system, most likely a probation officer. Occasionally, I think I might be interested in law school—my husband says I love to argue and debate like an attorney—but I don’t know. I’ll probably just look for a job in juvenile probation.”
Five different stories, five very different career paths, each one relevant to psychology. Each of these graduates will utilize the knowledge and skills obtained from basic and applied psychological research in unique ways, as will you. This book is designed to assist you in synthesizing information you have learned throughout your degree program to prepare you for a variety of career trajectories after graduation. As you think about these stories, consider the following questions:
· Which of these stories do you relate to most, and why?
· What ways have you applied psychology in your everyday life?
· How might a degree in psychology help you navigate your personal and professional life more effectively?
1.1 What Are You Planning to Do With Your Psychology Degree?
A psychology degree develops knowledge of human behavior as well as critical thinking, research, and writing skills. The core classes in your program are designed to provide you with a basic understanding of a broad range of topics (e.g., human development, learning theories, research and statistical methods, and abnormal psychology). Collectively, the core topics provide a foundation upon which a wide range of specializations are built (e.g., child psychology, health psychology, clinical and counseling psychology, and forensic psychology).
Whether or not you have decided on a career path, take time to explore the interest groups, known as “divisions,” organized by members of the American Psychological Association (APA). You can find a list of these divisions with links for more information at http://www.apa.org/about/division/ . Some divisions correspond to distinct subfields of psychology (e.g., pediatric, military, experimental, social, or clinical), while others focus on topical areas (e.g., creativity and the arts, aging, culture and ethnicity, gender, trauma, or media and technology). Each division has its own website, publications, email list, meetings, and convention activities and, if interested, you may join as a student affiliate, a member of the APA, or a non-member. Many divisions have active Facebook pages on which people post news stories, career-related opportunities, and events such as workshops, conferences, webinars, and phone seminars. Many of the opportunities promoted through social media do not require membership at all.
As you prepare for commencement and a new academic, personal, or professional journey, take advantage of opportunities to learn more about what active psychology professionals are doing and talking about. The questions in the Career Spotlight: What’s Next box in this section will assist you in identifying what types of preparation you will need for careers you find interesting. Each chapter in this book will provide a review of key psychological knowledge while demonstrating practical applications of that knowledge. In Chapter 10, we will revisit the topic of career planning as you work to finalize your applied project for your course. You may find that your initial career goals continue to be affirmed as we explore how psychological knowledge is utilized in a contemporary context, or you may become passionate about a new career option you never knew existed.
Career Spotlight: What’s Next?
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What psychology career interests you?
Write down your dream job—the career you are most passionate about. Then write down one or more additional specific job title(s) you find interesting enough to consider pursuing. Research each career and answer the following questions:
1. What type of work experience does each position require?
2. What type(s) of degree(s) or coursework does each position require (e.g., psychology, social work, business, law)?
3. Is a graduate or professional degree required? If so, what type?
4. Which universities offer the degree(s) needed?
5. What are the entrance requirements to obtain acceptance into the desired degree program(s)?
6. Will you be required to take a standardized graduate or professional school admissions test such as the GRE, GMAT, LSAT, or MAT? If so, identify how you will prepare for the exam (e.g., test preparation books, online course and practice tests, in-person workshops).
7. After completing your degree(s), will you need to obtain a certification or licensure? If so, what type of education, examination(s), or work experience will you need to qualify for licensure?
8. Are there individuals working in that career in your network whom you can ask questions about their educational and work experiences?
9. What services are offered through your university's career services department to assist you with career planning?
How Will You Apply What You Have Learned in Psychology?
Whether or not you are studying psychology with the intent of pursuing a specific career path, the information gained from your psychology degree has broad applications. Will you continue to apply your knowledge in an academic setting as a graduate student, tutor, trainer, or educator? Will you apply psychological knowledge in one of the many helping or service professions? In a commercial business or non-profit organization? In community service as a volunteer? With friends and family members? Or for personal self-improvement?
Beyond the numerous subfields and specializations within psychology, many additional professions rely on psychological knowledge; examples include education, political science, human resources, criminology, sociology, social work, psychiatry, sales, marketing, health, acting, music, and space studies, to name a few. Since most professions require some degree of human-to-human interaction and communication, almost every job imaginable can benefit from some aspect of psychological knowledge. The skills learned in psychology give us the ability to think critically and intelligently about experiences, information, and about our opinions so that we speak and behave in ways that foster positive interpersonal relationships.
1.2 What Are Critical Thinking Skills?
Je pense, donc je suis is a philosophical proposition by René Descartes usually translated as “I think, therefore I am” (Descartes, 1838, p. 54). One of the most significant factors in determining the quality of what one learns in life is the ability to evaluate the quality of one’s own thinking. Exposure to the best information available is of limited usefulness if one lacks the tools of mind necessary to think critically. Critical thinking is an applied set of skills which has lifelong value for your academic, personal, and professional lives. Much of the theory and research in the science of critical thinking relies heavily on cognitive psychology (a psychological perspective which assumes human behavior is determined by thinking processes called “cognitions”). According to Paul and Elder (1996), critical thinking includes all of the following:
1. self-disciplined, self-directed thinking that is appropriate to subject matter and discipline;
2. thinking that exemplifies mastery of higher order intellectual skills and abilities; and
3. metacognition: proficiency in the ability to reflect on your thinking in real time—while you are engaged in thinking—to improve the quality of thought (clearer, more accurate, or more logical).
When thinking, people use a variety of the elements of thought depicted in Figure 1.1, including point of view, purpose, question at issue, information, interpretations and inferences, concepts, assumptions, and implications and consequences (Paul & Elder, 1996). Paul and Elder use the term “elements” analogously to the concept of the elements (such as hydrogen and oxygen) used in chemistry. Much like chemical elements combine to create chemical substances, the elements of thought combine to create the substance of thinking. Understanding the basic building blocks of thinking enables us to identify, examine, and evaluate the quality of the building blocks of our thoughts, as well as the quality of the thoughts themselves.
Figure 1.1: Elements of thought
The elements of thought are considered the building blocks of thinking.
For example, say your significant other normally responds to your texts quickly, but today has not responded to your texts all day. Let’s break this down using the elements of thought. The question at issue is that your partner is not responding to your texts, and your purpose is to figure out why. The information you have is that you have sent three text messages at different points of the day and not gotten responses. Depending on your point of view, you may infer that there is a positive (in meetings all day), negative (upset with you), or neutral (dead battery) reason for the lack of texts. Since you do not know why the text is delayed, you are making assumptions that are not based in facts. Using the concept of critical thinking, you might be able to step back and realize that the implications you are considering aren’t based on facts, and that you need to wait until you have more information to make a judgment.
On a practical level, if a person’s thinking is unrealistic, that person is more likely to make life choices that result in unforeseen consequences. Some are more adept at using critical thinking skills and monitoring their own thoughts than others. While some absorb principles of critical thinking from their role models seemingly effortlessly, many have to be taught critical thinking skills later in life. Critical thinking skills can be used to analyze the quality of our own thoughts as well as the quality of the thinking conveyed by others in their spoken and written communications.
According to Paul and Elder (2010), proficiency in certain intellectual standards is necessary to think critically. These standards—clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness—are applied to thinking in order to evaluate the quality of one’s reasoning. As seen in Figure 1.2, Paul and Elder suggest that we should ask questions of ourselves and others to aid in the enhancement of critical thinking skills and improve communication and decision making.
Figure 1.2: Intellectual standards
Intellectual standards are criteria applied to thinking to assess the quality of reasoning.
Source: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2010, October). Universal intellectual standards. The Foundation for Critical Thinking . Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/universal-intellectual-standards/527
According to Paul and Elder (2010), “intellectual standards are standards which must be applied to thinking whenever one is interested in checking the quality of reasoning about a problem, issue, or situation” (para 1.). The list of intellectual standards provided in Figure 1.2 is not exhaustive, but it should be enough to understand how to assess your own reasoning and the reasoning of others. Well-educated adults are expected to model high-quality thinking by routinely meeting intellectual standards such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, and others. For example, Aimee is complaining to her colleague Megan about how unreasonable their supervisor is being regarding the vacation Aimee wanted to take in July. Megan empathizes with Aimee, but then asks questions that challenge Aimee’s reasoning and force her to think more critically about the situation. Megan asks Aimee to consider the situation from her supervisor’s point of view, and asks whether she is being completely fair by putting the blame entirely on her supervisor. As you read through the questions in Figure 1.2, what additional questions might you apply to a situation like this to hold the quality of Aimee’s thinking to a higher standard? How might the situation have turned out differently had Aimee asked herself these questions ahead of the conversation with Megan?
Critical thinking has both short-term and long-term implications for quality of life for ourselves and for those with whom we interact. As human beings, we perceive, interpret, understand, and construct our perceptions of present reality and our memories of past experiences based on our worldviews, which both influence and are influenced by the quality of our thinking. One of the most basic levels of challenging our thinking is to engage in multiple-perspective-taking. As one African proverb states, “Until lions have their historians, tales of the hunt shall always glorify the hunter.” This reminds us that there are always at least two viewpoints for every situation, and, in reality, there are usually more than two ways to view an experience or a piece of information. Critical thinking requires the application of systematic approaches to utilizing information to prevent people from basing their actions on misinformation or faulty logic that may lead to the creation of memories that grossly misrepresent the events that transpired. See the Career Spotlight: Alberto feature box for a practical example of critical thinking applied to a decision many people make at different times in their lives.
Career Spotlight: Alberto R.
Alberto is considering a career change. His company has downsized three times in the last three years and he finds himself anxiously wondering if his position will be eliminated in the next twelve months. Alberto has decided he will begin to look for a better job. To think this through, he uses many of the elements of thought described in Figure 1.1. His purpose is not only to avoid ending up unemployed, but also to gain a better job, which he defines as a job with higher pay and work hours more compatible with his wife’s schedule.
He begins by asking himself questions such as
· What jobs am I interested in?
· What jobs am I qualified for?
· What jobs are available?
· What are the pros and cons of the available jobs?
· How can I improve my chances of getting one of the available jobs?
Next, he gathers information to answer those questions. After obtaining the information, he comes to conclusions about which jobs would be the best fit for him and how to improve his chances at getting those jobs.
As he decides which options to pursue, he makes assumptions about his own attributes, about the jobs themselves, and about what the future holds. He will examine the implications of getting a new job, such as the possibilities of
· being out of a job for a period of time,
· losing seniority,
· having a longer commute to work,
· not liking the new position or the people he would be working with, and
· the impact on his family.
Alberto also thinks about ways improving the quality of his job would improve the quality of his life. For example, if the new company is financially stable, he may have less anxiety about being laid off. However, Alberto does not just assume that a new job will automatically make his life better, or that issues in other areas of his life will be solved by a new job. He knows that his point of view could be biased, and that making a hasty change without critically appraising the pros and cons could make matters worse than they are. There is a saying that goes, “The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence,” which means when people are not satisfied with their own situation, they tend to think others have it better, even though this may not be the case. Having as much information as possible about new positions he is considering will help Alberto avoid this type of thinking.
Strategies for Critical Thinking
The following critical thinking strategies will help you become a better consumer of information:
1. Be skeptical, ask questions, and be willing to wonder. A critical thinker is not duped into believing anything he or she is told; he or she respectfully questions the sources of information and asks questions when confronted with details that do not make sense. Given your interest in human behavior and psychology, asking “what if” questions should come naturally. For example, think about questions like (a) What would happen if I started studying the night before the test? (b) What would happen if I treated my partner the way I want to be treated? or (c) What would happen if politicians delivered on their promises? Your natural curiosity about behavior combined with practice and applied research methods skills can provide you with the framework and tools to begin to answer, scientifically, the questions of interest to you.
2. Define the problem and examine the definition of terms. Defining the problem is one of the first steps of the scientific method. If we want to understand or predict some sort of behavior, we need to be able to describe and define what that behavior is. In psychology, we rely on operational definitions to help us know what precisely we are measuring.
3. Examine the evidence. A critical thinker looks for and examines the evidence on an issue. In psychology, we tend to rely on empirical evidence, but other types of evidence can be useful at times. For example, anecdotal evidence (evidence based on a personal story or experience) can sometimes be useful in thinking about ways to solve problems or for generating plausible hypotheses, but anecdotal evidence is generally not considered to be valid scientific or empirical support for a hypothesis. In examining the evidence of others, we look for the standards of science to be met.
4. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence. Two scientists looking at the same evidence might draw different conclusions. Often evidence is preliminary in nature and conclusions should be delayed until more evidence is available. Furthermore, some types of evidence only support some types of conclusions. For example, evidence from correlational studies suggests a statistical relationship between variables, not a causal relationship. In other words, cause-and-effect conclusions are rarely drawn from correlational evidence. There is usually a positive correlation between height and weight, but it is awkward and incorrect to conclude that height causes weight or that weight causes height. Just because two variables are significantly correlated does not mean that values of one variable cause the values of the other variable to change. Age is typically correlated with net worth, but we know of young millionaires and of elderly people who live in poverty. As scientists, we want evidence, but we need to be cautious about the types of conclusions we draw based on the types of evidence we have.
5. Consider alternative explanations for research evidence. One of our primary tasks is to consider alternative explanations in the interpretation of research findings. In fact, most researchers consider alternative explanations before conducting studies. The psychologist is constantly looking for alternative explanations, ideally before the research is conducted; in reality, though, sometimes we speculate about alternative explanations after a study is complete.
6. Examine biases and assumptions. The critical thinker must examine his or her own biases and assumptions as well as the biases and assumptions of others. Information comes to us from a source, and this source almost always has a certain slant, angle, or spin. That is, the messages we receive are sent for a purpose, and often that purpose is to influence our thinking, change our attitudes, or influence our behavior. It’s also important to remember that we are not always impartial, even when we think we are.
7. Avoid emotional reasoning as a substitute for reasoning. We are emotional beings—there is no denying that. Emotions can sometimes cloud and disturb our decision-making skills, and the available evidence is not often utilized fully when emotions are peaking. Sometimes we get caught in the trap of “since I feel this way, it must be true.” We may focus too much on one element of the situation without gaining the perspective to understand multiple sides of an issue. Feelings and emotions are important, but they should not be substituted for careful examination of the evidence.
8. Try not to oversimplify or overgeneralize. We live in a complicated world and it is rare that we can condense an important issue down to a convenient (yet accurate) generalization. Oversimplifications and overgeneralizations are mental shortcuts that we all make to help us organize and understand the world, and to take a break from critical thinking. Some of our prejudices and stereotypes are based on unfair overgeneralizations. Living in a complicated society dictates that complicated solutions must be generated; simplistic, either-or thinking usually doesn’t work well in the long run. When we simplify and generalize for ourselves and others, trying to force the complex world we live in into neat, organized cubbyholes, it leaves us with an oversimplified and inaccurate view of the world.
9. Tolerate uncertainty. Science is based on tentative answers formed from the best evidence available at the time. Key in on the phrase “at the time.” Given the reliance on evidence, the critical thinker may at times change position on a topic due to personal experience and the emergence of new evidence. In the scientific community, new evidence emerges frequently. When evidence and beliefs change, uncertainty is present. Consider the information we receive about our health. It is common, for example, to read a study that says oat bran is good for you and that it lowers your cholesterol, but six months later read another study that suggests that oat bran has no effect on cholesterol. What do you believe? The critical thinker must examine the evidence, looking for alternative explanations, and if a different conclusion is warranted by the evidence, change his or her opinion. Sometimes this uncertainty is what causes anxiety and fear. An ability to tolerate uncertainty can be fostered by being open-minded to change yet still applying the rigorous standards of critical thinking.
The critical strategies offered above can assist us in elevating the level of our thinking to demonstrate the intellectual standards depicted in Figure 1.2. Consistently using these strategies can help us become more intelligent consumers and disseminators of information.
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Critical listening requires the listener to evaluate the speaker's perspective while also processing their own.
Critical Listening, Reading, and Writing
Being a critical thinker allows you to see both the big picture and the small details. Additional abilities related to critical thinking are critical listening, critical reading, and critical writing. When we engage in critical listening, our motivation is to gain an accurate understanding of what the other person is saying. A critical listener applies the elements of thought to understand the message the speaker intends to convey from the perspective of the speaker and also monitors her or his own thoughts and feelings to evaluate how they filter, enhance, or diminish the message of the speaker. In critical reading, we actively engage in the intellectual process of applying the elements of thought to a written text in order to accurately understand the writer’s point of view. Thus, a critical reader can accurately identify an author’s purpose, key concepts and ideas, assumptions, rationales and justifications, supporting examples, the quality of evidence, implications and consequences, and any other aspects of the written text in order to accurately and fairly interpret the reading. Critical writing is noted for its well-reasoned conclusions based on the evaluation and analysis of evidence from several sources representing different points of view. The ultimate goal of critical writing is to present the truth in a clear and accurate manner. Critical writing helps develop advanced critical thinking skills (Paul, 1995), as, in order to write in a critical manner, one must think in a critical manner.
1.3 What Does It Mean to Think Like a Scientist?
For some, the phrase “think like a scientist” elicits images of people like Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking, George Washington Carver, or Marie Curie. Others might think of stereotypical characters from a TV show like The Big Bang Theory. However, you do not have to have a doctoral degree to think like a scientist. While some in our class will go on to publish research that will impact generations to come, all of us have opportunities every day to utilize scientific thinking. Any time we choose to acquire and utilize knowledge or data in a systematic and testable way to draw conclusions, we are thinking like scientists. At times, this will mean rigorously employing a scientific method in a formal research project. However, for many of us, our main interaction with scientific thinking will be in the day-to-day application of principles which assist us in distinguishing fact from fiction to make intelligent choices and solve real-world challenges. Being able to think like a scientist will be of great personal and professional benefit throughout your lifetime.
Values of Science
Science is not the only way by which to understand the world—there are numerous methods of inquiry that employ logic and intuition to varying degrees. Scientists seek to employ approaches which allow for conclusions to be drawn with a certain amount of confidence in the accuracy of those conclusions. The scientific methods you learned about in your psychology program are built on a number of core values (see Figure 1.3) as summarized here:
· Science places high value on theories that have the largest explanatory power. If you have a theory that can explain the outcomes of a great many hypotheses, that theory is highly useful.
· Science values predictive power. The more we can predict future behavior based on scientific data, the more useful that data will be.
· Science values fecundity—that is, fruitfulness (the generation of new ideas). If a theory can help us generate new ideas about the world we live in, then that theory has value. Sometimes this characteristic is known as the heuristic value of a theory.
· Science values open mindedness. Critical thinking and open mindedness are essential tools for success in science.
· Science values parsimony. When all else is held constant, scientists prefer simpler theories to more complex theories.
· Scientists require logical thinking in their explanations. By making the processes and results public, scientists must withstand public scrutiny and make cogent arguments for their conclusions.
· Scientists value skepticism. Although anecdotal evidence may be memorable (and often entertaining), scientists want evidence in such a way as to either support or refute a claim (Smith & Scharmann, 1999).
· Science is self-correcting. New findings can correct outdated research and theoretical interpretations. Assertions based on research that other scientists cannot replicate become discredited. Contradictory findings prompt researchers to design better quality studies.
Figure 1.3: The values of science
Some of the core values associated with science.
As a student of psychology, you may have already had peers ask your opinion about matters pertaining to human behavior, such as what dreams mean or what the best treatment for depression or ADHD is. Or maybe you became interested in psychology because you had questions about what causes mental illness or how to motivate students to learn. By this point in your college career, you likely have come to learn that many of the questions people ask related to human behavior do not have one definitive, universal answer. Thus, an appreciation for the values underlying science can help you better understand the strengths and limitations of scientific research as you approach your own research and research conducted by others. One of the first questions to ask when considering information is, “What method of inquiry was utilized to obtain this information?”
Scientific Method
As mentioned previously, there are various methods of inquiry. The scientific method typically presented in psychology describes a special system of critical analysis used to study a wide range of phenomena as objectively as possible in order to obtain reliable and valid results. When results are reliable and valid, independent investigators separately attempting the same experiment should be able to obtain the same outcomes. Here we see a linear representation of a scientific method consisting of the following systematic steps:
1. Identify a research question. Refine ideas based on a thorough review of relevant scholarly literature. (Question: Is exercise an effective treatment for depression?)
2. Develop a hypothesis. A research hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. (Hypothesis: Exercise will be effective in reducing symptoms of depression.)
3. Design the method. When formulating how to test a hypothesis, determine the number and types of participants needed, how they will be assigned to different groups, and what types of observations you will make. (To test the current hypothesis, we would need subjects with clinically significant levels of depression to assign to at least two groups: one group to receive exercise as an intervention and a control group which will receive no treatment.)
4. Collect data/make relevant observations. Depending on the research question and hypothesis, data collection techniques might include questionnaires, interviews, direct observation, administering psychological tests, recording physiological responses, reviewing archival files, or examining data from previously published studies. (In this study, participants will complete the Beck Depression Inventory-II before the study begins and again after eight weeks.)
5. Test the hypothesis. Analyze the data using procedures to summarize the findings so they can be presented clearly and logically. This may involve using statistical analyses to determine whether observations are statistically significant. Statistical analyses aid in determining the probability that results are due to factors other than chance. (Is there a difference in the depression ratings of those who received exercise as an intervention when compared to the control group receiving no intervention?)
6. Draw conclusions. A conclusion is an informed opinion about the meaning of the data obtained from the study. (Exercise is effective in reducing the depressive symptoms in subjects with mild-to-moderate depression.)
7. Report the findings. For science to progress, the results of well-designed research must be shared. It is important to communicate findings accurately whether or not they support the hypothesis. Reporting research findings others allows others to continue the research (Landrum, 2012).
Compare and contrast the sequential presentation of the scientific method with the cyclical representation in Figure 1.4, which incorporates both sequential and simultaneous elements. What are some commonalities and differences of each representation?
Figure 1.4: The scientific method as an ongoing process
The scientific method can be imagined as a cyclical process, as pictured here.
How to Scientifically Evaluate a Claim
Consider the methods through which we acquire knowledge. Our ways of knowing, or methods of gaining knowledge, influence our interpretations and beliefs, and relying on one way of knowing can put a person at risk of having incomplete information on which to base conclusions and decisions (Jacobs, 2014; Peterson & Peterson, 1997). Pause for a moment and think about something you believe to be true. For example, what are your beliefs about each of the following?
· Why do some individuals exposed to extreme trauma develop post-traumatic stress disorder and others do not?
· What do you believe about cognitive functioning in older adults?
· What are effective treatments for mild to moderate depression?
· Are people with intelligence scores in the genius range likely to have average, above average, or below average social skills?
· Is punishment a highly effective means of changing behavior long-term?
"The most erroneous stories are those we think we know best—and therefore never scrutinize or question." —Stephen J. Gould (1996)
As you reflect on each question, consider how you arrived at your beliefs. Which beliefs did you learn through personal experience? Which beliefs are based on what you have been told by others? To what extent are your beliefs influenced by the media, your cultural values, your generational experiences, and your gender socialization? Which beliefs did you develop after doing scholarly research and applying logical reasoning? How do your feelings impact your beliefs and how do your beliefs impact your feelings? What type of evidence would it take to change your beliefs? How might people who have different beliefs on these topics make different decisions based on those beliefs?
To have an accurate understanding of psychological knowledge it is important to understand scientific research methods and scholarly research publications. Even those who do not plan to pursue a career in research need to be educated consumers of research in order to make intelligent personal and professional decisions. Intuition, emotions, personal experience, and the opinions of people we respect can provide useful information and are not to be completely discarded or dismissed. However, adding scientific thinking to your repertoire will be an asset in both professional and personal contexts. While internet access affords great opportunities to obtain quality information quickly, the world is also rife with misinformation, pseudoscience, and half-truths that are passed off as fact. For example, despite substantial evidence to counteract this approach, educational decisions continue to be based on the myth that students learn best when teaching styles are matched to their learning styles (Curry, 1990; Doyle & Rutherford, 1984; Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003; Kampwirth & Bates, 1980; Riener & Willingham, 2010; Stahl, 1999). Therapists push clients to talk about traumatic experiences based on the false premise that people who have experienced a trauma must fully “process” the trauma in order to recover (Bonanno, 2004; Moor, 2007). Parents, grandparents, and teachers fail to respond effectively to distressed teens because of the belief that adolescence is inevitably a time of psychological turmoil (Côté, 2014; Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, & Beyerstein, 2011; Oldham, 1978). Imagine some of the consequences that have resulted from people acting on these and other myths, and imagine how things might have been different had they done their research and acted on evidence instead.
To avoid being misled by false claims or misleading others, think like a scientist. In his publication “Critically Evaluating Scientific Claims in the Popular Press” (1998), environmental biology professor Bob Ford identified five steps for critically evaluating scientific claims in the popular press:
1. Clearly identify the claims.
2. List the evidence.
3. Evaluate the quality of the evidence.
4. Evaluate the claims.
5. Critique your evaluation.
When evaluating claims from both scientific and popular press sources, it is important to look for alternate explanations for the claim, consider the credibility of the source, watch for exaggerations of small results, and look closely at the numbers (What are the actual numbers and what do they mean?). Think of a recent commercial or advertisement you have seen marketing a weight loss pill with testimonials. Have you ever purchased such a product based on the advertised claims alone? What would be a more scholarly and scientific approach to evaluating the product before making a decision about purchasing it? Where would you go to find valid and reliable research studies on the efficacy of the product? Was the research conducted by the company or by an independent lab? What are the ingredients in the product? What do valid and reliable research studies indicate about the usefulness of those ingredients in healthy weight management? What are the risks of taking the product? How can you discern if any weight lost by participants was due to the product versus other lifestyle choices (e.g., healthy diet, exercise)? It is also important to explore how your own biases and emotional responses influence your readiness to believe the claims, and always keep in mind that correlation is not the same as causation. For an example, see Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Correlation vs. causation
Although a strong positive correlation was found between the marriage rate in Kentucky and the number of people who drowned after falling out of a fishing boat between 1999 and 2010, it would be absurd to conclude that either of those events were caused by the other.
Source: Spurious Media. (2015). Spurious correlations. Retrieved from http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations
It is easy to see that the coincidental correlation between the two variables in Figure 1.5 are spurious and that no one should base their decisions regarding marriage or taking a fishing boat excursion on this research. But sometimes it is harder to make that distinction, and people misinterpret data and draw erroneous conclusions (for instance, that a certain supplement will make you lose weight faster).
Just like three people looking at the same painting may have different interpretations, three researchers studying the same topic, even using the same data, can come to different conclusions. Some look at nonsignificant findings and see a dead end, while others become inspired to refine the theory or write a different hypothesis and keep looking. If psychology is a science that employs a precise scientific method, how can we have different interpretations of the same data which, in turn, lead to different conclusions and decisions?
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Psychology is both an art and a science.
Is Psychology an Art or a Science?
The field and subfields of psychology comprise an expansive arena of programmatic research and professional practice. Like the “nature versus nurture” debate, the “art versus science” debate has a longstanding history in psychology. The most accurate answer is that it’s both (Bardon, 1976; Eisner, 2003; Knight & Camic, 2004; Malterud, 2001; McAdams, 2015; Sarbin, 1941). To many, psychology is first and foremost the science of behavior and mental processes. Psychological scientists are dedicated to increasing our knowledge about mental and behavioral phenomena through rigorous empirical research. According to Eisner (2003), ideas and ideals born in the mid-19th century continue to serve as foundational principles for conducting psychological research. As a result, in many settings, quantitative, empirical research, or “real science,” continues to be held in higher esteem than arts-based psychological research methods such as those associated with qualitative research. At the same time, human beings engaged in psychological research and applied practice frequently combine empirically supported psychological practices with qualitative evidence, preferred theories, professional experience, personal style, intuition, personal judgment, and creativity. Creativity comes into play in psychology in a number of ways, such as when articulating a new theory, designing an innovative intervention program, modifying an existing paradigm, developing a new method to test a hypothesis, or synthesizing known information from different research studies to construct a new model for understanding behavior.
We live in a time where strategic innovation is valued and often necessary for businesses and organizations to survive and remain relevant. Being able to utilize knowledge and tools associated with both the art and the science of psychology will provide you with complementary skills applicable to a wide range of real-world problems. When Deforia Lane decided she wanted to become a music therapist, there was no such degree program at her institution; however, she found a way to combine her bachelor’s degree in vocal performance with graduate degrees in music education and gain the practical experience needed to become certified by the American Music Therapy Association. Dr. Lane’s work has been instrumental for bringing music therapy programs into medical settings. While grounded in the literature and scientific reasoning, she clearly works from an integrated, innovative approach that incorporates both practice-based evidence and evidence-based practice. As a result of her documenting and following up with research on her work, interventions that were initially based on her artistic strengths have come to be evidence-based practices (TEDx Talks, 2016). To learn more about Dr. Lane, watch this video, http://youtu.be/LGnWyS2Y4r8 , in which Dr. Lane talks about three of her cases and presents music therapy as an evidence-based practice. Whether your psychology degree takes you to a graduate degree in mental health, to juvenile probation or teaching, to sales or human resources, or to owning your own business or creating an entirely new profession, challenge yourself to think scientifically and creatively .
1.4 What Does It Mean to Write Like a Professional?
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Effective writing is an important skill for any career in psychology.
Written communication skills are required in almost every career you are likely to pursue as a psychology graduate. The ability to write like a professional shows the reader that you are competent, capable, credible, and intelligent. Effective writing includes the ability to produce work free of distracting spelling and grammatical errors. It also includes the ability to write in a work-appropriate tone. Even if you do not see yourself writing research reports in your career, you still might spend a significant amount of time engaging in written communication through emails, memos, letters, notes, newsletters, social media posts, or electronic presentations (O’Farrell, 2018).
From the very first application and cover letter to all written products created on the job, the quality of your writing can advance or impede your career progress. Resumes and cover letters are not just meant to communicate your experience and interest in a specific position, they are also the first samples of your writing that employers see. No matter what you are writing, it is important to take the extra step to proofread. Check for typos and for unfortunate autocorrect substitutions. From the reader’s point of view, there is a big difference between “im interested in ths job” and “I’m interested in this job.” If sending an email, make sure you are sending it to the correct recipients.
Every communication with your instructors should be viewed as an opportunity to practice and improve your writing. If you are already employed, you should be familiar with the level of writing quality needed to be effective in your job and to position yourself for advancement when the opportunity arises. While it should be everyone’s goal to write everything correctly 100% of the time, this may not be absolutely necessary for everyone’s jobs. According to O’Farrell (2018), while some mistakes are glaring and easy to avoid, such as subject-verb agreement errors and confusing “their” and “they’re,” smaller errors, like confusing “who” and “whom,” may be less important in some work settings.
Effective professional writing is not just about mechanics, it is about making sure the content in your communications demonstrates higher order critical thinking. Writing is often judged by others as an indicator of the quality of your thinking and problem solving. The skills mentioned earlier in this chapter should come together to inform your writing. For example, before you can effectively prepare a report or summary, you need to be able to use your critical reading skills to comprehend and evaluate your sources (e.g., reports, journal articles, scholarly books). Some may be tempted to take shortcuts when reading journal articles and only read the abstract or the conclusion/discussion sections. However, in doing so, you put yourself at the mercy of the authors’ interpretations and you may miss very important information that would have led you to make a more intelligent decision about how to use the information in the article. Before sharing knowledge based on any author’s work, we should do our due diligence in obtaining full and accurate information in order to make sound decisions and communicate with others with clarity and precision.
Once you have a solid foundation of content about which to write, you will need to attend to formal guidelines about how to format your written communications. In a business setting, this may mean sticking to a professional tone. In psychological writing, it means using APA style. While there are other writing style guides, such as The MLA Style Manual and The Chicago Manual of Style, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the style manual of choice for writers in psychology and most professions in the social and behavioral sciences (APA, 2010b). Since your first psychology class, and in many of your early writing classes, you have had opportunities to write using APA style and format. Writing that uses APA style strives to communicate objectivity and credibility, and to give proper credit to any sources used to compose the work.
Many students view APA style as simply a list of rules to be followed to avoid getting points deducted from their grades on written assignments. However, APA style includes a wealth of useful information which can help to develop effective writing skills. In addition to providing guidelines for organizing papers and citing sources, many other topics are covered in the manual. Topics include writing clearly and concisely, reducing bias in language, displaying results, crediting sources, understanding the role of ethics in publishing, writing for the social and behavioral sciences, and the mechanics of style. APA Style CENTRAL ( http://www.apastyle.org/ ) includes information about where to access the manual, as well as quick answers to questions about references and formatting. There is even an APA style blog where you can find answers to common questions as well as an up-to-date APA style Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/ .
You will have many opportunities to practice your APA writing style skills throughout your applied project course. It’s true that there are an enormous number of details to APA format, but don’t let it overwhelm you. Be patient and persistent and take advantage of the resources provided here and in the professional resources section at the end of the chapter. The keys to mastering any professional writing standard, including APA style, are focus, attention to details, and the conscientiousness and self-discipline to double check your format against an accurate resource on APA style.
1.5 Are You Prepared to Be an Ethical Professional?
In psychology, ethics refers to the rules of conduct professionals should use to govern themselves. As you have learned in previous courses, APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (the Ethics Code) addresses behavior related to clinical practice, education, research, and publication (APA, 2017c). The preamble to the Ethics Code clearly communicates that psychology students and professionals are held to a high standard of ethical behavior.
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Ethical codes determine the appropriate behaviors and values for professionals in any field. What are the primary ethical concerns of the field you are interested in?
Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s understanding of themselves and others and to the use of such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Psychologists respect and protect civil and human rights and the central importance of freedom of inquiry and expression in research, teaching, and publication. They strive to help the public in developing informed judgments and choices concerning human behavior. In doing so, they perform many roles, such as researcher, educator, diagnostician, therapist, supervisor, consultant, administrator, social interventionist, and expert witness.
This Ethics Code provides a common set of principles and standards upon which psychologists build their professional and scientific work. This Ethics Code is intended to provide specific standards to cover most situations encountered by psychologists. It has as its goals the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work and the education of members, students, and the public regarding ethical standards of the discipline. (APA, 2017b)
The Ethics Code covers a wide range of areas, such as clinical, counseling, and school practice of psychology; research; teaching; supervision of trainees; public service; policy development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; conducting assessments; educational counseling; organizational consulting; forensic activities; program design and evaluation; and administration. Activities under the scrutiny of the Ethics Code include interactions occurring in person, by postal mail, telephone, Internet, and other electronic transmissions. The full text for Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct is available at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ .
What types of potential ethical dilemmas do you anticipate might occur in your chosen profession and where will you turn for advice and guidance when you face these dilemmas? Most professions have professional standards or codes of ethics (e.g., social work, counseling, business, paralegal work, education, insurance, human resources, family childcare), and those related to psychology are no exception. If you are considering professions other than psychology, take a moment to locate the ethics code for one or more professions you are considering and look it over. Compare and contrast that ethics code with the APA Ethics Code. For example, as a psychologist, providing clinical services to your child or spouse would be an ethical violation; however, as a daycare worker, you could serve your child in your own daycare. Despite such differences, even if you are not planning to become a psychologist, you will find that many of the principles communicated in the APA Ethics Code represent values that can be guiding principles in many fields (e.g., only delegate work to those who have the education, training, or experience to perform competently; do not unfairly discriminate based on age, disability, socioeconomic status, religion, national origin, ethnicity, culture, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, or any basis proscribed by law). Each chapter in this text includes a section exploring the ethical issues unique to some of the psychology-related disciplines associated with the chapter’s subject matter.
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Summary
We began the chapter reflecting on the fact that there are a number of career paths you might chose to pursue as a psychology major. Having a clear understanding of your interests and options will help you decide if it is to your advantage to pursue a graduate degree, and if so, what type of graduate degree. If graduate school is in your future, you will need to do some research to find out what the admissions requirements are and if a standardized admissions test is required. This information will also be important as you explore the career development information throughout your applied project course. Regardless of your plans after completing your current psychology degree, knowledge and skills obtained from studying psychology will aid you in a wide variety of professional and personal contexts. Being able to think, read, and write critically and to present yourself in a professional and ethical manner will give you advantages in many areas in life. Understanding tools like statistics and research methods will assist you in studying any topic in psychology as well as many other fields of study. Mark Twain popularized the saying, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics” (Twain, 1906, p. 471). Thinking critically about statistical data and how research is conducted can help you avoid allowing pseudoscientific claims to mislead you and others. As we proceed through the remainder of this book, we will review a variety of content areas important in psychology and related fields. The book is designed to complement the readings and assignments in your applied project course. Enjoy a heightened level of professional confidence as you continue to learn, practice, utilize, and apply the methods of psychology to personal and professional situations in ways that will benefit you and those around you.
Concept Check
1. In his class introduction, Joe posts that he intends to obtain his master’s in psychology in order to become a licensed clinical psychologist or psychiatrist. His professor, Dr. Xu, informs Joe that he will need more than a master’s degree for both of those professions. He also reminds Joe that a psychiatrist and a psychologist represent two very different career paths, with psychology requiring graduate degrees, typically a PhD or PsyD, and psychiatry requiring an MD or DO in medicine. Dr. Xu explains to Joe that there are other professions that will allow him to practice with only a master’s once licensed in those disciplines (e.g., counseling, social work, marital and family therapy) and that many colleges will hire graduates with master’s degrees in psychology to teach. In addition, if Joe is truly committed to one of those career paths, he will need to do additional research in order to find out which of the following?
a. what type(s) of degree(s) or coursework each career requires
a. which admissions requirements and types of exams are required for a career in both professions
a. which universities offer the degree(s) he would need
a. all of the above
2. Tammy writes a paper on premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PDD) and includes the diagnostic criteria for PDD from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. She also includes the following statement “Psychologists should educate themselves on premenstrual dysphoric disorder because most women’s moods are significantly worse during their premenstrual periods.” She cites a blog post on a dot-com website which stated, “Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) impacts many women of childbearing age and includes notable changes in mood.” The remainder of her paper is primarily focused on providing educational campaigns and materials to increase awareness about PDD, which she equates to having PMS. Tammy has failed to (select all that apply)
b. use any scholarly sources.
b. scientifically evaluate the claims in her source.
b. read, think, and write critically.
b. identify a valid scholarly topic.
3. Dana writes a brief discussion post response that lacks specificity and a clear application of critical thought. Her instructor asks, “Tell me more about your thinking when you wrote, ‘I would use an objective test.’ Which objective test would you use? Explain your reasoning using at least one scholarly source. What does the research indicate about the validity and reliability of the test you selected?” Dana’s professor’s questions are intended to help Dana improve her proficiency in the use of which intellectual standards?
c. Purpose, implications, and consequences
c. Clarity, precision and accuracy
c. Breadth and relevance
c. Question at issue and logic
4. Which of the following is NOT one of the values of science as discussed in this chapter?
d. Science values the ability to predict future behavior based on scientific data.
d. Science values the ability to generate new ideas.
d. Science values critical thinking and open mindedness.
d. Science values unquestioning devotion.
5. APA style is
e. the only professionally approved writing style.
e. a professional style only used by psychologists.
e. the preferred writing style for many scientific fields of study.
e. complicated and impossible to master.
6. The APA Ethics Code
f. applies to the work of psychology professionals in many roles.
f. only applies to psychology counselors and clinical therapists.
f. governs all types of professionals who provide counseling and other mental health services.
f. is intended to be a basis for civil liability.
Answers
1. d. The answer can be found in Section 1.1.
2. b and c. The answers can be found in Section 1.2.
3. b. The answer can be found in Section 1.2.
4. d. The answer can be found in Section 1.3.
5. c. The answer can be found in Section 1.4.
6. a. The answer can be found in Section 1.5.
Questions for Critical Thinking
1. You and a colleague at work have been assigned to craft a slideshow on some of your recent work to present to your supervisor and other colleagues. Your supervisor will also incorporate aspects of your presentation into a larger presentation to be presented to the board of directors. Your colleague is responsible for gathering data related to the population your company or organization serves, while you are responsible for transforming the data into presentation slides. You are scheduled to give the presentation on Monday morning and your supervisor will present to the board on Tuesday afternoon. You and your colleague complete the presentation Friday afternoon and forward it to your supervisor. To celebrate and recover from the completion of an assignment that took several weeks of extra work, on top of your regular duties, you make out-of-town reservations to spend the weekend with your family. To get the best rate possible, you make nonrefundable reservations on a website requiring you to prepay your hotel. Less than an hour after you submit the presentation to your supervisor, who has been waiting for you to complete your work so she can complete her work, you discover that your colleague collected data from an inaccurate source which caused you to produce 30 inaccurate slides in the middle of your presentation. The conclusions drawn from the information your colleague used do not apply to your clientele. You based three of your eight recommendations on faulty information. Some of the information is from sources that are not credible, and some of the information is from scholarly sources that are outdated or do not apply to your population. What do you do?
2. You are in the waiting area at the mechanic while your car is being serviced. You overhear a conversation between another customer and the automobile repair shop owner. The owner has twin boys who are 18 months old. The customer is a woman who appears to be in her 50s or 60s. She makes are comment about the twins and cautions the owner to be prepared for the “terrible twos”—a stereotype about two-year-olds you learned in your developmental psychology class to be inaccurate. Do you say anything? Why or why not? If so, what do you say and to whom do you say it?
3. You and your partner attend a dinner party at an acquaintance’s house. You find the host to be cold and rude, completely different from your previous memories of her. Your partner looks at you puzzled and asks what gave you that impression. You give three examples from the evening. Your partner remembers the exact same conversations but perceived the host to be warm, friendly, and outgoing, with a bit of an eccentric sense of humor. In fact, your partner had such a good time that your partner tentatively invited the host to have dinner with you two soon and to contact you to decide on a time and place. Apply the elements of thought to this scenario and describe how you would proceed in communicating with your partner and the host about the current evening and potential future invitations.
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
Professional Resources
APA Style CENTRAL: http://www.apastyle.org/
APA Style Blog: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/
APA Style Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/APAStyle/
Careers in Psychology: http://www.apa.org/careers/index.aspx
Divisions of the American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/about/division/
Common Graduate School Admissions Tests
The Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) is a standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many graduate schools. Graduate programs which accept the GRE typically require the General Test ( https://www.ets.org/gre/revised_general/about/?WT.ac=grehome_greabout_a_150213 ), and many also require one of the Subject Tests ( https://www.ets.org/gre/subject/about/?WT.ac=grehome_gresubject_150213 ). For more information, visit https://www.ets.org/gre .
The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is typically used as an admission requirement to graduate management programs, such as MBAs. Some business graduate programs will accept either the GRE or the GMAT. For more information, visit http://www.mba.com/us .
The Miller Analogies Test (MAT) is used for graduate school admissions. For more information, visit http://www.pearsonassessments.com/postsecondaryeducation/graduate_admissions/mat.html .
The Law School Admission Test (LSAT) is an integral part of the law school admission process. For more information, visit https://www.lsac.org/jd/lsat/about-the-lsat .
