Physician-Assisted Suicide
CHAPTER 18
End-of-Life Issues
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When we finally know we are dying, and all other sentient beings are dying with us, we start to have a burning, almost heart breaking sense of the fragility and preciousness of each moment and each being, and from this can grow a deep, clear, limitless compassion for all beings.
—Sogyal Rinpoche
Learning Objectives
The reader, upon completion of this chapter, will be able to:
• Discuss the human struggle to survive and the right to autonomous decision making.
• Describe how patient autonomy has been impacted by case law and legislative enactments.
• Discuss the following concepts: preservation of life with limits, euthanasia, advance directives, futility of treatment, withholding and withdrawal of treatment, and do-not-resuscitate orders.
• Explain end-of-life issues as they relate to autopsy, organ donations, research, experimentation, and clinical trials.
• Describe how human genetics and stem cell research can have an impact on end-of-life issues.
The human struggle to survive and dreams of immortality have long been instrumental in inspiring medicine to develop the means to prevent and cure illness. Advances in medical technology have resulted in the power to prolong a productive life, as well as to delay inevitable death. Those victims of long-term pain and suffering, as well as patients in vegetative states and irreversible comas, are the most directly affected. A longer survival involves considerable cost and can therefore be a substantial financial burden to the family and the government. Is it worth it? How do we make a judgment about quality of life? What is the financial value of another day, week, or year of life? Should we assume that younger years are better than older years? The following reality check provides some perspective as to how one might respond to the preceding questions.
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End of Life or Beginning of Life? |
My mother is 92 years old, and she is more active and is enjoying life more than when she was much younger. Her advanced age has actually proven to be something of an advantage, as it has given her the time and freedom to do some of the things she couldn’t do while she was raising a family. It has been a joy to me, as her son, and to the rest of the family to witness her joy and vigor. Even strangers have found her stamina to be an inspiration as to the value of the end years of life. Three years ago, however, it wasn’t so. Mother was critically ill, comatose on a respirator in an intensive care unit. Survival was not considered likely. I am embarrassed to say that I was making arrangements for a funeral. I am even more embarrassed because I am a physician and did not see how she could survive for long except as a vegetable. Then the unlikely occurred. She recovered! Her condition rapidly and surprisingly improved dramatically including both physical and mental status, and she promptly resumed a life even more active than before. It would have been a tragedy to deprive her of these joyous years of her life after she worked and sacrificed so much for others most of her life. I had thought it would be an act of mercy to disconnect the respirator when her condition had looked so hopeless. I was so wrong. I learned that we must not make life and death decisions casually. Life is a beautiful mystery with many wonderful surprises if we will let them happen.
Advances in medical technology have made it possible to survive to an older age. Although our bodies may physically decline over time, our treasure trove of life experiences accrues over time. Our knowledge and judgment may often be better than when we were younger. Furthermore, the aged may be a source of comfort and joy to their children, grandchildren, and even great-grandchildren. As long as we are alive, we have value.
—Anonymous
Discussion
1. Discuss how a living will might have changed the patient’s outcome.
2. Discuss what criteria you would use in determining when to hold on and when to let go of a loved one. After reading this chapter, reconsider how your criteria might change.
End-of-life issues continue to cause the most controversy and debate facing healthcare providers. Although it is well settled that competent terminally ill patients may refuse life-sustaining treatment, physician-assisted suicide remains a major point of contention. The competing concerns of privacy, morality, patient autonomy, legislation, and states’ interests swirl around those involved in the decision-making process. The scope of healthcare ethics is not limited to philosophical issues but embraces economic, political, and medical dilemmas.
The primary emphasis in this chapter is placed on a patient’s autonomy and one’s right to choose when to proceed with treatment or discontinue it. Discussed to a lesser extent are issues relating to autopsy, organ donations, research and experimentation, surrogacy, and
human genetics.
18.1 PATIENT AUTONOMY AND CASE LAW
No right is held more sacred, or is more carefully guarded, by the common law, than the right of every individual to the possession and control of his own person, free from all restraint or interference of others, unless by clear and unquestioned authority of law.1
Medical ethics does not require that a patient’s life be preserved at all costs and in all circumstances. The ethical integrity of the profession is not threatened by allowing competent patients to decide for themselves whether a particular medical treatment is in their best interests. If the doctrine of informed consent and right of privacy has as its foundations the right to bodily integrity and control of one’s own fate, then those rights are superior to the institutional considerations of hospitals and their medical staffs. A state’s interest in maintaining the ethical integrity of a profession does not outweigh, for example, a patient’s right to refuse blood transfusions.
This section reviews a variety of ethical and legal issues that inevitably arise when one approaches the end of life. To analyze end-of-life questions, it is necessary to consider first what rights a competent patient possesses. Both case law and statutory law have presented a diversity of policies and points of view. Courts often point to common law and the early case of Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital 2 to support their belief in a patient’s right to self-determination. The Schloendorff court stated:
Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body and a surgeon who performs an operation without his patient’s consent commits an assault, for which he is liable in damages, except in cases of emergency where the patient is unconscious and where it is necessary to operate before consent can be obtained. 3
This right of self-determination was emphasized in In re Storar 4 when the court announced that every human being of adult years and sound mind has the right to determine what shall be done with his or her own body. The Storar case was a departure from the New Jersey Supreme Court’s rationale in the case of In re Quinlan.
The Quinlan case was the first to significantly address the issue of whether euthanasia should be permitted when a patient is terminally ill. The Quinlan court, relying on Roe v. Wade,5 announced that the constitutional right to privacy protects a patient’s right to self-determination. The court noted that the right to privacy “is broad enough to encompass a patient’s decision to decline medical treatment under certain circumstances, in much the same way as it is broad enough to encompass a woman’s decision to terminate pregnancy under certain conditions.”6 Karen’s father was granted full power to make decisions regarding Karen’s treatment. After the concurrence of the guardian and family, if Karen’s physicians concluded that there was no reasonable possibility of her emerging from her comatose condition to a cognitive, sapient state and that her life support apparatus should be withdrawn, they were to consult with the ethics committee of the institution where Karen was then hospitalized. If that consultative body concurred in the prognosis, the life support system could be withdrawn without any civil or criminal liability on the part of any participant, whether it is the guardian, physician, hospital, or others. In addressing itself to the question of possible homicide, the court concluded that there is a valid distinction between withdrawing life support systems in cases such as Karen’s and the infliction of deadly harm either on one’s self or another.
The Quinlan court, in reaching its decision, applied a test balancing the state’s interest in preserving and maintaining the sanctity of human life against Karen’s privacy interest. It decided that, especially in light of the prognosis (physicians determined that Karen Quinlan was in an irreversible coma), the state’s interest did not justify interference with her right to refuse treatment. Thus, Karen Quinlan’s father, appointed as her legal guardian, requested that the respirator be turned off. Opponents of euthanasia argued that before the Quinlan decision, any form of euthanasia was defined as murder by the U.S. legal system. Although acts of euthanasia did take place, the law was applied selectively, and the possibility of criminal sanctions against active participants in euthanasia was enough to deter most physicians from assisting a patient in committing euthanasia.
Despite intense criticism by legal and religious scholars, the Quinlan decision paved the way for courts to consider extending the right to decline treatment to incompetents as well. State courts recognize the right but differ on how this right is to be exercised.
In the same year as the Quinlan decision, the case of Superintendent of Belchertown State School v. Saikewicz 7 was decided. In this case, the court, using the balancing test enunciated in Quinlan, approved the recommendation of a court-appointed guardian that it would be in Saikewicz’s best interests to end chemotherapy treatment. Saikewicz was a mentally retarded, 67-year-old patient suffering from leukemia. The court found from the evidence that the prognosis was grim, and even though a “normal person” would probably have chosen chemotherapy, it allowed Saikewicz to die without treatment to spare him the suffering. Although the court also followed the reasoning of the Quinlan opinion in giving the right to an incompetent to refuse treatment, based on either the “objective best interests” test or the “subjective substituted judgment” test (the latter of which it favored because Mr. Saikewicz had always been incompetent), the court departed from Quinlan in a major way. It rejected the Quinlan approach of entrusting a decision concerning the continuance of artificial life support to the patient’s guardian, family, attending physicians, and a hospital ethics committee.
The Saikewicz court asserted that even though a judge might find the opinions of physicians, medical experts, or hospital ethics committees helpful in reaching a decision, there should be no requirement to seek out their advice. The court decided that questions of life and death with regard to an incompetent should be the responsibility of the courts, which would conduct detached but passionate investigations. The court took a “dim view of any attempt to shift the ultimate decision-making responsibility away from duly established courts of proper jurisdiction to any committee, panel, or group, ad hoc or permanent.”8
This main point of difference between the Saikewicz and Quinlan cases marked the emergence of two different policies on the incompetent’s right to refuse treatment. One line of cases has followed Saikewicz and supports court approval before physicians are allowed to withhold or withdraw life support. Advocates of this view argue that it makes more sense to leave the decision to an objective tribunal than to extend the right of a patient’s privacy to a number of interested parties, as was done in Quinlan. They also attack the Quinlan method as being a privacy decision effectuated by popular vote.9
Six months after Saikewicz, the Massachusetts Appeals Court narrowed the need for court intervention in In re Dinnerstein 10 by finding that no-code orders are valid to prevent the use of artificial resuscitative measures on incompetent, terminally ill patients. The court was faced with the case of a 67-year-old woman who was suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. It was determined that she was permanently comatose at the time of trial. Furthermore, the court decided that Saikewicz-type judicial proceedings should take place only when medical treatment could offer a reasonable expectation of effecting a permanent or temporary cure of or relief from the illness.
The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court attempted to clarify its Saikewicz opinion with regard to court orders in In re Spring.11 It held that such different factors as the patient’s mental impairment and his or her medical prognosis with or without treatment must be considered before judicial approval is necessary to withdraw or withhold treatment from an incompetent patient. The problem in all three cases is that there is still no clear guidance as to exactly when the court’s approval of the removal of life support systems would be necessary. Saikewicz seemed to demand judicial approval in every case. Spring, however, in partially retreating from that view, stated that it did not have to articulate what combination of the factors it discussed, thus making prior court approval necessary.
The inconsistencies presented by the Massachusetts cases led most courts since 1977 to follow the parameters set by Quinlan, requiring judicial intervention. In cases where physicians have certified the irreversible nature of a patient’s loss of consciousness, a neurologic team could certify the patient’s hopeless neurologic condition, at which point a guardian would be free to take the legal steps necessary to remove life support systems. The main reason for the appointment of a guardian is to ensure that incompetents, like all other patients, maintain their right to refuse treatment.
Most holdings indicate that because a patient has the constitutional right of self-determination, those acting on the patient’s behalf can exercise that right when rendering their best judgment concerning how the patient would assert the right. This substituted judgment doctrine could be argued on standing grounds, whereby a second party has the right to assert the constitutional rights of another when that second party’s intervention is necessary to protect the other’s constitutional rights. The guardian’s decision is sound if based on the known desires of a patient who was competent immediately before becoming comatose.
Courts adhering to the Quinlan rationale have recognized that fact, and in 1984, the highest state court of Florida took the lead and accepted the living will as persuasive evidence of an incompetent’s wishes. In John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital v. Bludworth,12 the Florida Supreme Court allowed an incompetent patient’s wife to act as his guardian, and in accordance with the terms of a living will he executed in 1975, she could substitute her judgment for that of her husband. She asked to have a respirator removed. The court declined the necessity of prior court approval, finding that the constitutional right to refuse treatment had been decided in Satz v. Perlmutter.13 The court required the attending physician to certify that the patient was in a permanent vegetative state, with no reasonable chance for recovery, before a family member or guardian could request termination of extraordinary means of medical treatment.
In keeping with Saikewicz, the decision maker would attempt to ascertain the incompetent patient’s actual interests and preferences. Court involvement would be mandated only to appoint a guardian in one of the following cases:
• Family members disagree as to the incompetent’s wishes
• Physicians disagree on the prognosis
• The patient’s wishes cannot be known because he or she always has been incompetent
The decision in John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital v. Bludworth increased the desire of the public, courts, and religious groups to know when a patient is considered to be legally dead and what type of treatment can be withheld or withdrawn. Most cases dealing with euthanasia speak of the necessity that a physician diagnose a patient as being either in a persistent vegetative state14 or terminally ill.15
18.2 CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT TO REFUSE CARE
The Missouri Supreme Court applied the Westchester ruling and held that the family of 32-year-old Nancy Cruzan, who was in a persistent vegetative state since 1983, could not order physicians to remove artificial nutrition.16 In 1983, she had sustained injuries in a car accident, in which her car overturned, and after which she was found face down in a ditch without respiratory or cardiac function. Although unconscious, her breathing and heartbeat were restored at the site of the accident. On examination at the hospital to which she was taken, a neurosurgeon diagnosed her as having suffered cerebral contusions and anoxia. It was estimated that she had been deprived of oxygen for 12 to 14 minutes. After remaining in a coma for 3 weeks, Cruzan went into an unconscious state. At first, she was able to ingest some food orally. Thereafter, surgeons implanted a gastrostomy feeding and hydration tube, with the consent of her husband, to facilitate feeding her. She did not improve, and until December 1990, she lay in a Missouri state hospital in a persistent vegetative state that was determined to be irreversible, permanent, progressive, and ongoing. She was not dead, according to the accepted definition of death in Missouri, and physicians estimated that she could live in the vegetative state for an additional 30 years. Because of the prognosis, Cruzan’s parents asked the hospital staff to cease all artificial nutrition and hydration procedures. The staff refused to comply with their wishes without court approval. The state trial court granted authorization for termination, finding that Cruzan had a fundamental right—grounded in both the state and federal constitutions—to refuse or direct the withdrawal of death-prolonging procedures. Testimony at trial from a former roommate of Cruzan indicated to the court that she had stated that if she were ever sick or injured, she would not want to live unless she could live halfway normally. The court interpreted that conversation, which had taken place when Cruzan was 25 years old, as meaning that she would not want to be forced to take nutrition and hydration while in a persistent vegetative state.
The case was appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court, which reversed the lower court decision. The court not only doubted that the doctrine of informed consent applied to the circumstances of the case, it moreover would not recognize a broad privacy right from the state constitution that would support the right of a person to refuse medical treatment in every circumstance. Because Missouri recognizes living wills, the court held that Cruzan’s parents were not entitled to order the termination of her treatment because “no person can assume that choice for an incompetent in the absence of the formalities required under Missouri’s Living Will statutes or the clear and convincing, inherently reliable evidence absent here.”17 The court found that Cruzan’s statements to her roommate did not rise to the level of clear and convincing evidence of her desire to end nutrition and hydration.
In June 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court heard oral arguments and held that:
• The U.S. Constitution does not forbid Missouri from requiring that there be clear and convincing evidence of an incompetent’s wishes as to the withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment.
• The Missouri Supreme Court did not commit constitutional error in concluding that evidence adduced at trial did not amount to clear and convincing evidence of Cruzan’s desire to cease hydration and nutrition.
• Due process did not require the state to accept the substituted judgment of close family members, absent substantial proof that their views reflected those of the patient.18
In delivering the opinion of the Supreme Court, Justice William Rehnquist noted that although most state courts have applied the common law right to informed consent or a combination of that right and a privacy right when allowing a right to refuse treatment, the Supreme Court analyzed the issues presented in the Cruzan case in terms of a Fourteenth Amendment liberty interest, finding that a competent person has a constitutionally protected right grounded in the due process clause to refuse lifesaving hydration and nutrition. Missouri provided for the incompetent by allowing a surrogate to act for the patient in choosing to withdraw hydration and treatment. Moreover, it put procedures into place to ensure that the surrogate’s action conforms to the wishes expressed by the patient when he or she was competent. Although recognizing that Missouri had enacted a restrictive law, the Supreme Court held that right-to-die issues should be decided pursuant to state law, subject to a due process liberty interest, and in keeping with state constitutional law. After the Supreme Court rendered its decision, the Cruzans returned to Missouri probate court, where on November 14, 1990, Judge Charles Teel authorized physicians to remove the feeding tubes from Cruzan. The judge determined that testimony presented to him early in November demonstrated clear and convincing evidence that Nancy would not have wanted to live in a persistent vegetative state. Several of her coworkers testified that she told them before her accident that she would not want to live like a vegetable. On December 26, 1990, 2 weeks after her feeding tubes were removed, Nancy Cruzan died.
18.3 LEGISLATIVE RESPONSE
After the Cruzan decision, states began to rethink existing legislation and draft new legislation in the areas of living wills, durable powers of attorney, healthcare proxies, and surrogate decision making. Pennsylvania and Florida were two of the first states to react to the Cruzan decision. The new Pennsylvania law is applied to terminally ill or permanently unconscious patients. The statute, the Advance Directive for Health Care Act,19 deals mainly with individuals who have prepared living wills. It includes in its definition of life-sustaining treatment the administration of hydration and nutrition by any means if it is stated in the individual’s living will. The statute mandates that a copy of the living will be given to the physician to be effective. Furthermore, the patient must be incompetent or permanently unconscious. If there is no evidence of the presence of a living will, the Pennsylvania probate codes allow an attorney-in-fact who was designated in a properly executed durable power of attorney document to give permission for “medical and surgical procedures to be utilized on an incompetent patient.”20
The Supreme Court stated in Cruzan that only 15% of the population has signed a living will or other type of medical directive. In light of that fact, more states will have to address the problem of surrogate decision making for an incompetent. Legislation would not only have to include direction to consider evidence of an incompetent’s wishes that had been expressed when he or she was competent, but also should include provisions for consideration and protection of an incompetent who never stated what he or she would want done if in a terminally ill or persistent vegetative state.
Unless there is some national uniformity in the legislation, patients and their families will shop for states that will allow them to have medical treatment terminated or withdrawn with as few legal hassles as possible. For example, on January 18, 1991, a Missouri probate court judge authorized a father to take his 20-year-old brain-damaged daughter, Christine Busalacchi, from the Missouri Rehabilitation Center to Minnesota for testing by a pro-euthanasia physician, Dr. Cranford. Cranford, who practiced at the Hennepin County Medical Center, was the center of controversy in Minnesota. In January 1991, Pro-Life Action Ministries demanded Cranford’s resignation, claiming that he “desires to make Minnesota the killing fields for the disabled.”21 He, however, viewed himself as an advocate of patients’ rights. Although the situation involving Cranford is resolved, it is clear that the main reason Busalacchi sought authorization to take his daughter to Minnesota is that he believed that he would have to deal with fewer legal impediments there to allow his daughter to die.
Because of the continuing litigation concerning the right-to-die issue, it is clear that the public must be educated about the necessity of expressing their wishes concerning medical treatment while they are competent. Uniformity with regard to the legal instruments available for demonstrating what a patient wants should be a common goal of legislators, courts, and the medical profession. If living wills, surrogates, and durable powers of attorney were to be enacted pursuant to national, rather than individual state, guidelines, the result should be a greater ease in resolving the myriad conflicting issues in this area. Some states have addressed the problem by statutorily providing for these instruments, thereby enabling individuals to have a say in the medical care they should receive if they become unable to speak for themselves.
Chief Justice Dore of the Washington Supreme Court voiced his opinion that a legislative response to right-to-die issues could be better addressed by the legislature.
The United States Supreme Court, in Cruzan, questioned whether a federally protected right to forgo nutrition and hydration existed. The Cruzan Court confronted the same philosophical issues that we face today and wisely recognized and deferred to the Legislature’s superior policymaking abilities. As was the case in Cruzan, our legislature is far better equipped to evaluate this complex issue and should not have its power usurped by the court.22
Patient Self-Determination Act of 1990
The Patient Self-Determination Act of 1990 (PSDA)23 was enacted to ensure that patients are informed of their rights to execute advance directives and accept or refuse medical care. On December 1, 1991, the PSDA24 took effect in hospitals, skilled nursing facilities, home health agencies, hospice organizations, and health maintenance organizations serving Medicare and Medicaid patients. As a result of implementation of the PSDA,25 healthcare organizations participating in the Medicare and Medicaid reimbursement programs must address patient rights regarding life-sustaining decisions and other advance directives. Healthcare organizations have a responsibility to explain to patients, staff, and families that patients have a legal right to direct their own medical and nursing care as it corresponds to existing state law, including right-to-die directives. A person’s right to refuse medical treatment is not lost when his or her mental or physical status changes. When a person is no longer competent to exercise his or her right of self-determination, the right still exists, but the decision must be delegated to a surrogate decision maker. Those organizations that do not comply with a patient’s medical directives or those of a legally authorized decision maker are exposing themselves to the risk of a lawsuit.
Each state is required under PSDA to provide a description of the law in the state regarding advance directives to providers, whether such directives are based on state statutes or judicial decisions. Providers must ensure that written policies and procedures with respect to all adult individuals regarding advance directives are established as follows:
[a] to provide written information to each such individual concerning
(i) an individual’s rights under State law (whether statutory or as recognized by the courts of the State) to make decisions concerning such medical care, including the right to accept or refuse medical or surgical treatment and the right to formulate advance directives … and
(ii) written policies of the provider organization respecting the implementation of such rights;
[b] to document in the individual’s medical record whether or not the individual has executed an advance directive;
[c] not to condition the provision of care or otherwise discriminate against an individual based on whether or not the individual has executed an advance directive;
[d] to ensure compliance with requirements of State law (whether statutory or recognized by the courts of the State) respecting advance directives at the facilities of the provider or organization; and
[e] to provide (individually or with others) for education for staff and the community on issues concerning advance directives.26
Although the PSDA is being cheered as a major advancement in clarifying and nationally regulating this often-obscure area of law and medicine, there are continuing problems and new issues that must be addressed. Providers of care who do not comply with the PSDA are not entitled to reimbursement under the Medicare program if they fail to meet PSDA requirements.
18.4 DEFINING DEATH
When is a patient considered to be legally dead, and what type of treatment can be withheld or withdrawn? Most cases dealing with euthanasia speak of the necessity for a physician to diagnose a patient as being either in a persistent vegetative state or terminally ill.
Traditionally, the definition of death adopted by the courts has been the Black’s Law Dictionary definition: “cessation of respiration, heartbeat, and certain indications of central nervous system activity, such as respiration and pulsation.”27 Currently, however, modern science has the capacity to sustain vegetative functions of those in irreversible comas. Medical equipment can sustain heartbeat and respiration even in the face of brain death. With thousands of patients existing in the twilight state of life at this time, every appellate court that has ruled on the question has recognized that the irreversible cessation of brain function constitutes death.
Ethicists who advocate the prohibition on taking action to shorten life agree that, “where death is imminent and inevitable, it is permissible to forgo treatments that would only provide a precarious and painful prolongation of life, as long as the normal care due to the sick person in similar cases is not interrupted.”28
Brain Death Criteria
The Harvard Ad Hoc Committee on Brain Death published a report in 1968 describing the characteristics of a permanently nonfunctioning brain, a condition it referred to as “irreversible coma,” now known as brain death:
1. Patient shows total unawareness to external stimuli and unresponsiveness to painful stimuli.
2. No movements or breathing: All spontaneous muscular movement, spontaneous respiration, and response to stimuli are absent.
3. No reflexes: Fixed, dilated pupils; no eye movement even when hit or turned, or when ice water is placed in the ear; no response to noxious stimuli; no tendon reflexes.
In addition to these criteria, a flat electroencephalogram was recommended.29
Relying on the 1968 Harvard Criteria set forth by the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death, the American Medical Association (AMA) in 1974 accepted that death occurs when there is “irreversible cessation of all brain functions including the brain stem.”30 Most states recognize brain death by statute or judicial decision. New York, for example, in People v. Eulo,31 in rejecting the traditional cardiopulmonary definition of death, announced that the determination of brain death can be made according to acceptable medical standards. The court also repeated its holding in In re Storar 32 that clear and convincing evidence of a person’s desire to decline extraordinary medical care may be honored and that a third person may not exercise this judgment on behalf of a person who has not or cannot express the desire to decline treatment. Following the Bludworth logic, the court noted that healthcare professionals acting within these cases should not face liability.
The clear and convincing evidence standard was defined more succinctly by the New York Court of Appeals in In re Westchester County Medical Center ex rel. O’Connor.33 There, the court determined that artificial nutrition could be withheld from O’Connor, a stroke victim who was unable to converse or feed herself. The court held that “nothing less than unequivocal proof of a patient’s wishes will suffice when the decision to terminate life support is at issue.”34 Factors outlined by the court in determining the existence of clear and convincing evidence of a patient’s intention to reject the prolongation of life by artificial means were the following:
• The persistence of statements regarding an individual’s beliefs
• The desirability of the commitment to those beliefs
• The seriousness with which such statements were made
• The inferences that may be drawn from the surrounding circumstances
18.5 FUTILITY OF TREATMENT
Futility of treatment, as it relates to medical care, occurs when a physician recognizes that the effect of continuing treatment will be of no benefit to the patient. Morally, a physician has a duty to inform the patient when there is little likelihood of success. The determination as to futility of medical care is a scientific decision.
After a diagnosis has been made that a person is terminally ill with no hope of recovery and is in a chronic vegetative state with no possibility of attaining cognitive function, a state generally has no compelling interest in maintaining life. The decision to forgo or terminate life support measures is, at this point, simply a decision that the dying process will not be artificially extended. Although the state has an interest in the prolongation of life, it has no interest in the prolongation of dying, and although there is a moral and ethical decision to be made to end the process, that decision can be made only by the surrogate. The decision of whether to end the dying process is a personal decision for family members or those who bear a legal responsibility for the patient.
A determination as to the futility of medical care is a decision that must be made by a physician. Even if death is not imminent, but a patient’s coma is irreversible beyond doubt and there are adequate safeguards to confirm the accuracy of the diagnosis with the concurrence of those responsible for the patient’s care, it is not unethical to discontinue all means of life-prolonging medical treatment.
18.6 DO-NOT-RESUSCITATE ORDERS
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure performed on individuals who experience a cardiac arrest. It involves chest compressions and exhaling into one’s mouth in order to restore circulation in order to preserve brain function. In 1960, the American Heart Association began a program that was initially designed to educate physicians on closed-chest cardiac resuscitation. CPR has generated a variety of ethical dilemmas that include the use of limited resources on those who have been determined to be in a comatose, vegetative state with no hope of recovery.
Do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders are those prescribed by a physician indicating that, in the event of a cardiac or respiratory arrest, no resuscitative measures should be used to revive the patient. A DNR order is an extremely difficult decision to make for both the patient and family. It is generally made when one’s quality of life has been so diminished that “heroic” rescue methods are no longer in the patient’s best interests. The attending physician or his or her designee may initiate a DNR order at the request of or with the agreement of the patient or the legally appointed healthcare decision maker. A DNR order may be written if the patient has an executable advance directive with instructions regarding DNR status and/or if the transfer information from an extended-care facility indicates the patient should have a DNR order. If a patient lacks the ability to make a decision regarding a DNR order, the patient’s legally appointed decision maker can make such decisions provided it can be demonstrated that the decision maker is following the patient’s wishes. Advance directives, such as living wills, are helpful in determining a patient’s wishes.
DNR orders must be in writing and signed and dated by the physician. Appropriate consents must be obtained either from the patient or his or her healthcare agent. Many states have acknowledged the validity of DNR orders in cases involving terminally ill patients in which the patients’ families make no objections to such orders.
DNR orders must comply with statutory requirements, be of short duration, and be reviewed periodically to determine whether the patient’s condition or other circumstances (e.g., change of mind by the patient or family) surrounding the “no-code” orders have changed. Presently, it is generally accepted that if a patient is competent, the DNR order is considered to be the same as other medical decisions in which a patient may choose to reject life-sustaining treatment. In the case of an incompetent, absent any advance written directives, the best interests of the patient would be considered.
Competent Patients and No-Code Orders
Should relatives of a patient agree to a no-code order when the patient is competent to make his or her own decision? In Payne v. Marion General Hospital,35 the Indiana Court of Appeals overturned a lower court decision in favor of the physician. The physician had issued a no-code status on Payne despite evidence given by a nurse that, up to a few minutes before his death, Payne could communicate. The physician had determined that Payne was incompetent, thereby rendering him unable to give informed consent to treatment. Because Payne left no written directives, the physician relied on one of Payne’s relatives, who asked for the DNR order. The court found that there was evidence that Payne was not incompetent and should have been consulted before a DNR order was given (Figure 18-1). Furthermore, the court reviewed testimony that, 1 year earlier, Payne had suffered and recovered from the same type of symptoms, leading to the conclusion that there was a possibility that he could have survived if resuscitation had continued. There was no DNR policy in place at the hospital to assist the physician in making his decision. To avoid this type of problem, healthcare providers should adopt an appropriate process with respect to issuing no code orders.
18.7 WITHHOLDING AND WITHDRAWAL OF TREATMENT
Withholding of treatment is a decision not to initiate treatment or medical intervention for the patient. This is a decision often made when death is imminent and there is no hope of recovery. Withdrawal of treatment is a decision to discontinue treatment or medical interventions for the patient when death is imminent and cannot be prevented by available treatment. Withholding or withdrawing treatment should be considered when:
© Marc F Gutierrez/Shutterstock
Figure 18-1 Do-Not-Resuscitate orders.
• the patient is in a terminal condition and there is a reasonable expectation of imminent death of the patient;
• the patient is in a noncognitive state with no reasonable possibility of regaining cognitive function; and/or
• restoration of cardiac function will last for a brief period.
Theologians and ethicists have long recognized a distinction between ordinary and extraordinary medical care. The theological distinction is based on the belief that life is a gift from God that should not be destroyed deliberately by humans. Therefore, extraordinary therapies that extend life by imposing grave burdens on the patient and family are not required.
Although the courts have accepted decisions to withhold or withdraw extraordinary care, especially the respirator, from those who are comatose or in a persistent vegetative state with no possibility of emerging, they have been unwilling until recent years to discontinue feeding, which they have considered to be ordinary care. For example, the Illinois Supreme Court, in In re Estate of Longeway,36 found that the authorized guardian of a terminally ill patient in an irreversible coma or persistent vegetative state has a common law right to refuse artificial nutrition and hydration. The court found that there must be clear and convincing evidence that the refusal is consistent with the patient’s interest. The court also required the concurrence of the patient’s attending physician and two other physicians. Court intervention is also necessary to guard against the possibility that greed may taint the judgment of the surrogate decision maker. Although there may be a duty to provide life-sustaining equipment in the immediate aftermath of cardiopulmonary arrest, there is no duty to continue its use when it has become futile and ineffective to do so in the opinion of qualified medical personnel.
The New Jersey Supreme Court in 1985 heard the case of In re Claire C. Conroy.37 The case involved an 84-year-old nursing home patient whose nephew petitioned the court for authority to remove the nasogastric tube that was feeding her. The court overturned the appellate division decision and held that life-sustaining treatment, including nasogastric feeding, could be withheld or withdrawn from incompetent nursing home patients who will, according to physicians, die within 1 year, in three specific circumstances. These are as follows:
1. When it is clear that the particular patient would have refused the treatment under the circumstances involved (the subjective test)
2. When there is some indication of the patient’s wishes (but he or she has not “unequivocally expressed” his or her desires before becoming incompetent) and the treatment “would only prolong suffering” (the limited objective test)
3. When there is no evidence at all of the patient’s wishes, but the treatment “clearly and markedly outweighs the benefits the patient derives from life” (the pure objective test based on pain)38
A procedure involving notification of the state Office of the Ombudsman is required before withdrawing or withholding treatment under any of the three tests. The ombudsman must make a separate recommendation.
The court also found tubal feeding to be a medical treatment, and as such, it is as intrusive as other life-sustaining measures. If physicians follow the Quinlan/Conroy standards and decide to end medical treatment of a patient, the duty to continue treatment ceases. Thus, the termination of treatment becomes a lawful act.
Although Conroy presents case-specific guidelines, there is concern that the opinion will have far-reaching repercussions. There is fear that decisions to discontinue treatment will not be based on the “balancing-of-interests” test, but based on the “quality-of-life.” Those quality-of-life judgments would be most dangerous for nursing home patients in which age would be a factor in the decision-making process. “Advocates of ‘the right to life’ fear that the ‘right to die’ for the elderly and handicapped will become a ‘duty to die.’”39 In both the Saikewicz and Spring cases, age was a determining factor weighing against life-sustaining treatment. Furthermore, in In re Hier,40 the court found that Mrs. Hier’s age of 92 years made the “proposed gastrostomy substantially more onerous or burdensome … than it would be for a younger, healthier person.” Moreover, a New York Superior Court held that the burdens of an emergency amputation for an elderly patient outweighed the benefit of continued life.41 Finding that prolonging her life would be cruel, the court stated that life had no meaning for her. Although some courts have recognized the difference, other courts must still address the difference between Quinlan-type patients and older, confined, and conscious patients who can interact but whose mental or physical functioning is impaired.
In a New Jersey case, however, the ombudsman denied a request to remove feeding tubes from a comatose nursing home patient.42 In applying the Conroy tests, the ombudsman decided that Hilda Peterson might live more than 1 year, the period that Conroy used as a criterion for determining whether life support can be removed.
To complicate this issue further, on March 17, 1986, the AMA changed its code of ethics on comas.43 Now, physicians may ethically withhold food, water, and medical treatment from patients in irreversible comas or persistent vegetative states with no hope of recovery—even if death is not imminent.44 Although physicians can consider the wishes of the patient and family or the legal representatives, they cannot cause death intentionally. The wording is permissive, and thus, those physicians who feel uncomfortable withdrawing food and water may refrain from doing so. The AMA’s decision does not comfort those who fear abuse or mistake in euthanasia decisions, nor does it have any legal value as such. There are physicians, nurses, and families who are unscrupulous and have their own, and not the patient’s, interests in mind. Even with the Conroy decision and the AMA’s Code of Ethics change, the feeding tube issue is not settled.
On April 23, 1986, the New Jersey Superior Court ruled that the husband of severely brain-damaged Nancy Jobes could order the removal of her life-sustaining feeding tube, which would ultimately cause the 31-year-old comatose patient, who had been in a vegetative state in a hospice for 6 years, to starve to death.45 Dr. Fred Plum created and defined the term persistent vegetative state as one in which:
[t]he body functions entirely in terms of its internal controls. It maintains temperature. It maintains digestive activity. It maintains heart beat and pulmonary ventilation. It maintains reflex activity of muscles and nerves for low-level conditioned responses. But there is no behavioral evidence of either self-awareness or awareness of the surroundings in a learned manner.46
Medical experts testified that the patient could, under optimal conditions, live another 30 years. Relieving the nursing home officials from removing the feeding tube, the court ruled that the patient could be taken home to die (with the removal to be supervised by a physician and medical care to be provided to the patient at home).
The nursing home had petitioned the court for the appointment of a “life advocate” to fight for continuation of medical treatment for Jobes, which, it argued, would save her life. The court disallowed the appointment of a life advocate, holding that case law does not support requiring the continuation of life support systems in all circumstances. Such a requirement, according to the court, would contradict the patient’s right of privacy.
The court’s decision applied the principles enunciated in Quinlan and Conroy and the ruling by the AMA’s Council on Judicial Affairs that the provision of food and water is, under certain circumstances, a medical treatment like any other and may be discontinued when the physician and family of the patient feel it is no longer benefiting the patient.
A mentally competent cerebral palsy patient, in Bouvia v. Superior Court, won her struggle to have feeding tubes removed even though she was not terminally ill.47 The California Court of Appeals announced on April 16, 1986, that she could go home to die. The court found that Bouvia’s decision to let nature take its course did not amount to a choice to commit suicide with people aiding and abetting it. The court stated that it is not “illegal or immoral to prefer a natural, albeit sooner, death than a drugged life attached to a mechanical device.”48 The court’s finding that it was a moral and philosophic question, not a legal or medical one, leaves one wondering if the courts are opening the door to permitting legal starvation to be used by those who are not terminally ill but who do wish to commit suicide.
Life-Sustaining Measures Became Futile
Although there may be a duty to provide life-sustaining equipment in the immediate aftermath of cardiopulmonary arrest, there is no duty to continue its use after it has become futile and ineffective to do so in the opinion of qualified medical personnel. Two physicians in Barber v. Superior Court 49 were charged with the crimes of murder and conspiracy to commit murder based on their acceding to requests of the patient’s family to discontinue life support equipment and intravenous tubes. The patient had suffered a cardiopulmonary arrest in the recovery room after surgery. A team of physicians and nurses revived the patient and placed him on life support equipment. The patient had suffered severe brain damage, placing him in a comatose and vegetative state from which, according to tests and examinations by other specialists, he was unlikely to recover. On the written request of the family, the patient was taken off life support equipment. The family, his wife and eight children, made the decision together after consultation with the physicians. Evidence had been presented that the patient, before his incapacitation, had expressed to his wife that he would not want to be kept alive by a machine. There was no evidence indicating that the family was motivated in their decision by anything other than love and concern for the dignity of their loved one. The patient continued to breathe on his own. Because the patient showed no signs of improvement, the physicians again discussed the patient’s poor prognosis with the family. The intravenous lines were removed, and the patient died sometime thereafter.
A complaint was then filed against the two physicians. The magistrate who heard the evidence determined that the physicians did not kill the deceased because their conduct was not the proximate cause of the patient’s death. On motion of the prosecution, the superior court determined as a matter of law that the evidence required the magistrate to hold the physicians to answer and ordered the complaint reinstated. The physicians then filed a writ of prohibition with the court of appeals. The court of appeals held that the physicians’ omission to continue treatment, although intentional and with knowledge that the patient would die, was not an unlawful failure to perform a legal duty. The evidence amply supported the magistrate’s decision. The superior court erred in determining that, as a matter of law, the evidence required the magistrate to hold the physicians to answer. The preemptory writ of prohibition to restrain the Superior Court of Los Angeles from taking any further action in this matter—other than to vacate its order reinstating the complaint and to enter a new and different order denying the people’s motion—was granted.
18.8 EUTHANASIA
There is nothing more sacred than life and there is nothing more natural in life to wish to cling on to it for those you love! And nothing more cruel than to play God by artificially holding onto that which God wants to bring home.
—Author Unknown
When patients and their families perceive a deterioration of the quality of life and no end to unbearable pain, conflict often arises between healthcare professionals, who are trained to save lives, and patients and their families, who wish to end the suffering. This conflict centers on the concept of euthanasia and its place in the modern world. There seems to be an absence of controversy only when a patient who is kept alive by modern technology is still able to appreciate and maintain control over his or her life.
Even the connotation of the word euthanasia has changed with time depending on who is attempting to define it. Euthanasia originated from the Greek word euthanatos, meaning “good death” or “easy death,” and was accepted in situations in which people had what were considered to be incurable diseases. Euthanasia is defined broadly as “the mercy killing of the hopelessly ill, injured, or incapacitated.”50
Any discussion of euthanasia obliges a person to confront humanity’s greatest fear—death. The courts and legislatures have faced it and have made advances in setting forth some guidelines to assist decision makers in this arena; however, much more must be accomplished. Society must be protected from the risks associated with permitting the removal of life support systems. Society cannot allow the complex issues associated with this topic to be simplified to the point where it is accepted that life can be terminated based on subjective quality-of-life considerations. The legal system must ensure that the constitutional rights of the patient are maintained, while protecting society’s interests in preserving life, preventing suicide, and maintaining the integrity of the medical profession. For example, can competent adult patients who ask that no extraordinary lifesaving measures be taken recover damages for finding themselves alive after unwanted resuscitative measures? During a medical emergency, it seems unrealistic to ask a caregiver to first look in a patient’s medical record for an advance directive before tending to the immediate needs of the patient. In the final analysis, the boundaries of patient rights remain uncertain.
From its inception, euthanasia has evolved into an issue with competing legal, medical, and moral implications that continues to generate debate, confusion, and conflict. Currently, there is a strong movement advocating death with dignity, which excludes machines, monitors, and tubes. Figures 18-2 and 18-3 illustrate and summarize the numerous ramifications of euthanasia discussed in this chapter.
In the Confucian and Buddhist religions, suicide was an acceptable answer to unendurable pain and incurable disease. The Celts went a step farther, believing that those who chose to die of disease or senility, rather than committing suicide, would be condemned to Hell. Such acceptance began to change during the 1800s when Western physicians refused to lessen suffering by shortening a dying patient’s life. Napoleon’s physician, for example, rejected Napoleon’s plea to kill plague-stricken soldiers, insisting that his obligation was to cure, rather than kill, people.
In the late 1870s, writings on euthanasia began to appear, mainly in England and the United States. Although such works were written, for the most part, by lay authors, the public and the medical community began to consider the issues raised by euthanasia. Then defined as the act or practice of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable conditions or diseases, it was considered to be a merciful release from incurable suffering. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, there were still no clear answers or guidelines regarding the use of euthanasia. Unlike in prior centuries when society as a whole supported or rejected euthanasia, different segments of today’s society apply distinct connotations to the word, generating further confusion. Some believe euthanasia is meant to allow a painless death when one suffers from an incurable disease, yet is not dying. Others, who remain in the majority, perceive euthanasia as an instrument to aid only dying people in ending their lives with as little suffering as possible.
Figure 18-2 Ramifications of euthanasia.
It has been estimated that of the 2 million Americans who die each year, 80% die in hospitals or nursing homes, and 70% of those die after a decision to forgo life-sustaining treatment has been made. Although such decisions are personal in nature and based on individual moral values, they must comply with the laws applicable to the prolonging of the dying process. Courts have outlined the ways in which the government is allowed to participate in the decision-making process. Yet the misconceptions and lack of clear direction regarding the policies and procedures have resulted in wide disparity among jurisdictions, both in legislation and in judicial decisions. As a result, the AMA, the American Bar Association, legislators, and judges are actively attempting to formulate and legislate clear guidelines in this sensitive, profound, and not yet fully understood area. To ensure compliance with the law, while serving the needs of their patients, it is incumbent on healthcare providers to keep themselves informed of the legislation enacted in this ever-changing field.
Figure 18-3 Issues of euthanasia.
To address the topic of euthanasia properly, it is necessary to understand the precise meaning of the recognized forms of it. Rhetorical phrases such as right to die, right to life, and death with dignity have obfuscated, rather than clarified, the understanding of euthanasia. The dividing of euthanasia into two categories, active or passive, is for many the most controversial aspect of this topic.
Active and Passive Euthanasia
Active euthanasia is commonly understood to be the intentional commission of an act, such as providing a patient a lethal dose of a medication that results in death. The act, if committed by the patient, is thought of as suicide. Moreover, because in most states the patient cannot take his or her own life, any person who assists in the causing of the death could be subject to criminal sanction for aiding and abetting suicide.
Passive euthanasia occurs when life-saving treatment (such as a respirator) is withdrawn or withheld, allowing the patient diagnosed as terminal to die a natural death. Passive euthanasia is generally accepted pursuant to legislative acts and judicial decisions.51 These decisions, however, generally are based on the facts of a particular case. Regardless of the definitional differences, though, in both active and passive euthanasia, the end result is the same.
The distinctions are important when considering the duty and the liability of a physician who must decide whether to continue or initiate treatment of a comatose or terminally ill patient. Physicians are obligated to use reasonable care to preserve health and to save lives, so unless fully protected by the law, they will be reluctant to abide by patient or family wishes to terminate life support devices.
Voluntary and Involuntary Euthanasia
Both active and passive euthanasia may be either voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia occurs when the suffering incurable patient makes the decision to die. To be considered voluntary, the request or consent must be made by a legally competent adult and be based on material information concerning the possible ramifications and alternatives available. The term legally competent was addressed in a case concerning the right to refuse treatment, Lane v. Candura.52 The case involved a patient who twice refused to permit surgeons to amputate her leg to prevent gangrene from spreading. The patient’s daughter sought to be appointed as a legal guardian to enable her to consent to her mother’s surgery. The appellate court, finding no evidence indicating that Mrs. Lane was incapable of appreciating the nature and consequence of her decision, overturned the trial court’s holding of incompetence. Even though Lane’s decision ultimately would lead to her death, she was found to be competent and thus was allowed to reject medical treatment.
Involuntary euthanasia occurs when a person other than the incurable person makes the decision to terminate the life of the incurable person (i.e., in cases of an incompetent or nonconsenting competent person).
The patient’s lack of consent could be a result of mental impairment or a comatose state. Important value questions face courts grappling with making decisions regarding involuntary euthanasia, including:
• Who should decide to withhold or withdraw treatment?
• On what factors should the decision be based?
• Are there viable standards to guide the courts?
• Should criminal sanctions be imposed on a person assisting in ending a life?
• When does death occur?
18.9 PHYSICIAN-ASSISTED SUICIDE
Derek Humphry’s popular book, Final Exit: The Practicalities of Self-Deliverance and Assisted Suicide for the Dying, hit the headlines and the bestseller lists in 1992 with its startling subject matter. There were calls for it to be banned, but this is not possible under the U.S. Constitution. Humphry founded the Hemlock Society, which advocated the right to physician-assisted dying for the terminally ill, mentally competent patient. The mission of the society was to provide information to dying patients and support legislation for physician-assisted suicide. Following publication of his book, Humphry left the society, which later merged with another group and today is know as Compassion and Choices, the leading nonprofit organization committed to helping everyone have the best death possible.53
The issue of physician-assisted suicide presents profound questions of medicine and medical ethics, theology and sociology, and numerous other far-reaching public policy issues (Figure 18-4). These are precisely the kinds of issues in which public input is vital, and courts are simply not equipped to conduct the type of comprehensive, broad-based hearings at which witnesses and experts on all sides of the question would testify about the broader policy ramifications of creating and regulating a right to assisted suicide.
The legislative and executive branches in our system are uniquely well equipped to pursue these issues. Courts have before them only the legal arguments of lawyers, and although questions of law are certainly part of the equation, the core issues presented are fundamentally grounded in questions of policy and how we view ourselves as a society.54 It is well established that competent terminally ill patients may refuse life-sustaining treatment; physician-assisted suicide, however, continues to raise much debate.
The competing concerns of privacy, morality, patient autonomy, legislation, and states’ interests swirl around those involved in the decision-making process. States have been confronted with the question of whether it is ever right for a physician to provide a patient with aid in dying. On July 26, 1991, a Monroe County, New York, grand jury answered “yes” when it failed to indict Dr. Timothy Quill for giving a leukemia patient a lethal dose of sedatives to enable her to take her own life.55 Dr. Quill wrote an article in The New England Journal of Medicine focusing on the suffering of terminally ill patients. He discussed how physicians could relieve an individual’s suffering.
In a Florida case, the court ruled that a man dying of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) had a right to physician-assisted suicide under the privacy issues of the state’s constitution. The court emphasized that the patient had to administer the lethal dose of medication, which was prescribed by his physician. Prosecutors were enjoined from bringing criminal charges against the physician. “The state has a clear interest in preserving life, but not at the unbridled expense of individual autonomy in matters concerning a person’s medical treatment decisions,” wrote Circuit Judge S. Joseph Davis, Jr.56
© 18percentgrey/ShutterStock, Inc.
Figure 18-4 Physician assisted suicide.
Michigan and Assisted Suicide
Michigan’s Dr. Jack Kevorkian became a controversial figure when he announced in October 1989 that he had developed a device that would end one’s life quickly, painlessly, and humanely. The news of his invention was disconcerting because of fears that individuals would abuse the practice of euthanasia, which Kevorkian referred to as a medicide, despite any safeguards that are in place.
Kevorkian assisted Janice Adkins, a 54-year-old Alzheimer’s disease patient, in committing suicide on June 4, 1990. In December 1990, he was charged with first-degree murder, but the charge was later dismissed because Michigan had no law against assisted suicide. He was ordered, however, not to help anyone else commit suicide or to give advice about it. On February 6, 1991, he violated the court order by giving advice about the preparation of a drug to a terminally ill cancer patient.57 Additional murder charges were lodged against Kevorkian in October 1991, when he instructed two Michigan women in the use of his “suicide machine.” In dismissing the charges against him on July 21, 1992, Oakland County Circuit Court Judge David Breck stated that some people with intractable pain cannot benefit from treatment. While emphasizing that Michigan has no law against assisting suicide, the judge also expressed his belief that physician-assisted suicide remains an alternative for patients experiencing “unmanageable pain.”58
The Michigan House, however, approved legislation placing a temporary ban on assisted suicide on November 24, 1992. The Senate approved the temporary ban after Kevorkian assisted a sixth terminally ill patient to end her life. On December 15, 1992, Michigan Governor John Engler signed the law just hours after two more women committed suicide with Kevorkian’s aid. The new law, which became effective on April 1, 1993, made assisting suicide a felony punishable by up to 4 years in prison and a $2,000 fine. Under the new law, assisted suicide was banned for 15 months. During this period, a special commission studied assisted suicide and submitted its recommendations to the Michigan legislature for review and action. The new law apparently raised constitutional questions and was challenged by the Civil Liberties Union of Michigan because of the claim that it fails to recognize that the terminally ill have the right to end their lives painlessly and with dignity.
The Supreme Court of Michigan ruled on December 13, 1994, that assisted suicide is illegal in the state of Michigan. The ruling overturned several lower court decisions. The court determined that there is no constitutional right to aid in carrying out a suicide in Michigan. Dr. Kevorkian, a physician, assisted terminally ill patients in suicide outside the boundaries of the law.
Kevorkian faced prosecution for murdering two people and for assisting in the suicides of three others. As a result, he appealed a Michigan Supreme Court ruling that found there is no right to assisted suicide.59 The U.S. Supreme Court rejected Kevorkian’s argument that assisted suicide is a constitutional right. The high court’s decision allowed the state of Michigan to move forward and prosecute Kevorkian on the pending charges. At the time of the high court’s ruling, Kevorkian had attended his 22nd suicide, involving a retired clergyman, less than a month after he was left facing murder charges in Michigan.60 In 1998, Kevorkian administered a lethal injection to Thomas Youk, a 52-year-old man with Lou Gehrig’s disease, on national television. By March 1998, Kevorkian had aided in or witnessed 100 suicides. In the same year Michigan voters defeated a ballot measure that would legalize physician-assisted suicide. In 1999, he was convicted of second-degree murder and was released on June 1, 2007, after serving 8 years of the 10- to 25-year sentence for physician-assisted suicide.
Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act
Ironically, while Kevorkian was serving time in a Michigan prison for physician-assisted suicide, Oregon passed the Death with Dignity Act on October 27, 1997, allowing terminally ill Oregon residents to obtain prescriptions from their physicians for self-administered, lethal doses of medications. The act legalizes physician-assisted suicide but specifically prohibits euthanasia, where a physician or other person directly administers a medication to end another’s life. Physician-assisted suicide, through referendum, became a legal medical option within narrowly prescribed circumstances for terminally ill Oregon residents. In 1998, Oregon voters reaffirmed their support for the Death with Dignity Act by a 60% majority. The Death with Dignity Act provides that the attending physician shall:
(1) Make the initial determination of whether a patient has a terminal disease, is capable, and has made the request voluntarily.
(2) Inform the patient of:
(a) His or her medical diagnosis;
(b) His or her prognosis;
(c) The potential risks associated with taking the medication to be prescribed;
(d) The probable result of taking the medication to be prescribed; and
(e) The feasible alternatives, including, but not limited to, comfort care, hospice care, and pain control.
(3) Refer the patient to a consulting physician for medical confirmation of the diagnosis, and for a determination that the patient is capable and acting voluntarily.61
The request for medication is illustrated in Exhibit 18-1.
Exhibit 18-1 Oregon request form to end life.
Reproduced from Request for Medication to End My Life in a Human and Dignified Manner, http://public.health.oregon.gov/ProviderPartnerResources/EvaluationResearch/DeathwithDignityAct/Documents/pt-req.pdf. Accessed August 18, 2014.
The Oregon Death with Dignity Act62 allows physicians to prescribe but not administer lethal drugs to the requester, who must be terminally ill with fewer than 6 months to live. The patient must convince doctors that the decision is voluntary, sincere, and not based on being depressed. The waiting period is 15 days. The medication can only be given orally. Two physicians must examine the patient to confirm the diagnosis and prognosis. The patient must have made a witnessed request both orally and in writing. All prescriptions must be reported to the state health department.
Prohibition of Assisted Suicide Ruled Constitutional
The U.S. Supreme Court, in June 1997, made two unanimous and separate decisions, ruling that the laws in Washington and New York prohibiting assisted suicide are constitutional. In the Washington case, Washington v. Glucksberg,63 the Supreme Court applied the same “rationally related to the state’s interest in preserving life” test (which includes preventing suicide and studying, identifying, and treating its causes; protecting vulnerable groups; and preventing the state from allowing euthanasia). The Court held that assisted suicide is not a liberty protected by the Constitution’s due process clause.
The U.S. Supreme Court, in Quill v. Vacco,64 found that neither the assisted-suicide ban nor the law permitting patients to refuse medical treatment treats anyone differently from anyone else or draws any distinctions between persons. There is a distinction, however, between letting a patient die and making one die. Most legislatures have allowed the former, but have prohibited the latter. The Supreme Court disagreed with the respondents’ claim that the distinction is arbitrary and irrational. In its decision, the Supreme Court determined that New York had valid reasons for distinguishing between refusing treatments and assisting suicide. Those reasons included prohibiting intentional killing and preserving life; preventing suicide; maintaining the physician’s role as his or her patient’s healer; and protecting vulnerable people from indifference, prejudice, and psychological and financial pressure to end their lives. All of those reasons, the Court decided, constitute valid and important public interests fulfilling the constitutional requirement that a legislative classification bear a rational relation to a legitimate end.
Assisted Suicide Law Ruled Constitutional
U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft, in 2001, challenged Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act by claiming that physician-assisted suicide was a violation of the federal Controlled Substances Act because it served no “legitimate medical purpose.” In State of Oregon v. Ashcroft, CV 01-1647 (D. Oregon), the court allowed Oregon’s law to remain in effect. In 2002, the U.S. District Court upheld Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act and Attorney General John Ashcroft filed an appeal, asking the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals to lift the district court’s ruling. On May 26, 2004, a three-judge panel of the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals voted two to one to uphold the Oregon lawsuit initiated in 2002. This blocked the attempt by the U.S. Justice Department, under Attorney General Ashcroft, to use the federal Controlled Substances Act to prevent doctors in the state from prescribing drugs to assist the suicide of their patients. The Ashcroft directive interfered with Oregon’s authority to regulate medical care within its borders and therefore altered the usual constitutional balance between state and the federal governments.65
The U.S. Supreme Court on January 17, 2006, in Gonzales v. Oregon,66 ruled that the states could allow physicians to assist in the suicide of their terminally ill patients. In a 6-3 vote, the court upheld Oregon’s physician-assisted suicide law. Former Attorney General John Ashcroft was found to have overstepped his authority in seeking to punish doctors who prescribed drugs to help terminally ill patients end their lives. The Supreme Court determined that the Oregon law supersedes federal authority to regulate physicians and that the Bush administration improperly attempted to use the Controlled Substances Act to prosecute Oregon physicians who assist in patient suicides. The Supreme Court blocked the Bush administration’s attempt to punish doctors who help terminally ill patients die, protecting Oregon’s one-of-a-kind assisted suicide law.67
States Permitting Assisted Suicide
At the time of this writing, Oregon, Washington, and Vermont have legalized physician-assisted suicide. Vermont became the third state to legalize physician-assisted suicide, when Governor Peter Shumlin signed into law a bill allowing physicians to legally prescribe lethal doses of medication for terminally ill patients.68
The Montana Supreme Court ruled that state law protects physicians from prosecution for assisting terminally ill patients in committing suicide. The court, however, did not address whether assisted suicide was guaranteed under the state’s constitution.69 Montana “HB 505 which would have explicitly prohibited doctor-prescribed suicide was introduced by Rep. Krayton Kerns. The bill passed in the House and was sent to the Senate, where it failed on April 15, 2013 in a 27–23 vote.”70
Former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger of California signed into law an assisted suicide information bill (AB 2747) that mandates physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants “provide patients diagnosed with a terminal illness—or who have been given a diagnosis of one year or less to live—with “comprehensive information and counseling regarding legal end-of-life options, as specified.”71 The physician-assisted suicide debate and rulings from the various states continue, as noted in a Massachusetts ballot question 2, “Death with Dignity” initiative, where legalized physician-assisted suicide was defeated by a narrow margin.72
18.10 ADVANCE DIRECTIVES
Advance directives for health care are instructions given by individuals specifying what actions should be taken for their health in the event that they are no longer able to make healthcare decisions as a result of illness or incapacity. Patients have a right to make decisions about their health care with their physician. They may agree to a proposed treatment, choose among offered treatments, or say no to a treatment. Patients have this right even if they become incapacitated and are unable to make decisions regarding their health care.
Because of the advances in modern medical technology, each person should give serious consideration as to their healthcare wishes, decide what they would want done should they become incapacitated, execute advance directives, and make their wishes known so that family and healthcare providers can respect their decision.
Advance directives include, for example, a living will and/or durable power of attorney. They both provide that a person may state in advance the kinds of medical care that he or she considers acceptable or not acceptable. The patient can appoint an agent, or a surrogate decision maker, to make those decisions on his or her behalf. A patient should be asked at the time of admission if he or she has an advance directive. If a patient does not have an advance directive, the organization should provide the patient with information about an advance directive and the opportunity to execute one. A patient should clearly understand that an advance directive is a guideline for caregivers describing his or her wishes for medical care—what he or she would and would not want—in the event of incapacitation and inability to make decisions. This interaction should be documented in the patient’s medical record. If the patient has an advance directive, a copy should be requested for insertion into the patient’s record. If the patient does not have a copy of the advance directive with him or her, the substance thereof should be documented and flagged in the patient’s medical record. Documentation should include the location of the advance directive, the name and telephone number of the designated healthcare agent, and any information that might be helpful in the immediate care situation (e.g., patient’s desire for food and hydration). The purpose of such documentation should not be considered to be a need to recreate a new directive, but should be considered a desire to adhere to a patient’s wishes in the event some untoward event occurs while waiting for a copy of the directive.
The patient can execute a new directive at any time if desired. Patient and family education should be provided regarding the existence of the directive and its contents. The patient should be periodically queried about whether he or she wishes to make any changes with regard to an advance directive.
Obligation to Make Preferences Known
Patients have an obligation to make medical preferences known to the treating physician. Any glimmer of uncertainty as to a patient’s desires in an emergency situation should be resolved in favor of preserving life.
The patient in Matter of Hughes 73 signed a standard hospital form entitled “Refusal to Permit Blood Transfusion.” There was no indication on the form that the consequences of her refusal had been explained to her in the context of the elective surgical procedure she was about to undergo. The form should have contained an unequivocal statement that under any and all circumstances, blood is not to be used and an acknowledgment that the consequences of the refusal were fully explained. The form should have fully released the physician, all medical personnel, and the hospital from liability should complications have arisen from the failure to administer blood, thereby resolving any doubt as to the physician’s responsibility to his patient. If Hughes would have refused to sign such a form, her physician could then decide whether to continue with Hughes’s treatment or aid her in finding a physician who would carry out her wishes.
The court emphasized that this case arose in the context of elective surgery. This was not an emergency situation in which the physician and patient did not have time to fully discuss the potential risks, benefits, and alternatives of the planned surgery and the conflict arising over the patient’s religious beliefs. Patients have an obligation to make medical preferences known to the treating physician, including the course to follow if life-threatening complications should arise. This protects the patient’s right to freedom of religion and self-determination. In addition, it is helpful to the hospital when faced with the dilemma of trying to preserve life whenever possible versus honoring the patient’s wishes to forgo life-sustaining treatment.
Living Will
A living will is the instrument or legal document that describes those treatments an individual wishes or does not wish to receive should he or she become incapacitated and unable to communicate treatment decisions (see Figure 18-5). The first living will legislation was enacted in California in 1976, permitting a person to sign a declaration stating that if there is no hope of recovery, no heroic measures need to be taken to prolong life. This provision is now available in every state. In 2010, legislation was introduced in California that would make it the first state in the country to build a Living Donor Registry. “Senate Bill 1395 by Sen. Elaine Alquist, D-Santa Clara, would make it easier for people to decide whether they want to donate their organs when they die, by requiring them to check a box when they get their driver’s license.”74
© Jim Barber/ShutterStock, Inc.
Figure 18-5 Living will.
Typically, a living will allows a person, when competent, to inform caregivers in writing of his or her wishes with regard to withholding and withdrawing life support treatment, including nutrition and hydration. The living will is helpful to healthcare professionals because it provides guidance about a patient’s wishes for treatment, provides legally valid instructions about treatment, and protects the patient’s rights and the provider who honors them.
The Supreme Court determined that Kentucky’s Living Will Directive Act was constitutional in T. Bruce Simpson, Jr., v. Commonwealth of Kentucky and Cabinet for Human Resources.75 The act allows a judicially appointed guardian or other designated surrogate to remove life support. After suffering cardiac arrest, it was agreed the patient, Woods, would never regain consciousness. After a recommendation of the hospital’s ethics committee, Woods’ guardian asked for the removal of Woods’ life support. If there is no legal guardian but the physicians, family, and ethics committee all agree with the surrogate’s decision—in this case, the state’s—there is no need for judicial approval. The Supreme Court did determine that when there is disagreement in a particular case, withdrawal of life support would be prohibited absent clear and convincing evidence that the patient is permanently unconscious or in a persistent vegetative state and that withdrawal of life support was in the patient’s best interest. In support of its holding, the Supreme Court cited the ethical standards of the National Center for State Courts, the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the AMA, an Address to an International Congress of Anesthesiologists by Pope Pius XII, and the Declaration on Euthanasia by Pope John Paul II:
In determining the patient’s best interests, courts may consider, but are not limited to considering: (1) the patient’s present level of physical, sensory, emotional, and cognitive functioning and possibility of improvement thereof; (2) any relevant statements or expressions made by the patient, when competent, as to his or her own wishes with a rebuttable presumption attaching to a valid living will or a designation of a health care surrogate; (3) to the extent known, the patient’s own philosophical, religious, and moral views, life goals, values about the purpose of life and the way it should be lived, and attitudes toward sickness, medical procedures, suffering, and death; (4) the degree of physical pain caused by the patient’s condition, treatment, and termination of treatment; (5) the degree of humiliation, dependence, and loss of dignity probably resulting from the condition or treatment; (6) the life expectancy and prognosis for recovery with and without the treatment; (7) the various treatment options and their risks, benefits, and side effects; whether any particular treatment would be proportionate or disproportionate in terms of the benefits gained; and (8) the impact on the patient’s family (the assumption being that the patient would be concerned about the well-being and happiness of his or her own family members).
The living will should be signed and dated by two witnesses who are not blood relatives or beneficiaries of property. A living will should be discussed with the patient’s physician, and a signed copy should be placed in the patient’s medical record. A copy should also be given to the individual designated to make decisions in the event the patient is unable to do so. A person who executes a living will when healthy and mentally competent cannot predict how he or she will feel at the time of a terminal illness; therefore, it should be updated regularly so that it accurately reflects a patient’s wishes. The written instructions become effective when a patient is either in a terminal condition, permanently unconscious, or suffering irreversible brain damage. An example of a living will is illustrated in Exhibit 18-2.
Dying Without a Living Will
In San Juan-Torregosa v. Garcia,76 the evidence at trial established that Garcia suffered a cardiac arrest. Although she was later resuscitated, she suffered oxygen deprivation to her brain for more than 10 minutes and was in a chronic vegetative state. There was no evidence that she would be able to recover “cortical functions.” Garcia’s treating physician, Dr. Parrish, testified that Garcia was functioning on a low brain level, whereby the brain stem kept her blood circulating, maintained blood pressure, and maintained respiration and that she was in a persistent vegetative state with a zero chance of recovering any cortex activity. Dr. Parrish further stated that he discussed the discontinuation of artificial nutrition and hydration with the family and that they had ultimately decided to continue the fluids but stop the nutrition, which he felt was reasonable.
Exhibit 18-2 My living will.
When asked why Garcia had been given life support in the first place, Dr. Parrish explained that although Garcia’s injury initially seemed very severe, he could not say from the beginning whether she would recover and wanted to give her every chance to improve if she could. The trial court ruled that because Garcia, who was in a chronic vegetative state, had not executed a living will, the court had no authority to authorize discontinuance of artificial nutrition. On appeal, the appellants asserted that the trial court erred in refusing to allow Garcia’s family to terminate the artificial nutrition and hydration, thereby failing to honor her wishes and denying her constitutional right to bodily integrity. The Court of Appeals of Tennessee at Knoxville concurred with the Trial Court’s fact finding that the evidence was clear and convincing that Ms. Garcia would not want to be kept alive by artificial means and that her wishes, expressed while she was competent, would be to have these services discontinued. The appeals court ruled that the courts have a duty to protect and when necessary enable individuals to exercise his or her constitutional rights. Since Ms. Garcia had no written preference, her husband would be the first choice to act as her conservator and make medical decisions for her. The judgment of the trial court was remanded for proceedings in accordance with this opinion.77
Living Will Declaration Upheld
The plaintiff-sister (Oris Pettis) was not entitled to enjoin her brother and sister from implementing the living will in which their mother, Doris Smith, directed the withdrawal of life-sustaining medical procedures in the event she should have a terminal and irreversible condition. Smith, at the age of 89, suffered a debilitating stroke in March 2004. Although she survived, she no longer had any significant brain function. Dr. Maran examined Ms. Smith and assessed her condition as being in a vegetative state with no chance of improvement. After consideration of their mother’s condition, Steve Smith and Dianne Braddock indicated that the hospital should stop providing nutrition to their mother through the gastric feeding tube that had been inserted. Mr. Smith and Mrs. Braddock informed Dr. El-Malah, her treating physician, that their mother had executed living wills in March 2001. Drs. Maran and El-Malah signed the form, attesting that the resident would die whether or not life-sustaining procedures were used and that the application of such procedures would serve only to artificially prolong the dying process. The patient’s declarations specifically prohibited her daughters from making decisions about life-sustaining procedures pursuant to La. R.S. 40:1299.58.1, et seq. The second section, captioned “Declaration of living will for terminal illness pursuant to La. R.S. 40:1299.58.1,” declares:
I willfully and voluntarily make known my desire that my dying shall not be artificially prolonged under the circumstances set forth below and do hereby declare:
If at any time I should be diagnosed as having incurable injury, disease, or illness certified to be a terminal and irreversible condition by two physicians who have personally examined me, one of whom shall be my attending physician, and the physicians have determined that my death will occur whether or not life-sustaining procedures are utilized and where the application of life-sustaining procedures would serve only to prolong artificially the dying process; I direct that such procedures be withheld or withdrawn and that I be permitted to die naturally with only the administration of medication or the performance of any medical procedure deemed necessary to provide me with comfort care.
In the absence of my ability to give directions regarding the use of such life-sustaining procedures, it is my intention that this declaration shall be honored by my family and physician(s) as the final expression of my legal right to refuse medical or surgical treatment and accept the consequences of such refusal. I understand the full import of this declaration and appointment of my attorney-in-fact and I am emotionally and mentally competent to make this declaration.78
Healthcare Proxy
A healthcare proxy is a legal document that allows a person to appoint a healthcare agent to make treatment decisions in the event he or she becomes incapacitated and is unable to make decisions for him or herself. The agent must be made aware of the patient’s wishes regarding nutrition and hydration in order to be allowed to make a decision concerning withholding or withdrawing them. In contrast to a living will, a healthcare proxy does not require a person to know about and consider in advance all situations and decisions that could arise. Rather, the appointed agent would know about and interpret the expressed wishes of the patient and then make decisions about the medical care and treatment to be administered or refused.
Most states allow the document to be effective until revoked by the individual. To revoke, the patient must sign and date a new writing, personally destroy the first document, direct another to destroy the first document in his or her presence, or orally state to the physician one’s intent to revoke the healthcare proxy document. The effect of the directive varies among jurisdictions. However, there is unanimity in the promulgation of regulations that specifically authorize healthcare personnel to honor the directives without fear of incurring liability. The highest court of New York in In re Eichner 79 complied with the request of a guardian to withdraw life support systems from an 83-year-old brain-damaged priest. The court reached its result by finding the patient’s previously expressed wishes to be determinative. Prior to exercising an incompetent patient’s right to forgo medical treatment, the surrogate decision maker must satisfy the following conditions:
1. The surrogate must be satisfied that the patient executed a document (e.g., durable power of attorney for health care and healthcare proxy) knowingly, willingly, and without undue influence, and that the evidence of the patient’s oral declaration is reliable.
2. The patient must not have reasonable probability of recovering competency so that the patient could exercise the right.
3. The surrogate must take care to ensure that any limitations or conditions expressed either orally or in written declarations have been considered carefully and satisfied.
Before declaring an individual incapacitated to make end-of-life decisions, the attending physician must find, with a reasonable degree of medical certainty, that the patient lacks capacity. A notation should be placed in the patient’s medical record describing the cause, nature, extent, and probable duration of incapacity. Before withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, a second physician must confirm the incapacity determination and make an appropriate entry on the medical record before honoring any new decisions by a healthcare agent.
Durable Power of Attorney
A durable power of attorney is a legal device that permits one individual, known as the principal, to give to another person, called the attorney-in-fact, the authority to act on his or her behalf. The attorney-in-fact is authorized to handle banking and real estate affairs, incur expenses, pay bills, and handle a wide variety of legal affairs for a specified period. The power of attorney may continue indefinitely during the lifetime of the principal so long as that person is competent and capable of granting power of attorney. If the principal becomes comatose or mentally incompetent, the power of attorney automatically expires, just as it would if the principal dies. California passed the first durable power of attorney statute in 1983, permitting an advance directive to be made describing the kind of health care that one would desire when facing death by designating an agent to act on the patient’s behalf.
Because a power of attorney is limited by the competency of the principal, some states have authorized a special legal device for the principal to express intent concerning the durability of the power of attorney to allow it to survive disability or incompetency. The durable power of attorney is more general in scope, and the patient does not have to be in imminent danger of death, as is necessary in a living will situation. Although it need not delineate desired medical treatment specifically, it must indicate the identity of the principal’s attorney-in-fact and that the principal has communicated his or her healthcare wishes to the attorney-in-fact. Although the laws vary from state to state, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have durable power of attorney statutes. This legal device is an important alternative to guardianship, conservatorship, or trusteeship. Because a durable power of attorney places a considerable amount of power in the hands of the attorney-in-fact, an attorney in the state where the client resides should draw up the power of attorney. In the healthcare setting, a durable power of attorney for health care is a legal instrument that designates and grants authority to an agent. An example of a durable power of attorney is illustrated in Exhibit 18-3.
Surrogate Decision Making
A surrogate decision maker is an agent who acts on behalf of a patient who lacks the capacity to participate in a particular decision. A healthcare agent’s rights are no greater than those of a competent patient; however, the agent’s rights are limited to any specific instructions included in the proxy document. An agent’s decisions take priority over any other person except the patient. The agent has the right to consent or refuse to consent to any service or treatment, routine or otherwise; to refuse life-sustaining treatment; and to access all of the patient’s medical information to make informed decisions. The agent must make decisions based on the patient’s moral and religious beliefs. If a patient’s wishes are not known, decisions must be based on a good faith judgment of what the patient would have wanted.
Substituted judgment is a form of surrogate decision making where the surrogate attempts to establish what decision the patient would have made if that patient were competent. This conclusion can be based on the patient’s preference expressed in previous statements or the surrogate’s knowledge of the patient’s beliefs (e.g., religious) and values.80 In 1976, the New Jersey Supreme Court, in the matter of Karen Ann Quinlan,81 rendered a unanimous decision providing for the appointment of Joseph Quinlan as personal guardian of his daughter.
Exhibit 18-3 Durable power of attorney for health care.
Guardianship
Guardianship is a legal mechanism by which the court declares a person incompetent and appoints a guardian. The court transfers the responsibility for managing financial affairs, living arrangements, and medical care decisions to the guardian.
The right to refuse medical treatment on behalf of an incompetent person is not limited to legally appointed guardians, but may be exercised by healthcare proxies or surrogates such as close family members or friends. When a patient has not expressed instructions concerning his or her future health care in the event of later incapacity, but has merely delegated full responsibility to a proxy, designation of a proxy must have been made in writing.
When a person has been declared incompetent as a result of being in a persistent vegetative state and has left no advance directive, life-sustaining decisions become more complex. Since 1990, Terri Schiavo from Clearwater, Florida, had been in a persistent vegetative state after a heart attack cut off the supply of oxygen to her brain. Her husband Michael became her legal guardian and fought to have her feeding tube removed, which was against her parents’ wishes. Michael argued that Terri had articulated her desire not to be kept alive by artificial means.
In an unprecedented move, on October 21, 2003, Governor Jeb Bush signed an order based on a hastily passed law called Terri’s Law, mandating the reinsertion of Ms. Schiavo’s feeding tube, which had been removed 6 days earlier. Mr. Schiavo filed an appeal based on a violation of his wife’s right to privacy under the Florida Constitution, asserting that the law intruded on the separation of powers. This case is the first time a governor and legislative branch of government have usurped not only the authority of the judiciary, but also the rights of legal guardians to make decisions.
The law was narrowly tailored to fit Terri Schiavo’s circumstances: a patient has not left a living will, is in a persistent vegetative state, has had feeding tubes removed, and a family member challenges the removal.
Florida law Chapter 2003-418 was passed by the Florida legislature. It directly affected the patient, Terri Schiavo, who had been in a persistent vegetative state since 1990. The act provided that the governor shall have authority to issue a one-time stay to prevent the withholding of nutrition and hydration from the patient. The act was determined to be unconstitutional as applied in the Schiavo case. The Supreme Court of Florida in Schiavo concluded:
The continuing vitality of our system of separation of powers precludes the other two branches from nullifying the judicial branch’s final orders. If the Legislature with the assent of the Governor can do what was attempted here, the judicial branch would be subordinated to the final directive of the other branches. Also subordinated would be the rights of individuals, including the well established right to self-determination. See Browning, 568 So.2d at 11–13. No court judgment could ever be considered truly final and no constitutional right truly secure, because the precedent of this case would hold to the contrary. Vested rights could be stripped away based on popular clamor. The essential core of what the Founding Fathers sought to change from their experience with English rule would be lost, especially their belief that our courts exist precisely to preserve the rights of individuals, even when doing so is contrary to popular will.82
The U.S. Supreme Court, on January 24, 2005, denied an appeal by Florida Governor Jeb Bush to overturn a decision by the Florida Supreme Court, which ruled Terri’s Law unconstitutional.
18.11 AUTOPSY
Autopsies, or postmortem examinations, are conducted to ascertain the cause of a person’s death, which, in turn, may resolve several legal issues. An autopsy may reveal whether death was the result of criminal activity, whether the cause of death was one for which payment must be made in accordance with an insurance contract, whether the death is compensable under workers’ compensation and occupational disease acts, or whether death was the result of a specific act or a culmination of several acts. Aside from providing answers to these specific questions, the information gained from autopsies adds to medical knowledge. As such, medical schools have an interest in autopsies for educational purposes.
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SPOUSE’S GUARDIANSHIP RIGHTS QUESTIONED |
Citation: In re Martin, 517 N.W.2d 749 (Mich. Ct. App. 1994)
Facts
Martin sustained debilitating injuries as the result of an automobile accident. His injuries left him totally paralyzed on the left side. He could communicate to a very minimal degree through head nods.
The trial court determined that Martin did not have nor would he ever have the ability to have the requisite capacity to make decisions regarding the withdrawal of life support equipment. Evidence demonstrated that Martin’s preference would have been to decline life support equipment given his medical condition and prognosis. The trial court’s decision was based on the following four-part test for determining whether a person has the requisite capacity to make a decision: the person (1) has sufficient mind to reasonably understand the condition, (2) is capable of understanding the nature and effect of the treatment choices, (3) is aware of the consequences associated with those choices, and (4) is able to make an informed choice that is voluntary and not coerced. The trial court determined that the spouse was a suitable guardian for Martin.
Mrs. Martin petitioned to withdraw her husband’s life support. Martin’s mother and sister counter-petitioned to have Mrs. Martin removed as the patient’s guardian.
Issue
Was there sufficient evidence to support a finding that: (1) the patient lacked capacity to make decisions regarding the removal of life-sustaining treatment; (2) the patient would have had a medical preference to decline life-sustaining treatment under the circumstances; and (3) Mrs. Martin would be a suitable individual to represent her husband as to the withdrawal of life-sustaining medical treatment?
Holding
The Michigan Court of Appeals held there was sufficient evidence to support a finding that: (1) the patient lacked capacity to make decisions regarding the withholding or withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment; (2) the patient would have declined treatment under the circumstances such as those that occurred; and (3) there was sufficient evidence to show that the patient’s spouse was a suitable guardian.
Reason
The burden of proof for determining whether Martin had the requisite capacity to make a decision regarding the withholding or withdrawing of life-supporting medical treatment was clear and convincing. It was the general consensus of all of the experts that Martin’s condition and cognitive level of functioning would not improve in the future.
Testimony from two of Martin’s friends described statements made by him that he would never want to be maintained in a coma or in a vegetative state. In addition, Mrs. Martin described numerous statements made to her by Martin prior to the accident that he would not want to be maintained alive given the circumstances described here. The trial court found that Mrs. Martin was credible. The court of appeals found no reason to dispute the trial court’s finding as to Mrs. Martin’s credibility.
Contrary to allegations made by the patient’s mother and sister, the evidence was clear that Mrs. Martin’s testimony was credible. There was no evidence that Mrs. Martin had anything but her husband’s best interest at heart. There were allegations, but no evidence, of financial considerations or pressure from another individual that would indicate that Mrs. Martin’s testimony was influenced by other individuals.
Discussion
1. Knowing that the patient had some ability to interact with his environment, discuss the four-part test for determining the patient’s ability to make a decision.
2. Do you agree with the court’s decision? Explain.
3. Should the concern of the mother and sister have carried more weight in removing custody from Mrs. Martin?
In those instances when the death of a patient is the result of criminal activity or unusual or suspicious circumstances, the patient’s death must be reported to the medical examiner. Deaths resulting from natural causes within 24 hours of admission to a hospital do not need to be reported as long as the patient was in the hospital at the time of death and as long as an appropriate physician signs the death certificate and records the cause of death.
Deaths that occur during a surgical procedure are generally reportable events to the medical examiner. If an autopsy for medical evaluation is desired by the hospital, consent must be obtained from the next of kin. An unauthorized autopsy may disturb persons whose religious beliefs prohibit such a procedure as well as those persons who have a general aversion to the procedure. When autopsies are performed without statutory authorization and without the consent of the decedent, the surviving spouse, or an appropriate relative, liability may be imposed.
Damages awarded in cases of liability through interference with the rights of a surviving spouse or near-relative with regard to the body of a decedent are based on the emotional and mental suffering that results from such interference. For damages to be awarded, the conduct of the alleged wrongdoer must be sufficiently disturbing to a person of ordinary sensibilities as to cause emotional harm. Cases involving the wrongful handling of dead bodies may be classified into four groups: (1) mutilation of a body, (2) unauthorized autopsy, (3) wrongful detention, and (4) unauthorized use or publication of photographs taken after death.
To limit lawsuits regarding the disposition of dead bodies, appropriate handling and release procedures should be established. Legal counsel should review such procedures. Interfering with rights to a body can result in liability. For example, in the case of Lott v. State,83 two bodies were improperly tagged. The body of a person of the Roman Catholic faith was prepared for Orthodox Jewish burial, and the person of the Orthodox Jewish faith was prepared for Roman Catholic burial. This negligent conduct interfered with burial plans and caused mental anguish, for which liability was imposed.
Autopsy Consent Statutes
Recognizing both the need for information that can be secured only through the performance of a substantial volume of autopsies and the valid interests of relatives and friends of the decedent, most states have enacted statutes dealing with autopsy consent. Such legislation seems intended to have a twofold effect: first, to protect the rights of the decedent’s relatives, and second, to guide those performing autopsies in establishing procedures for consent to autopsy. Most autopsy consent statutes establish an order for obtaining consent to autopsy based on the degree of family relationship.
Authorization by Decedent
Most autopsy consent statutes provide that persons may authorize an autopsy prior to death. Ordinarily, such consent must be in writing. There may be legal as well as practical problems in obtaining authorization for an autopsy from a patient before death if the state does not statutorily provide for such authorization.
In states where there is neither an autopsy consent statute nor a statute permitting donation that may be construed to include autopsy, it is unwise to rely exclusively on the authorization of a decedent to perform an autopsy. This is especially true when relatives of the deceased who assume custody of the body for burial object to an autopsy.
Although the courts have upheld the wishes of the deceased with respect to the place of internment or the manner of disposition of the remains (i.e., by burial or cremation), it is possible that the courts will not afford the same weight to the decedent’s wishes concerning an autopsy. In such instances, compelling reasons presented by certain next of kin of the decedent, especially the surviving spouse, may prevail over the wishes of the decedent.
Authorization by Someone Other Than Decedent
Generally, the primary right to custody of a deceased person belongs to the surviving spouse. When there is no spouse, the right passes (in the absence of statutes furnishing a preference order of responsibility for burial and consent for autopsy) to the adult children of the deceased, parents, adult siblings, grandparents, uncles and aunts, and finally cousins. A court may find that a surviving spouse’s unwillingness to assume responsibility for burial is sufficient to permit the right to custody of the body to devolve on a relative who is willing to assume such responsibility.
In Callsen v. Cheltenham York Nursing Home,84 the relatives of the decedent, Mrs. Callsen, sued the defendants regarding the transfer of her body to a teaching hospital for dissection purposes. The defendants claimed immunity from liability under good faith provisions of the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. An amended complaint named 22 separate defendants. The complaint recited that Callsen was the mother of the plaintiffs and that, prior to her death she resided at the Cheltenham York Nursing Home. The nursing home maintained records of family and friends who visited her. On May 27, 1990, the nursing home transferred Callsen (who died on or about June 9, 1990) to the Einstein Medical Center. The medical center was notified that there was no family information for Callsen. In an amended complaint that, following Callsen’s death, no efforts were made by the medical center to locate and notify family members regarding the transfer of the decedent’s remains. The family did not discover her whereabouts until approximately 10 days after her death, and by that time, the body had been partially dissected. The plaintiffs also claim that the defendants were negligent in failing to follow the statutory procedures for disposition of a deceased person’s remains and that their conduct was grossly negligent and outrageous.
The common pleas court sustained the medical center’s preliminary objections and dismissed the complaint. An appeal was taken as to whether or not there were triable issues of fact with regard to the medical center making appropriate efforts to locate the patient’s family.
The commonwealth court held that there were triable issues of fact whether appropriate efforts to locate the patient’s family had been made. Although the nursing facility had access to the names of family members, the nursing facility agreement did not record their names. One of the facility’s nurses reported to Einstein Medical Center that there was no family information for the decedent. The complaint does not disclose what efforts, if any, were made to locate the relatives or to notify any of them as to the proposed disposition of the decedent’s remains. The court held that the ultimate decision as to the presence or absence of the exercise of good faith by any of the three parties must await the filing of further pleadings, the completion of any necessary discovery, and possible motions for summary judgment.
Scope and Extent of Consent
Legal issues may arise as a result of an autopsy even if consent has been obtained from the person authorized by law to grant such consent. If autopsy procedures go beyond the limits imposed by the consent or if the consent to an autopsy is obtained by fraud or without the formal requisites, liability may be incurred. It is a fundamental principle that a person who has the right to refuse permission for the performance of an act also has the right to place limitations or conditions on consent.
It is especially important that the hospital and its personnel adhere to any limitations or conditions placed on the permission to autopsy; if such limitations are exceeded, the physician or the hospital has no defense on the ground of emergency or medical necessity.
Although consent to autopsy also may encompass authorization for removal of body parts for examination, a separate question may arise concerning disposal of tissues and organs on completion of the examination: May the hospital and its personnel dispose of such material in a routine manner or use it for the hospital’s own purposes, or must the hospital return the tissue and body organs before burial? In Hendriksen v. Roosevelt Hospital,85 permission had been granted for a complete autopsy, including an examination of the central nervous system by a scalp incision. Yet the court held that liability might be imposed on the hospital if the jury found that the hospital retained parts of the body. Pursuant to a New York statute requiring the authorization of the next of kin, consent was given for dissection; however, the court held that this statute should be construed narrowly and that special consent would have to be obtained to retain the internal organs of the decedent.
Consent given with the understanding that organs and tissue could be removed and retained for examination would seem to authorize the hospital to dispose of such materials in a suitable manner or to use them after the autopsy. However, the Hendriksen decision raises doubts on this matter. When the party giving consent expressly stipulates that parts severed from the body are to be returned to the body for burial, conduct deviating from this provision may result in liability. Also, it would appear that consent to autopsy does not include authorization to mutilate or disfigure the body. Therefore, when autopsy involves the removal of exterior body parts and the physical appearance of the body cannot be restored without return of such parts, the hospital may be subject to liability for exceeding the scope of the authorization if the removed parts are not returned. In general, hospitals should periodically review protocols for obtaining consent, limitations placed on an autopsy, and the disposition of body parts.
Fraudulently Obtained Consent
It is a long-accepted principle that consent obtained through fraud or material misrepresentation is not binding and that the person whose consent is so obtained stands in the same position as if no consent had been given. This principle can apply to autopsies when facts are misrepresented to the person who has the right to consent to induce his or her consent. If a physician or a hospital employee states, as fact, something known to be untrue to gain consent, the autopsy would be unauthorized, and liability might follow.
Unclaimed Dead Bodies
Persons entitled to possession of a dead body must arrange for release of the body for transfer to an undertaker for final disposal. The body of a deceased person imposes a duty on a healthcare facility to make reasonable efforts to give notice to persons entitled to claim the body. When there are no known relatives or friends of the family who can be contacted by the facility to claim the body, the facility has a responsibility to dispose of the body in accordance with law. Most states have statutes providing for the disposal of such bodies.
Most states have statutes providing for the disposal of unclaimed bodies by delivery to institutions for educational and scientific purposes. The public official in charge of the body has a duty to notify the government agency of the presence of the body, which then arranges for the transfer of the body in accordance with the statute. If no such agency exists under the statute, the healthcare facility or a public official may be authorized to allow a medical school or other institution or person, designated by the statute as an eligible recipient of unclaimed dead bodies, to remove the body for scientific use. For public health reasons, the statutes usually do not permit distribution of the bodies of persons who have died from contagious diseases.
Although most statutes explicitly require notification of relatives and set time limits for holding the body to allow relatives an opportunity to claim it, strict compliance with the statutory provisions is often impossible because of the very nature of the problems that arise in the handling of dead bodies and in the required procedures themselves. An example of such a provision is the requirement that relatives be notified immediately on death and that the body be held for 24 hours subject to claim by a relative or friend. The procedure of locating and notifying relatives may consume the greater part of the 24-hour period after death. If relatives who are willing to claim the body are located, the body should be held for a reasonable time to allow them to arrange custody for burial.
18.12 ORGAN DONATIONS
Federal regulations require that hospitals have, and implement, written protocols regarding the organization’s organ procurement responsibilities. The regulations impose specific notification duties, as well as other requirements concerning informing families of potential donors. They encourage discretion and sensitivity in dealing with the families and in educating hospital staff on a variety of issues involved with donation matters in order to facilitate timely donation and transplantation.
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A Moral Solution to the Organ Shortage |
Thousands of people will die this year while they wait helplessly for an organ transplant. Tragically, these deaths could be avoided if only more people signed their organ donor cards. Yet every year the organ shortage tends to become worse as medical technology increases the number of potential beneficiaries while social apathy and fear keep the number of donors relatively constant. Today, roughly 60,000 people are waiting for organ transplants, while less than 10,000 will become donors. Despite a prominent advertising campaign with Michael Jordan as spokesperson, and a national campaign of pastors, rabbis and other clergy supporting donation, the supply of donors remains far below that necessary to save everyone on the waiting list.
—Alexander T. Tabarrok, The Independent Institute, February 19, 2001
The first kidney transplant86 was conducted in 1954. The transplantation of human organs has generated numerous ethical issues (e.g., the harvesting and selling of organs, who should have first access to freely donated human organs, how death is defined).
Organ transplantation is done to treat patients with end-stage organ disease who face organ failure. Developments in medical science have enabled physicians to take tissue from persons immediately after death and use it to replace or rehabilitate diseased or damaged organs or other parts of living persons. Interest in organ transplantation began approximately 25 years ago when attempts were made to transplant kidneys between twins.87 Success rates have improved because of better patient selection, improved clinical and operative management and skills, and immunosuppressant drugs that aid in decreasing the incidence of tissue rejection (e.g., cyclosporine, which acts to suppress the production of antibodies that attack transplanted tissue); nevertheless, this progress has created the problem of obtaining a sufficient supply of replacement body parts. There is a corresponding cry for more organs as the success rate in organ transplantation increases. Because of the fear of people buying and selling organs, the National Organ Procurement Act was enacted in 1984, making it illegal to buy or sell organs. Throughout the country, there are tissue banks and other facilities that store and preserve organs and tissue that can be used for transplantation and other therapeutic services.
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The Meat Market |
Harvesting human organs for sale! The idea suggests the lurid world of horror movies and 19thcentury graverobbers. Yet right now, Singapore is preparing to pay donors as much as 50,000 Singapore dollars (almost US$36,000) for their organs. Iran has eliminated waiting lists for kidneys entirely by paying its citizens to donate. Israel is implementing a “no give, no take” system that puts people who opt out of the donor system at the bottom of the transplant waiting list should they ever need an organ.
—Alexander Tabarrok, The Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2010
The ever-increasing success of organ transplantations and the demand for organ tissue require the close scrutiny of each case, making sure that established procedures have been followed in the care and disposal of all body parts. Section 1138, Title XI, of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986 requires hospitals to establish organ procurement protocols or face a loss of Medicare and Medicaid funding. Physicians, nurses, and other paramedical personnel assigned with this responsibility often are confronted with several legal issues. Liability can be limited by complying with applicable regulations. Organs and tissues to be stored and preserved for future use must be removed almost immediately after death; therefore, it is imperative that an agreement or arrangement for obtaining organs and tissue from a body be completed before death, or soon after death, to enable physicians to remove and store the tissue promptly.
Who Lives? Who Dies? Who Decides?
Who lives? Who dies? Who decides? These are but a few of the ethical questions that arise when deciding to whom an organ shall be given. The answers are not easy. The decision makers, even with guidelines to follow, often become the judge and jury and often find that the answers to who lives and dies are not always easy to make. If there were unlimited sources of organs, there would be no supply and demand issues. Because there is not an unlimited supply, numerous ethical principles come into play. In the case of a 70-year-old patient with multiple life-threatening health problems, the patient may not be considered a suitable candidate for transplantation, whereas a 15-year-old patient with few health issues would be considered a more appropriate candidate.
Determination of Death
The time of a patient’s death must be determined by a physician in attendance at the donor’s death, or a physician certifying death, who shall not be a member of the team of physicians engaged in the transplantation procedure.
Consideration of legal duties regarding the use, handling, and disposition of dead bodies cannot be divorced from the legal questions involved in determining when death occurs. In many contexts, such as deciding rights to the property of the deceased person, the determination of death does not involve the hospital or its personnel. However, when permission has been granted for use of a patient’s body or organs for the benefit of another or science in general, determination of the point of death becomes critical. New technology, specifically medical advancement in artificially sustaining life and transplanting vital organs, raises both legal and moral questions regarding the viability of the traditional methods of determining death.
Uniform Anatomical Gift Act
The American Bar Association has endorsed a Uniform Anatomical Gift Act drafted by the Commission on Uniform State Laws. This statute has been enacted by all 50 states and has many detailed provisions that apply to the wide variety of issues raised in connection with the making, acceptance, and use of anatomic gifts. The act allows a person to make a decision to donate organs at the time of death and allows potential donors to carry an anatomic donor card. State statutes regarding donation usually permit the donor to execute the gift during his or her lifetime.
The right to privacy of the donor and his or her family must be respected. Information should not be disseminated regarding transplant procedures that publish the names of the donor or donee without adequate consent.
Virtually, all of the states have based their enactments on the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act, but it should be recognized that in some states, there are deviations from this act or additional laws dealing with donation.
Individuals who are of sound mind and 18 years of age or older are permitted to dispose of their own bodies or body parts by will or other written instrument for medical or dental education, research, advancement of medical or dental science, therapy, or transplantation. Among those eligible to receive such donations are any licensed, accredited, or approved hospitals; accredited medical or dental schools; surgeons or physicians; tissue banks; or specified individuals who need the donation for therapy or transplantation. The statute provides that when only a part of the body is donated, custody of the remaining parts of the body shall be transferred to the next of kin promptly after removal of the donated part.
A donation by will becomes effective immediately on the death of the testator, without probate, and the gift is valid and effective to the extent that it has been acted on in good faith. This is true even if the will is not probated or is declared invalid for testimonial purposes.
Failure to Obtain Consent
There is a shortage of cadavers needed for medical education and transplantation. Some people may wish to make arrangements for the use of their bodies after death for such purposes. A surviving spouse may, however, object to such disposition. In such cases, the interest of the surviving spouse or other family member could supersede that of the deceased.
Although failure to obtain consent for removal of body tissue can give rise to a lawsuit, not all such claims are successful. In Nicoletta v. Rochester Eye & Human Parts Bank,88 emotional injuries resulted from the removal of the eyes of Nicoletta’s son for donation after a fatal motorcycle accident. The hospital was immune from liability under the provisions of the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act because the hospital had neither actual nor constructive knowledge that the woman who had authorized the donation was not the decedent’s wife. The hospital was entitled to the immunity afforded by the “good faith” provisions of Section 4306(3) of the act in which its agents had made reasonable inquiry as to the status of the purported wife, who had resided with the decedent for 10 years and was the mother of their two children. The hospital had no reason to believe that any irregularity existed. The father, who was present at the time his son was brought to the emergency department, failed to object to any organ donation and failed to challenge the authority of the purported wife to sign the emergency department authorization.
There are several methods by which a donation may be revoked. If the document has been delivered to a named donee, it may be revoked by:
• A written revocation signed by the donor and delivered to the donee
• An oral revocation witnessed by two persons and communicated to the donee
• A statement to the attending physician during a terminal illness that has been communicated to the donee
• A written statement that has been signed and is on the donor’s person or in the donor’s immediate effects
If the written instrument of donation has not been delivered to the donee, it may be revoked by destruction, cancellation, or mutilation of the instrument. If the donation is made by a will, it may be revoked in the manner provided for revocation or amendment of wills. Any person acting in good faith reliance on the terms of an instrument of donation will not be subject to civil or criminal liability unless there is actual notice of the revocation of the donation.
18.13 RESEARCH, EXPERIMENTATION, AND CLINICAL TRIALS
Research studies are designed to answer specific questions, sometimes about a drug or device’s safety and its effectiveness. Being in a research study is different from being a patient. As a patient, one’s personal physician has a great deal of freedom in making healthcare decisions. As a research subject, the protocol director and the research staff follow the rules of the research study (protocol) as closely as possible, without compromising the patient’s health.89
Ethical principles relevant to the ethics of research involving human subjects include respect for person, beneficence, and justice. These principles cannot always be applied to resolve ethical problems beyond dispute. The objective in applying ethical principles is to provide an analytical framework that will guide the resolution of ethical problems arising from research involving human subjects.
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Coddling Human Guinea Pigs |
Endless Red Tape … Is Having a Stifling Effect on Clinical Research
Let’s agree that people who are altruistic enough to volunteer for experiments should know what they’re in for if the study is testing a drug that has harmed lab animals, for instance, or if it involved a psychological manipulation that might have emotional scars. …
Doing studies on people “is so full of red tape that even experienced researchers are increasingly reluctant to tackle it,” a scientist from the University of California, told me. “It is so much simpler to deal with a mouse.” But haven’t we cured enough of them?
—Sharon Begley, Newsweek, August 25, 2008
Ethical considerations that must be addressed when conducting research on human subjects include personal autonomy; self-determination; the moral issues involved in using persons as subjects of research, the Hippocratic maxim of “do no harm” and the Hippocratic Oath’s requirement that physicians benefit their patients “according to their best judgment”; and various meanings of the term “justice,” such as whether burdens are to be distributed to each person equally, to each according to his or her needs, to each according to his or her societal contribution, or to each according to merit.
The Holocaust that occurred from 1932–1945 was one of the most violent events in human history. Over 6 million Jews perished, as well as millions of others, including Slavs, homosexuals, and Gypsies. In 1946, a military tribunal for war crimes began criminal proceedings against 23 German physicians and administrators for war crimes. As a direct result of these proceedings, the Nuremberg Code was established, which made it clear that the voluntary and informed consent of human subjects is essential to research and that benefits of research must outweigh risks to the human subjects involved.90 The code requires that human subjects be fully informed as to the nature and societal benefits of the research being undertaken and provides guidelines for the development of federal regulations for medical research and the protection of human subjects.
By 1946, following the Nuremberg trials, the International Code of Medical Ethics was adopted in the wake of the numerous experiments conducted by the Nazis on prisoners in concentration camps. Prisoners were exposed to cholera, diphtheria, malaria, mustard gas, yellow fever, typhus, and other horrendous experiments, ultimately claiming thousands of lives. This exploitation of unwilling prisoners as research subjects in Nazi concentration camps was condemned as a particularly flagrant injustice.
Medical progress and improved patient care are dependent on advances in medicine made through research. The basic principle of research is honesty, which must be ensured through institutional protocols. Fraud in research is not uncommon, and it must be condemned and punished. Honesty and integrity must govern all stages of research.
In 1964, the World Medical Association developed the Declaration of Helsinki, which contains ethical principles that provide guidance to physicians and other participants in medical research involving human subjects. The declaration includes medical research that involves readily identifiable human material or identifiable data. The declaration contains strict guidelines for protecting the life, health, and privacy of the human subject.
Federal regulations control federal grants that apply to experiments involving new drugs, new medical devices, or new medical procedures. Generally, a combination of federal and state guidelines and regulations ensures proper supervision and control over experimentation that involves human subjects. For example, federal regulations require hospital-based researchers to obtain the approval of an institutional review board (IRB). This board functions to review proposed research studies and conduct follow-up reviews on a regular basis.
Federal regulations control federal grants that apply to experiments involving new drugs, new medical devices, stem cell research and human cloning, or new medical procedures. Generally, a combination of federal and state guidelines and regulations ensures proper supervision and control over experimentation that involves human subjects. For example, federal regulations require hospital-based researchers to obtain the approval of an IRB prior to conducting clinical trials. This board functions to review proposed research studies and conduct follow-up reviews on a regular basis.
Research guidelines are helpful when followed. However, something went awry in the following reality check.
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Failed Research? |
Was it the failures of research we saw or was it cruelty inflicted on the helpless? As students in healthcare administration in 1967–68, something was not quite right as we toured several psychiatric facilities somewhat close to the university. At one facility we were taken to an underground, dark, dingy corridor where we observed iron-barred cells with patients who appeared to lack the attributes that reflect a human being. There seemed to be no dignity related to their care. They were caged in like animals without clothes. As we walked down the corridor we were told not to get too near the caged cells. An eerie feeling came over us as we looked into each barred cage. There appeared to be distinct species of humans totally different than what we would expect to see above ground. What cruelties were inflicted on these people? It was unsettling to see and unnerving to describe. We just thought to ourselves, how ghastly, there are people like this in the world. Were they born this way and if they were, why were they hidden away in a dungeon? Were these the results of lobotomies and failed experiments? Do such facilities exist today?
Discussion
1. Discuss the legal and ethical values you believe were violated.
2. Discuss the action state government could take to prevent such inhumanity.
Institutional Review Board
Each organization conducting medical research should have a mechanism in place for approving and overseeing the use of investigational protocols. This is accomplished through the establishment of an IRB, which should include community representation. The IRB is responsible for reviewing, monitoring, and approving clinical protocols for investigations of drugs and medical devices involving human subjects and ensuring that the rights of each individual are protected and that all research is conducted within appropriate state and federal guidelines (e.g., Food and Drug Administration guidelines).
Informed Consent
Physicians have a clear duty to warn patients as to the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure, as well as the alternatives to a proposed experimental procedure. Written consent should be obtained from each patient who participates in a clinical trial. Consent should include the risks, benefits, and alternatives to the proposed treatment protocol. The consent form must not contain any coercive or exculpatory language through which the patient is forced to waive his or her legal rights, including the release of the investigator, sponsor, or organization from liability for negligent conduct.
Federal and state regulations impose several other requirements on experiments involving human subjects. Organizations conducting clinical trials on human subjects, at the very least, must:
• fully disclose to the patient the inherent risks, benefits, and treatment alternatives to the proposed research protocol(s);
• determine the competency of the patient to consent;
• obtain written consent from the patient;
• educate the staff as to the potential side effects, implementation of, and ongoing monitoring of protocols;
• require financial disclosure issues associated with the protocols;
• promote awareness of ethical issues;
• promote education in regard to ethical decision making;
• increase nurse participation in ethical decision making; and
• have ongoing monitoring of approved protocols.
Research Subject’s Bill of Rights
The following is a bill of rights developed by the Veterans Administration system for patients involved in research studies.
As a human subject, you have the following rights. These rights include, but are not limited to, the subject’s right to be:
• informed of the nature and purpose of the experiment;
• given an explanation of the procedures to be followed in the medical experiment and any drug or device to be used;
• given a description of any attendant discomforts and risks reasonably to be expected;
• given an explanation of any benefits to the subject reasonably to be expected, if applicable;
• given a disclosure of any appropriate alternatives, drugs, or devices that might be advantageous to the subject, their relative risks, and benefits;
• informed of the avenues of medical treatment, if any, available to the subject after the experiment if complications should rise;
• given an opportunity to ask questions concerning the experiment or the procedures involved;
• instructed that consent to participate in the medical experiment may be withdrawn at any time and the subject may discontinue participation without prejudice;
• given a copy of the signed and dated consent form; and
• given the opportunity to decide to consent or not to consent to a medical experiment without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, coercion, or undue influence on the subject’s decision.91
Failure to Obtain Informed Consent
The necessity of informed consent cannot be overemphasized. In Friter v. Iolab Corp.,92 the hospital contracted with the FDA to participate in a clinical study involving the implantation of experimental intraocular lenses. They were so experimental that they had not yet obtained FDA approval; hence, the FDA promulgated regulations requiring the hospital to obtain informed consent, using a very detailed, five-page consent form, setting forth with particularity the possibility of the existence of unknown risks because the lenses were still being tested. The court held in this case that the failure to obtain informed consent is actionable.
Federal regulations require that the nature of experimental drugs and possible adverse consequences must be explained to the patient. Failure to obtain consent for the administration of experimental drugs can give rise to a lawsuit. The district court, in Blanton v. United States,93 held that when a new drug of unknown effectiveness was administered to a patient at a Navy medical center, despite the availability of other drugs of known effectiveness, the hospital violated the accepted medical standards and its duty of due care, so that in the absence of the patient’s consent to the experiment, the United States was liable for the resulting injury.
Duty to Warn
Even if patient consent is obtained, the consent must adequately inform the patient of a treatment’s potential side effects. Approximately 5,000 patients at the Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center, located in Chicago, were treated with X-ray therapy for benign conditions of the head and neck from 1930 to 1960. Among them was Joel Blaz, who received this treatment for infected tonsils and adenoids.
In 1974, Michael Reese set up a thyroid follow-up project to conduct research among those who had been subjected to the X-ray therapy. In 1975, Blaz was notified by mail that he was at increased risk of developing thyroid tumors because of the treatment. In 1976, someone associated with the program gave him similar information by phone and invited him to return to Michael Reese for evaluation and treatment at his own expense, which he declined to do.
Dr. Schneider was put in charge of the program in 1977. In 1979, Dr. Schneider and Michael Reese submitted a research proposal to the National Institutes of Health stating that a study based on the program showed evidence of a connection between X-ray treatments of the sort administered to Blaz and various sorts of tumors, including thyroid and neural. In 1981, Blaz received but did not complete or return a questionnaire attached to a letter from Dr. Schneider in connection with the program. The purpose of the questionnaire was to investigate the long-term health implications of childhood radiation treatments and to determine the possible associated risks. It did not say anything about strong evidence of a connection between the treatments and any tumors. In 1996, after developing neural tumors, Blaz sued Michael Reese’s successor, Galen Hospital, and Dr. Schneider, alleging that they failed to notify and warn him of their findings that he might be at greater risk of neural tumors in a way that might have permitted their earlier detection and removal or other treatment.
The court here found that the harm alleged—neural and other tumors—would here be reasonably foreseeable as a likely consequence of a failure to warn and was, in fact, foreseen by Dr. Schneider. A reasonable physician could foresee that if someone were warned of “strong evidence” of a connection between treatments to which he had been subjected and tumors, he would probably seek diagnosis or treatment to perhaps avoid these tumors; and if he were not warned, he probably would not seek diagnosis or treatment, increasing the likelihood that he would suffer from such tumors.94
Patents Delay Research
The legal system—caught up in the rights of patent holders—has resulted in delayed cures. What happens to the rights of those who would have benefited from the cures? The rights of the few, those who could be viewed as seeing money as the ultimate good, hold the rights of the many hostage—that is, until they need the cure themselves. Ethical concerns seem to be ignored by the courts. The legal system is so ruled by rules that it cannot get out of its own harmful way.
Food and Drug Administration
The FDA, under enormous criticism over the years because of the red tape involved in the approval of new drugs, issued rules to speed up the approval process. The rules permit the use of experimental drugs outside a controlled clinical trial if the drugs are used to treat a life-threatening condition. In Abigail Alliance for Better Access to Developmental Drugs v. Eschenbach,95 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled that terminally ill patients have a “fundamental right” protected by the U.S. Constitution to have access to experimental drugs that have not yet been fully approved by the FDA. The appeals court ruled that once the FDA has determined, after phase I trials, that a potentially lifesaving new drug is sufficiently safe for expanded human trials, terminally ill patients have a constitutional right to seek treatment with the drug if no other FDA-approved drugs are available. The court said that if the FDA wishes to prevent such patients from gaining access to investigational drugs that have completed phase I trials, it bears the burden of demonstrating that its restrictions are “narrowly tailored” to serve a compelling governmental interest.
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Where Are the Cures? How Patent Gridlock Is Blocking the Development of Lifesaving Drugs |
Peter Ringrose, former chief science officer at Bristol-Myers Squibb, told the New York Times that the company would not investigate some 50 proteins that could be cancer-causing, because patent holders would either decline to cooperate or demand big royalties.
—Michael Heller, Forbes, August 11, 2008
Nursing Facilities
The review process of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services includes a review of the rights of any nursing facility residents participating in experimental research. Surveyors will review the records of residents identified as participating in a clinical research study. They will determine whether informed consent forms have been executed properly. The form will be reviewed to determine whether all known risks have been identified. Appropriate questions may be directed to both the staff and residents or the residents’ guardians.
Possible questions to ask staff include:
• Is the facility participating in any experimental research?
• If yes, which residents are involved? (Interview a sample of these residents.)
Residents or guardians may be asked questions such as:
• Are you participating in the study?
• Was this explained to you well enough so that you understand what the study is about and any risks that might be involved?96
Patients participating in research studies should fully understand the implications of their participation. Healthcare organizations involved in research studies should have appropriate protocols in place that protect the rights of patients. Consent forms should describe both the risks and benefits involved in the research activity.
Patient Understood the Risks
Most people understand the risks associated with clinical trials, yet they are willing to take those risks so that those who follow with similar illnesses may benefit from their sacrifice. This takes courage, the foundation of all other virtues. As reported in the following excerpt from the Wall Street Journal, one couple took the risk so others may live.
Three years later, we have just learned of the disease’s progression, but we continue to look forward, remain optimistic, and support those who dedicate their lives for the betterment of those afflicted with these cursed cancers. The reality is that someday, probably sooner than later, my husband will lose the battle with this tenacious enemy, but we are still thankful for the compassionate and learned members of all those who participate in research.97
18.14 HUMAN GENETICS
Human genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. It includes such areas as stem cell research, clinical genetics (e.g., genetic disease markers), and molecular genetics. In 1975, scientists conducted the first successful cloning of a frog; in 1996, cloning was revolutionized when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland, successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly, the first cloned mammal. By 2003, the human genome system became fully sequenced, allowing molecular genetics and medical research to accelerate at an unprecedented rate. The ethical implications of human genome research are as immense as the undertaking of the totality of the research that was conducted to map the human genome system.
The previous article that appeared in The New York Times sounds discouraging, but human genetics is still a promising area of medical research. Inevitably, there will be ethical issues that will become manifest in these new areas. We have already had a preview of this in the controversy regarding the use of fetal stem cells versus adult stem cells for research and therapy. The ethics of modern science is a challenging and evolving area, but it is nothing new. In ancient China, for instance, physician Sun Simiao (580–682 AD) had a difficult medical ethical dilemma. In his book Qianjinfang (Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold), he is credited with formulating the first ethical basis for the practice of medicine in China. The ethical conundrum he faced was the clash between Confucian and Buddhist ethics. The relatively new religion of Buddhism had taboos against using any animal-derived product for the treatment of disease, as this violated the principle of respect for all life. The more ancient Confucian idea of compassion and kindness could be interpreted to overrule this, however. Sun Simiao dealt with this conflict by prohibiting a “standard physician” from using any medication derived from an animal source. He then included many prescriptions in his book that did have animal-sourced remedies. In other words, he seems to have artfully navigated an ethical grey zone between the two philosophies but with less than a clear distinction between right and wrong. In modern times, we are still faced with continuing and evolving issues of ethics in the practice of medicine.98
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A Decade Later, Gene Map Yields Few New Cures |
Ten years after President Bill Clinton announced that the first draft of the human genome was complete, medicine has yet to see any large part of the promised benefits.
—Nicholas Wade, The New York Times, June 12, 2010
Genetic Markers
Genetic markers are genes or DNA sequences with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify specific cells and diseases, as well as individuals and species. They are often used to study the relationship between an inherited disease and its genetic cause in order to determine an individual’s predisposition/proclivity to a specific disease. Genetic markers show observable information in DNA sequence variation, which may arise as a result of mutation of a specific gene. There are companies that will evaluate a person’s DNA for these markers and provide a person with a report of his or her potential health risks. Health insurers, life insurers, employers, and others could potentially use this information to determine one’s insurance premiums and even one’s job future and so forth; the potential use (and misuse) of this information means that ethical issues will arise. For instance, suppose a woman has a family history of breast cancer and has a genetic marker for it, but she is young (e.g., 30 years old) and free of any evidence of cancer. If a physician recommends prophylactic mastectomies or if the patient wants prophylactic mastectomies, should this be covered by insurance?
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008
President Bush signed into law the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) on May 21, 2008, which resulted largely from the efforts of Senator Ted Kennedy. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of genetic information with respect to the availability of health insurance and employment. GINA prohibits group health plans and insurers from denying coverage to a healthy individual or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a genetic predisposition to developing a specific disease (e.g., cancer or heart disease) at some future time. GINA also prohibits employers from using an individual’s genetic information when making hiring, firing, job placement, or promotion decisions.
The relatively recent mapping of the human genome and the likelihood of increasing clinical application of advances in genetic disease markers make this an issue of potential increasing importance in the practice of medicine. Most of the states also have legislation that addresses this issue. Unfortunately, however, there remains no federal legislation that protects the individual from discrimination in the availability of life insurance, disability insurance coverage, or long-term care insurance. Because of this loophole, patients and their doctors need to consider the potential downside of ordering prognostic genetic tests.
18.15 STEM CELL RESEARCH
Stem cell research involves the use of embryonic stem cells to create organs and various body tissues. It continues to be a highly controversial issue, generally involving religious beliefs and fears as to how far scientists might go in their attempt to create, for example, another human being. After all, a sheep named Dolly was already cloned and born in 1996, and who knows what goes on behind the doors of research, which are closed to the outside world.
The search for a cure for cancer, autoimmune diseases, heart disease, and so on is often slowed by political, religious, and personal beliefs and conflicts. The moral issues surrounding embryonic stem cell research, for example, slowed the wheels of progress for many years.
Opponents of stem cell research argue that this practice is a slippery slope to reproductive cloning and fundamentally devalues the worth of a human being. Contrarily, some medical researchers in the field argue that it is necessary to pursue embryonic stem cell research because the resultant technologies could have significant medical potential and that excess embryos created for in vitro fertilization could be donated with consent and used for the research. This, in turn, conflicts with opponents in the pro-life movement, who advocate for the protection of human embryos. The ensuing debate has prompted authorities around the world to seek regulatory frameworks and highlighted the fact that embryonic stem cell research represents a social and ethical challenge that includes concern to the natural order of the ecosystem and, ultimately, the survival of the human race.
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Obama Reversing Stem Cell Limits Imposed by Bush |
“By removing politics from science,” said Peter T. Wilderotter, the organization’s [Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation] president and chief executive, “President Obama has freed researchers to explore these remarkable stem cells, learn from them and possibly develop effective therapies using them.”
—David Stout, The New York Times, March 6, 2009
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. The right of self-determination provides that every human being of adult years and sound mind has the right to determine what shall be done with his or her own body.
2. When there is uncertainty regarding a patient’s wishes in an emergency situation, the dilemma should be resolved in a way that favors the preservation of life.
3. According to the Patient Self-Determination Act of 1990, healthcare organizations have a responsibility to explain to patients, staff, and families that patients have legal rights to direct their medical and nursing care as it corresponds to existing state law.
4. The Harvard Ad Hoc Committee on Brain Death published a report in 1968 describing the characteristics of a permanently nonfunctioning brain.
5. Futility of treatment occurs when a physician recognizes that the effect of continuing treatment will be of no benefit to the patient.
• Morally, there is a duty to inform the patient when there is little likelihood of success.
• The determination as to the futility of medical care is a scientific decision.
6. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure performed on individuals who experience a cardiac arrest.
7. Do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders are those prescribed by a physician indicating that, in the event of a cardiac or respiratory arrest, no resuscitative measures should be used to revive the patient.
8. Withholding and withdrawal of treatment:
• Withholding of treatment is a decision not to initiate treatment or medical intervention for the patient.
• Withdrawal of treatment is a decision to discontinue treatment or medical interventions for the patient.
9. Euthanasia is the mercy killing of the hopelessly ill, injured, or incapacitated. Euthanasia is complex, and the legal system must maintain a balance between ensuring that the patient’s constitutional rights are protected while protecting public interests in preserving life, preventing suicide, and maintaining the integrity of the medical profession.
• Active euthanasia is the intentional commission of an act that will result in death.
• Passive euthanasia involves the withdrawal or withholding of life saving treatment.
• Voluntary euthanasia occurs when the suffering, incurable patient makes the decision to die.
• Involuntary euthanasia occurs when a person other than the incurable person makes the decision to terminate the life of an incurable person.
10. Assisted suicide:
• The Oregon Death with Dignity Act was the first statute allowing terminally ill Oregon residents to obtain prescriptions from their physicians for self-administered, lethal medications.
• Washington and Vermont now have similar statutes.
11. Advance directives for health care are instructions given by individuals specifying what actions should be taken for their health in the event that they become no longer able to make healthcare decisions.
• A living will is the instrument or legal document that describes those treatments an individual wishes or does not wish to receive should he or she become incapacitated and unable to communicate treatment decisions.
• A living will provides specific instructions as to a patient’s wishes, such as a desire not to be maintained on a respirator.
• A healthcare proxy is a legal document that allows a person to appoint a healthcare agent to make treatment decisions in the event he or she becomes incapacitated and is unable to make decisions for him or herself.
• A durable power of attorney is a legal device that permits one individual, known as the principal, to give to another person, called the attorney-in-fact, the authority to act on his or her behalf.
• A surrogate decision maker is an agent who acts on behalf of a patient who lacks the capacity to participate in a particular decision.
• Guardianship is a legal mechanism by which the court declares a person incompetent and appoints a guardian.
12. Autopsies are postmortem examinations conducted to ascertain the cause of death. Most states have enacted autopsy consent statutes that establish an order to obtain consent to autopsy based on the degree of family relationship.
13. Organ donations
• Federal regulations require that hospitals have and implement written protocols regarding the organization’s responsibilities.
• The Uniform Anatomical Gift Act allows a person to make a decision to donate organs at the time of death. 14. Research, experimentation, and clinical trials
• In most states, a combination of federal and state guidelines and regulations ensures the proper supervision and control over research and experimentation involving human subjects.
• An institutional review board is responsible for reviewing, monitoring, and approving clinical investigations of drugs and medical devices that involve human subjects. Written consent must be obtained from patients participating in clinical investigations.
15. Human genetics describes the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. It includes such areas as stem cell research, clinical genetics (e.g., genetic disease markers), and molecular genetics.
• Genetic markers are genes or DNA sequences with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify specific cells and diseases, as well as individuals and species.
• The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 prohibits discrimination based on genetic information with respect to the availability of health insurance and employment.
• Stem cell research involves the use of embryonic stem cells to create organs and various body tissues.