Patient Charting
15
Medical Records
© Condor 36/Shutterstock
Learning Objectives
The reader, upon completion of this chapter, will be able to:
• Describe the contents of medical records.
• Explain the importance of maintaining complete and accurate records.
• Explain the ownership of and who can access a patient’s medical record.
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of electronic medical records.
• Describe why the medical record is important in legal proceedings.
• Describe a variety of ways in which medical records have been falsified.
• Explain what is meant by the medical record battleground.
Healthcare organizations are required to maintain a medical record for each patient in accordance with accepted professional standards and practices. The effective and efficient delivery of patient care requires that an organization determine its information needs. Organizations that do not centralize their information needs will often suffer scattered databases, which may result in such problems as duplication of data gathering, inconsistent reports, and inefficiencies in the use of economic resources.
The medical record is the principal means of communication among healthcare professionals in matters relating to patient care. Medical records provide pertinent information regarding the daily care and treatment of each patient; document each patient’s illness, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment; serve as a planning tool for patient care; protect the legal interests of patients, caregivers, and healthcare organizations; provide a database for use in statistical reporting, continuing education, and research; and provide information necessary for third-party billing. Records must be complete, accurate, current, readily accessible, and systematically organized.
|
|
It’s Your Gavel… |
RELEASE OF CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
Sanfiel, a psychiatric nurse, had his professional license suspended for 5 years after he intentionally disclosed confidential patient information to the news media. Sanfiel testified that he knew the information he possessed was confidential and that he understood the danger in disclosing psychiatric records to unauthorized persons. He also knew that a nurse could be disciplined for disclosing such information, yet he intentionally released information to the news media. The state board of nursing suspended Sanfiel’s nursing license and placed him on probation for 5 years for disclosing confidential patient information. The question arises: Was the state board of nursing authorized to suspend Sanfiel’s license because of his disclosure of information to the news media?
WHAT IS YOUR VERDICT?
Licensure rules and regulations contained in federal and state statutes often describe the requirements and standards for the maintenance, handling, signing, filing, and retention of medical records. Failure to maintain a complete and accurate medical record reflecting the treatment rendered may affect the ability of an organization and/or physician to obtain third-party reimbursement (e.g., from Medicare, Medicaid, or private insurance carriers). Under federal and state laws, the medical record must reflect accurately the treatment for which the organization or physician seeks payment. Thus, the medical record is important to the organization for medical, legal, and financial reasons. This chapter reviews several topics relating to the medical record.
15.1 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
All organizations, regardless of mission or size, develop and maintain information management systems, which often include financial, medical, and human resource data. Information management is a process intended to facilitate the flow of information within and between departments and caregivers. An information management plan must address the information necessary in the care of each patient; process information in a logical manner to allow for quality patient care; address third-party payer needs; set goals and establish priorities; improve accuracy of data collection and medical record entries; provide uniformity of data collection and definitions; limit duplication of entries; deliver timely and accurate information; provide easy access to information; improve the security and confidentiality of information; improve collaboration across disciplines and the organization through information sharing; establish disaster plans for the recovery of information; orient and train staff on the information management system; and conduct an annual review of the plan that addresses the scope, organization, objectives, and effectiveness of the information management plan.
15.2 MEDICAL RECORD CONTENTS
Because the medical record fulfills many crucial roles within a healthcare organization, practitioners must strive to maintain the integrity and accuracy of records. The inpatient medical record includes, for example, the admission record, which describes pertinent demographic information; consent and authorization for treatment forms; advance directives; history and physical examination, including a preliminary/working diagnosis and findings that support the diagnosis; patient screenings and assessments (e.g., nursing, functional, nutritional, social, and discharge planning); treatment plans; physicians’ orders; progress notes; nursing notes; diagnostic reports; consultation reports; vital signs charts; anesthesia assessments; operative reports; medication administration records; discharge planning documentation; patient education; and discharge summaries.
15.3 DOCUMENTATION OF CARE
The importance of maintaining records of treatment rendered to a patient must not be underestimated. It may be many years after a patient has been treated before litigation is initiated; therefore, it is imperative that patient records of treatment in the physician’s office, as well as in the healthcare facility, be maintained. A jury could consider lack of documentation as sufficient evidence for finding a physician guilty of negligence.
Record Entries Accuracy
Medical record entries must be accurate. Such was not the case in Tulier-Pastewski v. State Board for Professional Medical Conduct,1 where two hospital administrators testified and showed undisputed proof that the physician had recorded a patient was alert during the purported examination when the patient was actually sedated and asleep. Evidence also indicated that the physician failed to properly document medical histories and current physical status. Although the physician asserted that evidence of failure to document did not support the findings of negligence because there was no expert testimony that her omissions actually caused or created a risk of harm to a patient, an expert witness testified that the missing information as to certain patients was needed for proper assessment of the patient’s condition and choice of treatment. This testimony, together with the importance of cardiac information when treating patients with chest pain, provided a rational basis for the conclusion by the administrative review board for professional medical conduct that the physician’s deficient medical recordkeeping could have affected patient care. The physician was found to be practicing medicine negligently on more than one occasion.
Nurse’s Charting
Nurses tend to access medical records more often than any other healthcare professional, simply because of the amount of time they spend delivering care to the patient. Because of the job description, the nurse monitors the patient’s illness, response to medication, display of pain and discomfort, and general condition. The patient’s care, as well as the nurse’s observations, should be recorded on a regular basis. The nurse should comply promptly and accurately with the physician orders written in the record. A nurse who has doubt as to the appropriateness of a particular order should verify with the prescribing physician the intent of the prescribed order.
Documentation and Reimbursement
When charting, professionals should be familiar with diagnosis-related groups (DRGs). DRGs refer to a methodology developed by professors at Yale University for classifying patients in categories according to age, diagnosis, and treatment resource requirements. It is the basis for the prospective payment system, contained in the 1983 Social Security Amendments for reimbursing inpatient hospital costs for Medicare beneficiaries. The key source of information for determining the course of treatment of each patient and the proper DRG assignment is the medical record. Reimbursement is based on preestablished average prices for each DRG. As a result of this reimbursement methodology, poor recordkeeping can precipitate financial disaster for a hospital. The potential financial savings for Medicare are substantial. Under this system of payment, if hospitals can provide quality patient care at a cost lower than the price established for a DRG, they keep the excess dollars paid. This is an incentive for hospitals to keep costs under control. There is, however, a continuing fear that patients may, to their detriment, be discharged too early for financial reasons. This, in turn, leads to costly malpractice suits.
Charting by Exception
Some healthcare professionals institute a practice of charting by exception. On April 9, 1986, Borras, in Lama v. Borras,2 while operating on Mr. Lama, discovered that the patient had an extruded disc and attempted to remove the extruded material. Either because Borras failed to remove the offending material or because he operated at the wrong level, the patient’s original symptoms returned several days after the operation.
On May 15, Borras operated again but did not order preoperative or postoperative antibiotics. On May 17, a nurse’s note indicated that the bandage covering the patient’s surgical wound was extremely bloody, which, according to expert testimony, indicates the possibility of infection. On May 18, the patient was experiencing local pain at the site of the incision, another symptom consistent with an infection. On May 19, the bandage was soiled again. A more complete account of the patient’s evolving condition was not available because the hospital instructed nurses to engage in charting by exception, a system whereby nurses did not record qualitative observations for each of the day’s three shifts, but instead made such notes only when necessary to chronicle significant changes in a patient’s condition.
On May 21, Dr. Piazza, an attending physician, diagnosed the patient’s problem as discitis—an infection of the space between discs—and responded by prescribing antibiotic treatment. Lama was hospitalized for several additional months while undergoing treatment for the infection.
After moving from Puerto Rico to Florida, Lama filed a tort action in the U.S. District Court for the district of Puerto Rico. Although the plaintiff did not claim that the hospital was vicariously liable for any negligence on the part of Borras, he alleged that the hospital failed to prepare, use, and monitor proper medical records.
The jury returned a verdict awarding the plaintiff $600,000 in compensatory damages. The district court ruled that the evidence was legally sufficient to support the jury’s findings, and an appeal was taken.
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit upheld the decision of negligence based on the charting-by-exception policy, but the jury had to decide whether the violation of the regulation was a proximate cause of harm to Lama. Before deciding the case, the jury considered several important factors. For example, the jury may have inferred from evidence that, as part of the practice of charting by exception, the nurses did not regularly record certain information important to the diagnosis of an infection, such as the changing characteristics of the surgical wound and the patient’s complaints of postoperative pain. Further, because there was evidence that the patient’s hospital records described possible signs of infection that deserved further investigation (e.g., an excessively bloody bandage and local pain at the site of the wound), the jury could have reasonably inferred that the intermittent charting failed to provide the sort of continuous danger signals that would most likely spur early intervention by the physician.
Failure to Maintain Records
Failure to maintain patient records may occur when a healthcare professional is busy, overwhelmed, or preoccupied. In Braick v. New York State Department of Health,3 a physician was under review by a hearing committee of the New York State Review Board for Professional Medical Conduct. The committee reviewed 122 specifications of misconduct, which included gross negligence, failure to adequately maintain patient records, and failure to obtain informed consent. The committee revoked the physician-petitioner’s license. In reaching its decision, the committee found the bureau of professional medical conduct’s expert credible, including his opinion that the physician was ultimately responsible for what happened to his patients during the relevant surgeries, and the committee rejected the efforts of the physician and his expert to shift responsibility to nurses.
The petitioner appealed to the administrative review board for professional medical conduct, which affirmed the committee’s determination and penalty. An appeals court found the physician’s license had been properly revoked.
Medical Record Battleground
The contents of a medical record must not be tampered with after an entry has been made; therefore, the record should be used wisely. The record should be complete and accurate, as its purpose is to record the patient’s course of care, not be used as an instrument for registering complaints about another individual or the organization. Those individuals who choose to make derogatory remarks in a patient’s record about others might find themselves in a courtroom trying to defend such notations in the record. Inappropriate comments written during a time of anger may have been based on inaccurate information, which, in turn, could be damaging to one’s credibility and future statements.
15.4 PRIVACY ACT OF 1974
The Privacy Act of 1974, codified at 5 U.S.C. 552, was enacted to safeguard individual privacy from the misuse of federal records, to give individuals access to records concerning themselves that are maintained by federal agencies, and to establish a Privacy Protection Safety Commission. Section 2 of the Privacy Act reads as follows:
|
|
Hospital Workers Punished for Peeking at Clooney File |
George Clooney and his companion got top billing when they were treated at a New Jersey hospital after a motorcycle accident last month. But while some nurses clamored to see the celebrity patients, other staff members were busy prying into the couple’s medical records, hospital officials said yesterday.
That curiosity proved to be costly. After an internal investigation, the hospital, Palisades Medical Center in North Bergen, has suspended 27 employees for a month without pay for violating a federal law on patient confidentiality.
—Bruce Lambert and Nate Schweber, The New York Times, October 10, 2007
[a] The Congress finds that (1) the privacy of an individual is directly affected by the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personal information by Federal agencies; (2) the increasing use of computers and sophisticated information technology, while essential to the efficient operations of the Government, has greatly magnified the harm to individual privacy that can occur from any collection, maintenance, use, or dissemination of personal information; (3) the opportunities for an individual to secure employment, insurance, and credit, and his right to due process, and other legal protections are endangered by the misuse of certain information systems; (4) the right to privacy is a personal and fundamental right protected by the Constitution of the United States; and (5) in order to protect the privacy of individuals identified in information systems maintained by Federal agencies, it is necessary and proper for the Congress to regulate the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of information by such agencies. [b] The purpose of this Act is to provide certain safeguards for an individual against an invasion of personal privacy by requiring Federal agencies, except as otherwise provided by law, to (1) permit an individual to determine what records pertaining to him are collected, maintained, used, or disseminated by such agencies; (2) permit an individual to prevent records pertaining to him obtained by such agencies for a particular purpose from being used or made available for another purpose without his consent; (3) permit an individual to gain access to information pertaining to him in Federal agency records, to have a copy made of all or any portion thereof, and to correct or amend such records; (4) collect, maintain, use, or disseminate any record of identifiable personal information in a manner that assures that such action is for a necessary and lawful purpose, that the information is current and accurate for its intended use, and that adequate safeguards are provided to prevent misuse of such information.
15.5 HEALTH INSURANCE PORTABILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY ACT
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) (Public Law 104-191) was enacted by Congress to protect the privacy, confidentiality, and security of patient information. According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Title I of HIPAA protects health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. Title II of HIPAA, the administrative simplification (AS) provisions, requires the establishment of national standards for electronic healthcare transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. The AS provisions also address the security and privacy of health information. The standards are meant to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation’s healthcare system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in health care.
HIPAA standards are applicable to all health information in all of its formats (e.g., electronic, paper, verbal). It applies to both electronically maintained and transmitted information. HIPAA privacy standards include restrictions on access to individually identifiable health information and the use and disclosure of that information, as well as requirements for administrative activities such as training, compliance, and enforcement of HIPAA mandates.
Privacy Provisions
The HIPAA privacy provisions took effect on April 14, 2003. Key privacy provisions include the following:
• Patients must be able to access their record and request correction of errors.
• Patients must be informed of how their personal information will be used.
• Patient information cannot be used for marketing purposes without the explicit consent of the involved patients.
• Patients can ask their health insurers and providers to take reasonable steps to ensure that their communications with the patient are confidential. For instance, a patient can ask to be called at his or her work number, instead of home or cell phone number.
• Patients can file formal privacy-related complaints to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights.
• Health insurers or providers must document their privacy procedures, but they have discretion on what to include in their privacy procedure.
• Health insurers or providers must designate a privacy officer and train their employees.
• Providers may use patient information without patient consent for the purposes of providing treatment, obtaining payment for services, and performing the nontreatment operational tasks of the provider’s business.
Security Provisions
The HIPAA security provisions took effect April 20, 2005. The security provision complements the privacy provision. HIPAA defines three segments of security safeguards for compliance: administrative, physical, and technical. Key provisions are as follows.
Administrative Safeguards
• Policies and procedures must be designed to clearly show how the entity will comply with the act.
• Entities that must comply with HIPAA requirements must adopt a written set of privacy procedures and designate a privacy officer to be responsible for developing and implementing all required policies and procedures.
• Policies and procedures must reference management oversight and organizational buy-in to comply with the documented security controls.
• Procedures should clearly identify employees or classes of employees who will have access to protected health information (PHI).
• Access to PHI in all forms must be restricted to only those employees who have a need for it to complete their job function.
• Procedures must address access authorization, establishment, modification, and termination.
• Entities must show that an appropriate ongoing training program regarding the handling of PHI is provided to employees performing health plan administrative functions.
• Covered entities that outsource some of their business processes to a third party must ensure that their vendors also have a framework in place to comply with HIPAA requirements.
• Care must be taken to determine if the vendor further outsources any data-handling functions to other vendors, while monitoring whether appropriate contracts and controls are in place.
• A contingency plan should be in place for responding to emergencies.
• Covered entities are responsible for backing up their data and having disaster recovery procedures in place.
• The recovery plan should document data priority and failure analysis, testing activities, and change control procedures.
• Internal audits play a key role in HIPAA compliance by reviewing operations, with the goal of identifying potential security violations.
• Policies and procedures should specifically document the scope, frequency, and procedures of audits.
• Audits should be both routine and event-based.
• Procedures should document instructions for addressing and responding to security breaches that are identified either during the audit or the normal course of operations.
Physical Safeguards
• Responsibility for security must be assigned to a specific person or department.
• Controls must govern the introduction and removal of hardware and software from the network.
• When equipment is retired, it must be disposed of properly to ensure that PHI is not compromised.
• Access to equipment containing health information should be carefully controlled and monitored.
• Access to hardware and software must be limited to properly authorized individuals.
• Required access controls consist of facility security plans, maintenance records, and visitor sign-in and escorts.
• Policies are required to address proper workstation use.
• Workstations should be removed from high-traffic areas, and monitor screens should not be in direct view of the public.
• If the covered entities use contractors or agents, they too must be fully trained on their physical access responsibilities.
Technical Safeguards
• Information systems housing PHI must be protected from intrusion.
• When information flows over open networks, some form of encryption must be used.
• If closed systems/networks are used, existing access controls are considered sufficient, and encryption is optional.
• Each covered entity is responsible for ensuring that the data within its systems have not been changed or erased in an unauthorized manner.
• Data corroboration, including the use of check sum, double-keying, message authentication, and digital signature, may be used to ensure data integrity.
• Covered entities must also authenticate entities with which it communicates.
• Authentication consists of corroborating that an entity is who it claims to be.
• Covered entities must make documentation of their HIPAA practices available to the government to determine compliance.
• Information technology documentation should also include a written record of all configuration settings on the components of the network because these components are complex, configurable, and always changing.
• Documented risk analysis and risk management programs are required.
Patient Objects to Record Notations
As noted in Dodds v. Johnstone,4 during a physical exam conducted on October 30, 2000, the appellee indicated in her progress notes that she believed the appellant had been using cocaine prior to her last office visit. Appellee’s notes read: “I believe by physical exam the patient was using cocaine on Friday before her office visit.” The appellant filed a complaint in which she alleged that the appellee was negligent in her diagnosis of the appellant and that, as a result, she incurred a loss of compensation for her automobile accident claim and suffered severe emotional distress. The court reviewed the record of proceedings before the trial court and found that there was no genuine issue of material fact as to negligent infliction of severe emotional distress, loss of employment opportunities, or a decreased insurance settlement as a result of the notation in the patient’s medical records.
15.6 OWNERSHIP AND RELEASE OF MEDICAL RECORDS
Healthcare providers who handle medical records must fully understand the related issues of ownership and privacy. Medical records are the property of the provider of care and are maintained for the benefit of the patient. Ownership resides with the organization or professional rendering treatment. Although medical records typically have been protected from public scrutiny by a general practice of nondisclosure, this practice has been waived under a limited number of specifically controlled situations. Both applicable law and the courts recognize that individuals have a right to privacy and to be protected from the mass dissemination of information pertaining to their personal or private affairs. The right of privacy generally includes the right to be kept out of the public spotlight. The Privacy Act of 1974 was enacted to safeguard individual privacy from the misuse of federal records and to give individuals access to records concerning themselves that are maintained by federal agencies.
Requests by Patients
Patients have a legally enforceable interest in the information contained in their medical records and, therefore, have a right to access their records. Patients may have access to review and obtain copies of their records, X-rays, and laboratory and diagnostic tests. Access to information includes that maintained or possessed by a healthcare organization or a healthcare practitioner who has treated or is treating a patient. Organizations and physicians can withhold records if the information could reasonably be expected to cause substantial and identifiable harm to the patient (e.g., patients in psychiatric hospitals, institutions for the mentally disabled, or alcohol and drug treatment programs).
Changes to HIPAA released by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (HHS) 45 CFR Parts 160 and 164 adopt rules on individuals’ right of access to protected health information that include, in part, the following:
• Expand individuals’ rights to receive electronic copies of their health information and to restrict disclosures to a health plan concerning treatment for which the individual has paid out of pocket in full.
• Require modifications to, and redistribution of, a covered entity’s notice of privacy practices.5
Failure to Release Patient Records
Failure to release a patient’s record can lead to legal action. The patient, for example, in Pierce v. Penman 6 brought a lawsuit seeking damages for severe emotional distress when physicians repeatedly refused to turn over her medical records. The defendants had rendered different professional services to the plaintiff for approximately 11 years. The patient moved and found a new physician, Dr. Hochman. She signed a release authorizing Hochman to obtain her records from the defendant physicians. Hochman wrote a letter for her records but never received a response. The defendants claimed that they never received the request. The patient changed physicians again and continued in her efforts to obtain a copy of the records. Eventually, the defendants’ offices were burglarized, and the plaintiff’s records were allegedly taken. The detective in charge of investigating the burglary stated that he was never notified that any records were taken. The court of common pleas awarded the patient $2,500 in compensatory damages and $10,000 in punitive damages. On appeal, the superior court upheld the award.
Requests by Third Parties
The medical record is a peculiar type of property because of the wide variety of third-party interests in the information contained in medical records. Healthcare organizations may not generally disclose information without patient consent. Policies regarding the release of information should be formulated to address the rights of third parties, such as insurance carriers processing claims, physicians, medical researchers, educators, and governmental agencies. Several cases are listed here where the right to privacy is nullified due to, for example, criminal investigations, Medicaid fraud, and substance abuse.
Criminal Investigation
The psychotherapist–patient privilege that exists under the federal rules of evidence can be overcome if the need for a psychiatric history outweighs a privacy interest. In In re Brink,7 the hospital sought to quash a grand jury request for the medical records pertaining to blood tests administered to a person under investigation. The court of common pleas held that physician–patient privilege did not extend to medical records subpoenaed pursuant to a grand jury investigation. A proceeding before a grand jury is considered secret in nature, inherently preserving the confidentiality of patient records.
Medicaid Fraud
Patient records may be obtained during investigations into such alleged criminal actions as Medicaid fraud. The defendant physician, Dr. Edwin Ekong, in the People v. Ekong,8 was held in contempt of court for failing to comply with a subpoena duces tecum that was issued by a grand jury for Medicaid patient records in his possession. The physician contended that he could not release the files because of physician–patient privilege. The Appellate Court of Illinois, Third District disagreed, holding that the grand jury was permitted to obtain the patient files and records that were in his possession because he was under investigation for Medicaid fraud.
Substance Abuse Records
The federal Drug Abuse and Treatment Act of 19729 and federal regulations provide that patient records relating to drug and alcohol abuse treatment must be held confidential and not disclosed except in specific circumstances. Unlike other medical records, drug and alcohol abuse records cannot be released until the court has determined whether a claimed need for the records outweighs the potential injury to the patient, patient–physician relationship, and treatment services being rendered. Because of these strict requirements, the courts have been reluctant to order the release of such records unless absolutely necessary.
15.7 FAILURE TO USE PATIENT DATA GATHERED
Caregivers are responsible for assuring that the information critical to a patient’s care is readily available to all caregivers in the opening pages of the record. Provider mistakes often occur because of the unwieldy, unorganized, and voluminous amount of information gathered on patients. Caregivers who fail to use the information collected when assessing patient needs may find themselves in a lawsuit. Take, for example, the patient who advised her physician that she was allergic to latex. Hospital staff, failing to take note of the allergy, inserted a latex catheter into the patient. As a result, the patient developed interstitial cystitis. Expert testimony was sufficient to establish to a reasonable degree of medical certainty that the catheter “caused” the patient’s chronic bladder disorder.10
Failure to Read Nursing Notes
A physician can breach his or her duty of care by failing to read nursing notes. In Todd v. Sauls,11 Mr. Todd was admitted to Rapides General Hospital on October 3, 1988, and the following day, Dr. Sauls performed bypass surgery. Postoperatively, Todd sustained a heart attack. During the following days, Todd did not ambulate well and suffered a weight loss of 19.5 pounds.
On October 17, the medical record indicated that Todd’s sternotomy wound and the mid-lower left leg incision were reddened and his temperature was 99.6°F. Sauls did not commonly read the nurses’ notes, instead preferring to rely on his own observations of the patient. In his October 18 notes, he indicated that there was no drainage. The nurses’ notes, however, show that there was drainage at the chest tube site. Contrary to the medical records showing that Todd had a temperature of 101.2°F, Sauls noted that the patient was afebrile.
On October 19, Sauls noted that Todd’s wounds were improving and he did not have a fever. The nurses’ notes indicated otherwise, with redness at the surgical wounds and a temperature of 100°F. No white blood cell count had been ordered. Again on October 20, the nurses’ notes indicated wound redness and a temperature of 100.8°F. No wound culture had yet been ordered. Dr. Kamil, one of Todd’s treating physicians, noted that Todd’s nutritional status needed to be seriously confronted and suggested that Sauls consider supplemental feeding. Despite this, no follow-up to his recommendation appears, and the record is void of any action by Dr. Sauls to obtain a nutritional consult.
Todd was transferred to the intensive care unit on October 21 because he was gravely ill with profoundly depressed ventricular function. The nurses’ notes for the following day describe the chest tube site as draining foul-smelling, bloody purulence. The patient’s temperature was recorded to have reached 100.6°F. This is the first time that Sauls had the test tube site cultured. On October 23, the culture report from the laboratory indicated a staph infection, and Todd was started on antibiotics for treatment of the infection.
On October 25, at the request of family, Todd was transferred to St. Luke’s Hospital. At St. Luke’s, Dr. Leatherman, an internist and invasive cardiologist, treated Todd. Dr. Zeluff, an infectious disease specialist, examined Todd’s surgical wounds and prescribed antibiotic treatment. Upon admission to St. Luke’s, every one of Todd’s surgical wounds was infected. Despite the care given at St. Luke’s, Todd died on November 2, 1988. The family brought a malpractice suit against the surgeon. The district court entered judgment on a jury verdict for the defendant, and the plaintiff appealed claiming the surgeon breached his duty of care owed to the patient by failing to (1) aggressively treat the surgical wound infections; (2) read the nurses’ observations of infections; and (3) provide adequate nourishment, allowing the patient’s body weight to rapidly waste away.
The Louisiana Court of Appeal held that Sauls committed medical malpractice when he breached the standard of care he owed to Todd. He was effectively ineligible for a heart transplantation, which was his only chance of survival because of the infections and malnourishment caused by Sauls’s malpractice. Sauls’s testimony convinced the court that he failed to aggressively treat the surgical wound infections, that he chose not to take advantage of the nurses’ observations of infection, and that he allowed Todd’s body weight to waste away, knowing that extreme vigilance was required because of Todd’s already severely impaired heart. Sauls’s medical malpractice exacerbated an already critical condition and deprived Mr. Todd of a chance of survival. An impaired nutritional status depresses the body’s immune system and adversely affects the body’s ability to heal wounds. Sauls had a responsibility to make certain that Todd received adequate calories and proteins.
15.8 RETENTION OF RECORDS
Retaining a patient’s medical records for long periods of time may seem unwieldy, but computers make the task practical, while also increasing efficiency for many other information management processes. The length of time medical records must be retained varies from state to state. A California court, for example, revoked the license of a nursing facility for failure to keep adequate records. In Yankee v. State Department of Health,12 the facility claimed that the word adequate was unclear and therefore the requirement was invalid. The court stated that the word adequate is not so uncertain as to render a penal statute invalid. Healthcare organizations, with the advice of an attorney, should determine how long records should be maintained, taking into account patient needs, statutory requirements, future need for such records, and the legal considerations of having the records available in the event of a lawsuit.
Failure to Preserve X-rays
The plaintiff in Rodgers v. St. Mary’s Hosp. of Decatur 13 filed a complaint for damages against a hospital, alleging that the hospital breached its statutory duty to preserve for 5 years all of the X-rays taken of his wife. He alleged that the hospital’s failure to preserve the X-ray was a breach of its duty arising from the state’s X-ray retention act and from the hospital’s internal regulations. The plaintiff asserted that because the hospital failed to preserve the X-ray, he was unable to prove his case in a lawsuit. The circuit court entered judgment in favor of the hospital, and the plaintiff appealed.
The Illinois Supreme Court held that a private cause of action existed under the X-ray retention act and that the plaintiff stated a claim under the act. The act provides that hospitals must retain X-rays and other such photographs or films for a period of 5 years. The hospital also argued that the loss of one X-ray out of a series of six should not be considered a violation of the statute. The court disagreed, finding the statute requires all X-rays be preserved, not just some of them.
15.9 ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORDS
To significantly reduce the tens of thousands of deaths and injuries caused by medical errors every year, health care organizations must adopt information technology systems that are capable of collecting and sharing essential health information on patients and their care, says a new report by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. These systems should operate seamlessly as part of a national network of health information that is accessible by all health care organizations and that includes electronic records of patients’ care, secure platforms for the exchange of information among providers and patients, and data standards that will make health information uniform and understandable to all, said the committee that wrote the report.14
The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) is designed to promote the widespread adoption and interoperability of health information technology. HITECH was enacted under Title XIII of the American Recovery and Investment Act of 2009 (Public Law 111-5). Under the act, the Department of Health and Human Services is promoting the expansion and adoption of health information technology through program funding. For more detailed information see the HHS website at http://www.healthit.gov.
Healthcare organizations undergoing computerization must determine user needs, design an effective system, select appropriate hardware and software, develop user training programs, develop a disaster recovery plan (e.g., provide for emergency power systems and back up files), and provide for data security. A reliable electronic information system requires knowledge-based planning and design. Solid planning and design can lead to improved patient care.
Advantages
Computers have become an economic necessity and play an important role in the delivery of health care by assisting healthcare providers in improving the quality of care. Electronic medical records provide timely access to patient information that includes demographics, problems lists, history and physical exams, vital signs, diagnostic test results (e.g., laboratory and radiology), and consultant reports. Other of the many advantages of electronic records include order entries for medications and diagnostic tests, generation of critical alerts (e.g., out-of-range test values and drug–drug and food–drug interactions), computer-assisted diagnosis and treatment, generation of reminders for follow-up testing, assistance in standardizing treatment protocols, improving the ability to timely share information with treating providers, improved productivity and quality, reduced charting costs, support for clinical education and research, generation and transmission of electronic prescriptions, and indefinite storage of medical records.
Large medical centers are generating more than 100,000 orders a week. At the Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston, laboratory and pharmacy results, pulmonary function, electroencephalography, and many other results-generating areas are based around the system. A strong aspect of the order-entry capability is its use of medical logic and medical expertise technology. The system flags cases where there have been duplicate physician orders and signals an allergy alert resulting in an order cancellation.15 Clearly, computers offer many advantages to today’s health care.
Disadvantages
Computers may be an economic necessity, but they are not perfect and have thus far proven to be costly investments. Computerization increases the risk of lost confidentiality and unauthorized disclosure of information. The rapid growth of the Internet has led to an explosion of technology crime and related illegal activities. Increases in cyber crime have led to a need for high-end technology products and services to combat these problems. Billions of dollars are spent annually to protect networks and critical infrastructures from cyber-based threats.
Although the number of healthcare organizations installing electronic medical records systems is growing rapidly, the ability to have a completely paperless electronic system remains a challenge. Organizations often find themselves with a hybrid system with various elements of a patient’s care recorded in both paper and electronic format. Although computerization is costly, the road to progress is reaping rewards by improving patient care and treatment.
15.10 LEGAL PROCEEDINGS AND THE MEDICAL RECORD
The ever-increasing frequency of personal injury suits mandates that healthcare organizations maintain complete, accurate, and timely medical records. The integrity and completeness of the medical record are important in reconstructing the events surrounding alleged negligence in the care of a patient. Medical records aid police investigations, provide information for determining the cause of death, and indicate the extent of injury in workers’ compensation or personal injury proceedings.
When healthcare professionals are called as witnesses in a proceeding, they are permitted to refresh their recollections of the facts and circumstances of a particular case by referring to the medical record. Courts recognize that it is impossible for a medical witness to remember the details of every patient’s treatment. The record, therefore, may be used as an aid in relating the facts of a patient’s course of treatment.
If a medical record is admitted into evidence in legal proceedings, the court must be assured the information is accurate, recorded at the time the event took place, and was not recorded in anticipation of a specific legal proceeding. When a medical record is introduced into evidence, its custodian, usually the medical records administrator, must testify as to the manner in which the record was produced and the way in which it is protected from unauthorized handling and change. If a record can be shown to be inaccurate or incomplete or that it was made long after the event it purports to record, its credibility as evidence will be diminished.
Records Authorship Questioned
The records purportedly relating to Belber’s treatment for a fractured wrist in Belber v. Lipson 16 were found not admissible as business records. Dr. Conway, a witness at trial who had possession of certain records, had no personal knowledge of the circumstances under which the records were prepared. Dr. Conway did not create the records and he did not testify as to the circumstances of their composition. Whether such records and other documents are admitted or excluded is governed by the facts and circumstances of the particular case, as well as by the applicable rules of evidence. Admission of a business record requires “the testimony of the custodian or other qualified witness.”17
A jury determined that Dr. Felix, the physician who treated Belber, had been negligent in repairing his wrist fracture. He argued that Dr. Conway’s documents should have been admitted into evidence. There was, however, no evidence in the trial record that these documents were in fact the medical records of Dr. Spinzia, who had provided follow-up care and treatment of Belber’s wrist. “Both parties tried to obtain Spinzia’s records during pretrial discovery but were told that the records had been destroyed in an accident.”18 In summary, there was no evidence of how the records came into Dr. Conway’s hands. The United States Court of Appeals, First Circuit, affirmed the finding of the circuit court, which found that the records were not admissible at trial.
Without a witness to testify as to the authenticity of records produced for trial, such records are not admissible as evidence.
Obviously a writing is not admissible … merely because it may appear upon its face to be a writing made by a physician in the regular course of his practice. It must first be shown that the writing was actually made by or under the direction of the physician at or near the time of his examination of the individual in question and also that it was his custom in the regular course of his professional practice to make such a record.19
15.11 FALSIFICATION OF RECORDS
When handling medical records, professionals must recognize that tampering with records sends the wrong signal to jurors and can shatter one’s credibility, and that altered records can create a presumption of guilt.
Falsifying Medical Records
The evidence in Dimora v. Cleveland Clinic Foundation 20 showed that the patient had fallen and broken five or six ribs; yet, upon examination, the physician noted in the progress notes that the patient was smiling and laughing pleasantly, exhibiting no pain upon deep palpation of the area. Other testimony indicated that she was in pain and crying. The discrepancy between the written progress notes and the testimony of the witnesses who observed the patient was sufficient to raise a question of fact. The court then considered the possible falsification of documents by the physician in an effort to hide the possible negligence of hospital personnel. The testimony of the witnesses, if believed, would have been sufficient to show that the physician falsified the record or intentionally reported the incident inaccurately in order to avoid liability for the negligent care of the patient. The intentional alteration or destruction of medical records to avoid liability for medical negligence is sufficient to show actual malice, and punitive damages may be awarded regardless of whether the act of altering, falsifying, or destroying records directly causes compensable harm.21
In another case, the court in the Matter of Jascalevich 22 held:
We are persuaded that a physician’s duty to a patient cannot but encompass his affirmative obligation to maintain the integrity, accuracy, truth and reliability of the patient’s medical record. His obligation in this regard is no less compelling than his duties respecting diagnosis and treatment of the patient since the medical community must, of necessity, be able to rely on those records in the continuing and future care of that patient.
Obviously, the rendering of that care is prejudiced by anything in those records, which is false, misleading or inaccurate. We hold, therefore, that a deliberate falsification by a physician of his patient’s medical record, particularly when the reason therefore is to protect his own interests at the expense of his patient’s, must be regarded as gross malpractice endangering the health or life of his patient.23
Tampering with Medical Records
Dr. McCroskey faced a lawsuit for the alleged tampering with documents. The state board of medical examiners, in a disciplinary hearing in State Board of Medical Examiners v. McCroskey,24 issued a letter of admonition to Dr. McCroskey based on a series of incidents arising out of the care of a patient’s stab wound. Although the patient’s condition was initially thought to be stable, he bled to death several hours after his admission to the hospital. Dr. McCroskey was the attending surgeon on the date of the incident and, therefore, responsible for the accurate completion of the patient’s medical record. Dr. McCroskey declined to accept the letter of admonition, and a formal disciplinary hearing was held.
Dr. McCroskey erased and wrote over a preoperative note made by another physician concerning the patient’s estimated blood loss. Specifically, the original record entry was completed by a surgical resident on the date of the patient’s death and stated that the patient’s blood loss just prior to surgery was “now greater than 3000 cc.” Sometime after the autopsy, Dr. McCroskey changed the record to read that the patient’s blood loss was “now greater than 2000 cc.”25 After listening to conflicting expert testimony, the administrative law judge (ALJ) concluded that the physician had not violated generally accepted standards of medical practice by adding the note to the patient’s medical record days or weeks after the patient’s death and then backdating the note to the date of the death.
On review of the ALJ’s decision, the board accepted the ALJ’s evidentiary finding that many physicians date a medical record entry to reflect the date of the medical event, rather than the date on which the entry was made. The board disagreed, however, with the ALJ’s conclusion that this fact brought McCroskey’s conduct within generally accepted standards of medical practice. Instead, the board determined that backdating a medical record entry falls below accepted standards of documentation. Having thus found two acts that fell below generally accepted standards of medical practice, the board concluded that Dr. McCroskey committed unprofessional conduct and issued a letter of admonition. On appeal, the court of appeals held that the board erroneously rejected the ALJ’s findings.
On further appeal by the board, the Colorado Supreme Court held that the findings of the board were supported by substantial evidence. Because of the expertise of the board, it was in a position to determine the seriousness of the physician’s conduct by placing the events in their proper factual context.
All three of the inquiry panel’s witnesses testified that the generally accepted standard of practice requires that a medical record entry be dated with the date it is made. Even one of McCroskey’s witnesses acknowledged that misdating the medical record was “certainly something that should not have been done.” McCroskey did not simply backdate a trivial note in a patient’s medical record. Instead McCroskey’s actions took place in the context of a patient’s death, which resulted in a coroner’s autopsy, peer review activities, publicity, and several legal actions. McCroskey was the attending physician responsible for the accuracy of the patient’s medical record, and yet he engaged in conduct that cast doubt upon the medical record’s integrity. Under these circumstances, the Board was justified in considering McCroskey’s conduct to violate the standard of care.26
|
|
FALSIFYING RECORDS |
Citation: Moskovitz v. Mount Sinai Med. Ctr., 635 N.E.2d 331 (Ohio 1994)
Facts
On November 10, 1987, Figgie removed a left Achilles tendon mass from Moskovitz. The tumor was found to be a rare form of cancer. A bone scan revealed that the cancer had metastasized. Moskovitz’s care was transferred to Figgie’s partner, Makley, an orthopedic surgeon specializing in oncology at University Hospitals. Makley received Figgie’s original office chart, which contained seven pages of notes documenting Moskovitz’s course of treatment from 1985 through November 1987. Makley thereafter referred Moskovitz to radiation therapy at University Hospitals and sent along a copy of page 7 of Figgie’s office notes to the radiation department at University Hospitals.
One month later, Makley’s office forwarded the chart to Figgie’s office; a copy was then sent to Moskovitz’s psychologist. In January 1988, Makley’s secretary requested that Figgie’s office return the chart to Makley. At this time, it was discovered that the original chart had mysteriously vanished. The problem arose on October 21, 1988, when Moskovitz filed a complaint for discovery seeking to ascertain information relative to a potential claim for medical malpractice. Moskovitz claimed that she had never refused to have the tumor biopsied, but discrepancies were noted in her medical record.
In his January 30, 1989, deposition, Makley produced a copy of page 7 of Figgie’s office chart. That copy was identical to the copy ultimately recovered by the plaintiff’s counsel from the radiation department records at University Hospitals. The copy produced by Makley contained a typewritten entry dated September 21, 1987, which stated: “Mrs. Moskovitz comes in today for her evaluation on the radiographs reviewed with Dr. York. He was not impressed that [the mass on Moskovitz’s left leg] was anything other than a benign problem, perhaps a fibroma. We [Figgie and York] will therefore elect to continue to observe.”
However, Figgie’s photostatic copy revealed that a line had been drawn through the sentence “We will therefore elect to continue to observe.” The copy further revealed that beneath the entry, Figgie had interlineated a handwritten notation: “As she does not want excisional Bx [biopsy] we will observe.” The September 21, 1987, entry was followed by a typewritten entry dated September 24, 1987, which states: “I [Figgie] reviewed the X-rays with Dr. York. I discussed the clinical findings with him. We [Figgie and York] felt this to be benign, most likely a fibroma. He [York] said that we could observe and I concur.” At some point, Figgie also had added to the September 24, 1987, entry a handwritten notation, “see above,” referring to the September 21, 1987, handwritten notation that Moskovitz did not want an excisional biopsy. Figgie, at his deposition on March 2, 1989, produced records, including a copy of page 7 of his office chart. Because his original chart had been lost between December 1987 and January 1988, Figgie had made this copy from the copy of the chart that had been sent to Moskovitz’s psychologist. The September 21, 1987, entry in the records produced by Figgie did not contain the statement “We will therefore elect to continue to observe.” That sentence had been deleted (whited out) on the original office chart from which the psychiatrist’s copy (and, in turn, Figgie’s copy) had been made, in a way that left no indication on the copy that the sentence had been removed from the original records.
Figgie maintained that he did not discover the mass on the left Achilles tendon until February 23, 1987, and that Moskovitz continually refused a workup or biopsy.
During discovery, another copy of page 7 of Figgie’s office chart, identical to the copy produced by Makley during his deposition, showed that the final sentence in the September 21, 1987, entry had been deleted from Figgie’s original office chart sometime between November and mid-December 1987, the alteration presumably occurring while Figgie possessed the original chart.
Eventually, Figgie’s entire office chart was reconstructed from copies obtained through discovery. The reconstructed chart contains no indication that a workup or biopsy was recommended by Figgie and refused by Moskovitz at any time prior to August 10, 1987. In a videotaped deposition before her death, Moskovitz claimed that she never refused to have the tumor biopsied. The panel found in favor of the defendants participating in that proceeding with the exception of Figgie, and the trial court agreed. A panel of arbitrators unanimously found that:
1. The evidence supported a finding that plaintiffs’ … decedent had a very good chance of long-term survival if the tumor was found to be malignant at a time when it was less than one centimeter in size. The evidence supported the fact that the tumor had not grown in size as of May 7, 1987. If Dr. Figgie had performed a biopsy prior to this date, the cancer would not have metastasized and the decedent would have recovered.
2. Dr. Figgie’s office chart, which is the primary reference material in analyzing a physician’s conduct, is filled with contradictions and inconsistencies.
3. Even if Dr. Figgie was first informed of the growth on February 23, 1987, he still fell below acceptable standards of care because he did not conduct further investigation until … X-rays performed in September 1987. All handwritten entries which appear on or prior to September 24, 1987, indicating that a biopsy was recommended or that the decedent refused further workup were subsequent changes of the records done to justify Figgie’s conduct. The sentence “We will therefore elect to continue to observe” on the September 21, 1987 entry was whited out and the handwritten entry “as she does not want excisional biopsy we will observe” was a subsequent alteration of the records. [Id. at 338]
The court of appeals upheld the finding of liability against Figgie on the wrongful death and survival claims. The court of appeals found that the appellant was not entitled to punitive damages as a matter of law. The court of appeals reversed the judgment of the trial court as to the award of damages and remanded the case for a new trial only on the issue of compensatory damages.
Issue
Is an intentional alteration or destruction of medical records to avoid liability sufficient to show actual malice? Can punitive damages be awarded regardless of whether the act of altering or destroying records directly causes compensable harm?
Holding
The Ohio Supreme Court held that the evidence regarding the physician’s alteration of the patient’s records supported an award of punitive damages, regardless of whether the alteration caused actual harm.
Reason
The intentional alteration or destruction of medical records to avoid liability for medical negligence is sufficient to show actual malice, and punitive damages may be awarded regardless of whether the act of altering, falsifying, or destroying records directly causes compensable harm. The jury’s award of punitive damages was based on Figgie’s alteration or destruction of medical records. The purpose of punitive damages is not to compensate a plaintiff, but to punish and deter certain conduct. The court warned others to refrain from similar conduct through an award of punitive damages.
Figgie’s alteration of records exhibited a total disregard for the law and the rights of Moskovitz and her family. Had the copy of page 7 of Figgie’s office chart not been recovered from the radiation department records at University Hospitals, the appellant would have been substantially less likely to succeed in this case. The copy of the chart and other records produced by Figgie would have tended to exculpate Figgie for his medical negligence while placing the blame for his failures on Moskovitz.
Discussion
1. Discuss what procedure should be followed when clarifying an entry in a patient’s medical record.
2. Is correction fluid helpful when clarifying medical record entries? Explain.
Falsifying Business Records
Falsification of medical or business records is grounds for criminal indictment, as well as for civil liability. In People v. Smithtown General Hospital,27 a motion to dismiss indictments against a physician and a nurse charged with falsifying business records in the first degree was denied. The surgeon was charged because he omitted to make a true entry in his operative report, and the nurse was charged because she failed to make a true entry in the operating room log.
Another such incident occurred in a rest home, where employees attempted to cover up the death of an elderly woman who had wandered away from the home and was found frozen in a drainage ditch.28 The deceased patient had been brought back into the home, was dressed in a nightgown, and was placed in her bed. On the basis of the account given by employees, a physician signed the death certificate stating that the 77-year-old patient died in her sleep. An anonymous tip to the county examiner’s office prompted an autopsy, and the patient was found to have frozen to death.
Nurse Changes Record Entries
In a well-publicized case that involved the death of a child, the nurse replaced her original notes with a second set of notes that were much more detailed and indicated that she had seen the patient more frequently than was reported in her original notes.29 Rewriting one’s notes in a patient’s medical record casts doubt as to the accuracy of other entries in the record. It is easier to explain why one did not chart all activities than it is to explain why a new entry was recorded and an original note replaced.
Alteration of Records
In criminal law, falsification of records with the intent to deceive another for personal gain is considered fraud. Fraud can also be considered an intentional tort. For example, writing a post-procedure note before actually beginning the procedure is, in reality, falsifying a patient’s record even though it might be considered normal practice for the physician. A physician who claims that notes are revised following the procedure if necessary is placing the patient in jeopardy if he fails to do so and that failure leads to injury during post-follow-up care.
|
|
Falsified Patient Records Are Untold Story of California Nursing Home Care |
A supervisor at a Carmichael nursing home admitted under oath that she was ordered to alter the medical records of a 92-year-old patient, who died after developing massive, rotting bedsores at the facility.
In Santa Monica, a nursing home was fined $2,500 by the state for falsifying a resident’s medical chart, which claimed that the patient was given physical therapy 5 days a week. The catch? At least 28 of those sessions were documented by nurse assistants who were not at work on those days.
—Marjie Lundstrom, The Sacramento Bee, September 18, 2011
Failure to Record Patient’s Condition
The plaintiff in Gerner v. Long Island Jewish Hillside Med. Ctr.30 gave birth to her infant son at the defendant medical center. Dr. Geller, the attending pediatrician, arrived at the hospital 6 hours later. Geller, having noted and confirmed a slightly jaundiced condition, ordered phototherapy for the baby. After 3 days of treatment, the child’s bilirubin count fell to a normal level, and Geller ordered the patient discharged. The child today is brain damaged, with permanent neurologic dysfunction.
The plaintiff alleged medical malpractice on the part of both the medical center and Geller for failing to diagnose and treat the jaundice in a timely manner. Following examination before trial, the medical center motioned and was granted summary judgment. The plaintiff and Geller appealed.
The New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, held that questions of fact precluded summary judgment for the hospital. A number of allegations were raised as to negligence attributed solely to hospital staff. For example, notes of attending nurses at the nursery failed to record any jaundiced condition or any reference to color until the third day after birth, despite the parents’ complaints to hospital personnel about the baby’s yellowish complexion. Additionally, Geller ordered a complete blood count and bilirubin test as soon as he learned of the first recorded observation by a nurse of a jaundiced appearance. Test results, which showed a moderately elevated bilirubin count, were not reported by the laboratory until 10 hours after the blood sample was drawn, and another 3 hours passed before Geller’s order for phototherapy was carried out. An issue was thus raised as to whether the 13-hour delay in commencement of the treatment was the proximate cause of the infant’s injuries.
15.12 ILLEGIBLE HANDWRITING
Illegible handwriting is as ancient as the first stylus. Perhaps the simplest, but one of the most potentially dangerous, problems with medical records is illegible entries. Unfortunately, poor penmanship can cause injury to patients. The American Medical Association encourages physicians to print, type, or computerize their orders. Medical errors because of poor handwriting can lead to extended length of hospital stays and, in some cases, the death of patients. A Harvard study found that “penmanship was among the causes of 220 prescription errors out of 30,000 cases.”31
The seriousness of handwriting mix-ups was well-noted when a Texas jury ordered a physician, drugstore, and pharmacist to pay $225,000 to the family. In this case, the 42-year-old patient died as a result of a handwriting mix-up on the medication prescribed for his heart. The patient had been given a prescription for 20 mg of Isordil to be taken four times per day; the pharmacist misread the physician’s handwriting and filled the prescription with Plendil, a drug for high blood pressure, which is usually taken at no more than 10 mg per day. As a result, Vasquez was given the wrong medication at eight times the recommended dosage. He died 2 weeks later from an apparent heart attack.32
15.13 TIMELY COMPLETION OF MEDICAL RECORDS
Not only must the chart be accurate, but healthcare professionals must promptly complete records after patients are discharged. Persistent failure to conform to a medical staff rule requiring physicians to complete records promptly can be the basis for suspension of medical staff privileges, as was the case in Board of Trustees Memorial Hospital v. Pratt.33
15.14 CONFIDENTIAL AND PRIVILEGED COMMUNICATIONS
Beyond the medical record lies an even more complex issue within healthcare organizations: communication. The duty of an organization’s employees and staff to maintain confidentiality encompasses both verbal and written communications and applies to consultants, contracted individuals, students, and volunteers. Information about a patient, regardless of the method in which it is acquired, is confidential and should not be disclosed without the patient’s permission. All healthcare professionals who have access to medical records have a legal, ethical, and moral obligation to protect the confidentiality of the information in the records, as well as verbal communications between physicians and patients. Communication between individual physicians and communication that occurs in peer review activities also falls under strict confidentiality procedures.
The Federal Health Care Quality Improvement Act of 1986 34 insulates certain medical peer review activities affecting medical staff privileges from antitrust liability. Peer review is protected as long as there is reasonable belief that it is conducted in the furtherance of quality care. In enacting this legislation, Congress recognized that without such antitrust immunity, effective peer review might not be possible. Privileged communications statutes do not protect from discovery the records maintained in the ordinary course of doing business and rendering inpatient care. Such documents often can be subpoenaed after showing cause.
The burden to establish privilege is on the party seeking to shield information from discovery. The party asserting the privilege has the obligation to prove, by competent evidence, that the privilege applies to the information sought.
Attorney–Client Privilege
Attorney–client privilege generally will preclude discovery of memoranda written to an organization’s general counsel by the organization’s risk management director. In Mlynarski v. Rush Presbyterian–St. Luke’s Medical Center,35 a memorandum written by the risk management coordinator to the hospital’s general counsel was barred from discovery. There was undisputed evidence that the risk management coordinator had consulted with and assisted counsel in determining the legal action to pursue and the advisability of settling a claim that she had been assigned to investigate. Information contained in the memorandum was available from witnesses whose names and addresses were made available to the plaintiff. If the hospital later at trial decided to attempt to impeach those witnesses based on the coordinator’s testimony, privilege would be waived and the hospital would be required to produce the relevant reports.
Physician–Patient Confidentiality
Patients enter the physician–patient relationship assuming that information acquired by physicians will not be disclosed, unless the patient consents or the law requires disclosure. Mutual trust and confidence are essential to the physician–patient relationship. An action alleging a breach of physician–patient confidentiality is analogous to invasion of privacy, and plaintiffs are entitled to recover damages, including emotional damages, for the harm caused by the physician’s unauthorized disclosure.
In such a case, Berger v. Sonneland,36 Berger revealed information during her initial appointment with Dr. Sonneland regarding her medical and personal history. When questioned about her personal history, Berger said that she had previously been married to Dr. Hoheim, a physician in Montana. She described her relationship with her ex-husband as extremely strained.
After meeting with Berger, Sonneland contacted Hoheim and discussed Berger’s use of pain medications. Based on information provided by Sonneland, Hoheim filed a motion in a Montana court seeking to modify the custody orders relating to the couple’s two children.
Berger sought damages for Sonneland’s breach of physician–patient confidentiality. The court granted Sonneland’s motion for summary judgment based on the absence of damage evidence, concluding that Berger failed to establish any objective symptoms of emotional distress. Berger moved for reconsideration, urging the court to apply invasion of privacy principles rather than principles related to the tort of negligent infliction of emotional distress.
During the course of events in this case, an appellate court held that a tort action exists for damages resulting from the unauthorized disclosure of confidential information obtained within the physician–patient relationship. The court also held that there is sufficient evidence to raise a question of fact as to whether Berger was injured by Sonneland’s unauthorized disclosure. The matter was remanded for further proceedings.
|
|
REPORTS OF THE JOINT COMMISSION PRIVILEGED FROM DISCOVERY |
Citation: Humana Hosp. Corp. v. Spears Petersen, 867 S.W.2d 858 (Tex. Ct. App. 1993)
Facts
The plaintiff, Garcia, sued Dr. Garg for negligently performing an injection, battery, fraud, and lack of informed consent. Garcia also sued Humana Corporation for negligence in credentialing, supervising, and monitoring Garg’s clinical privileges. The plaintiff’s attorney requested documents from Humana, including reports prepared by The Joint Commission. The Joint Commission is a voluntary organization that surveys healthcare organizations for the purpose of accreditation.
Humana objected to releasing the reports of The Joint Commission and filed for a protective order preventing disclosure. The Joint Commission reports contained recommendations describing the hospital’s noncompliance with certain of its published standards. Humana argued that The Joint Commission reports are privileged information under Texas statute. Under Texas law, the records and proceedings of a medical committee are considered confidential and are not subject to a court subpoena. The plaintiff argued that The Joint Commission is not a medical committee as defined in the Texas statute. The hospital’s chief operating officer testified that the accreditation process with The Joint Commission is voluntary and the hospital chooses to have the accreditation survey. During the survey, The Joint Commission looks at certain quality care standards it has developed for hospitals. Humana argued that release of The Joint Commission’s recommendations would do more than “chill” the effectiveness of such accreditation. The plaintiff argued that even if the information was privileged, it had already been disclosed to a third party, the hospital, thus waiving its rights to nondisclosure. The trial court denied Humana’s motion for a protective order that, if granted, would have permitted it to withhold from discovery any information pertaining to credentialing, monitoring, or supervision practices of the hospital regarding its physicians. Humana appealed.
Issue
Are accreditation reports prepared by The Joint Commission privileged from discovery?
Holding
The Texas Court of Appeals held that the accreditation reports were privileged.
Reason
The purpose of privileged communications is to encourage an open and thorough review of a hospital’s medical staff and operations of a hospital with the objective of improving the delivery of patient care. The plaintiff argued that The Joint Commission is not a medical committee as defined in the Texas statute. The court of appeals found that the determinative factor is not whether the entity is known as a “committee” or a “commission” or by any other particular term, but whether it is organized for the purposes contemplated by the statute and case law. The Joint Commission is organized for the purposes of improving patient care. Both Texas statute and case law recognize that the open, thorough, and uninhibited review that is required for such committees to achieve their purpose can only be realized if the deliberations of the committee remain confidential.
Discussion
1. Do you agree with the court’s decision? Explain your answer.
2. What did the court say as to the importance of privileged communications?
Privileged Information: Statements Protected
The court, in Wylie v. Mills,37 adopted the privilege used in several federal jurisdictions that prevents disclosure of confidential, critical, evaluative, and deliberative material whenever the public interest in confidentiality outweighs an individual’s need for full discovery. In applying the privilege to information contained in a corporate report on an accident in which an employee was involved, the court held that self-evaluation privilege protected the report from discovery. Without such protection, candid expressions of opinion or suggestions as to future policy would not be forthcoming as a result of a fear that these statements may be used against the employer in a subsequent litigation. The standard used for disclosure of confidential investigative records sets forth the following factors that should be taken into consideration: (1) the extent to which the information may be available from other sources, (2) the degree of harm that the litigant will suffer from its unavailability, and (3) the possible prejudice in the agency’s investigation. The court adopted the holding that the plaintiffs had not made a strong showing of a particular need that outweighs the public interest in the confidentiality of the quality assessment committee. Because information is available from other sources, the court found that the information sought by the plaintiff was readily discoverable.
Credentialing Files Privileged
An action was filed against a healthcare provider in Abels v. Ruf 38 for the negligent credentialing of a physician who allegedly committed medical malpractice. The credentialing file relative to the physician in question was privileged. There was no dispute that the provider’s credentialing documents fell within the scope of records of the provider’s peer review committee, and it was clear that the legislature had dictated that such documents were not obtainable from the provider. The Ohio Court of Appeals found that the trial court abused its discretion in ordering the appellant to provide certain credentialing documents to plaintiffs-appellees in discovery that may have been generated by the appellant’s peer review committee.
The trial court in Hammonds v. Ruf 39 erred when it ordered that certain portions of a physician’s credentialing file be disclosed to medical malpractice plaintiffs because the documents were obtainable from original sources. The trial court abused its discretion in ordering the documents in question to be disclosed by the physician in violation of a clear statutory mandate prohibiting such disclosures.
Ordinary Business Documents
Privileged communications statutes do not protect from discovery the records maintained in the ordinary course of doing business and rendering inpatient care. Such documents often can be subpoenaed after showing cause.
Committee Minutes Discoverable
When a plaintiff seeks case information that does not regard a committee’s action or its exchange of honest self-critical study but, instead, regards merely factual accountings of otherwise discoverable facts, such information is not protected by any privilege because it does not come within the scope of information entitled to that privilege. This does not mean that the plaintiff is entitled to the entire study because it may contain evidence of policy making, remedial action, proposed courses of conduct, and self-critical analysis that the privilege seeks to protect in order to foster the ability of hospitals to regulate themselves unhindered by outside scrutiny and unconcerned about the possible liability ramifications that their discussions might bring about. As such, the trial court must make an in-camera inspection of such records and determine to what extent they may be discoverable.
In one such case, the plaintiff, a patient, brought an action against a hospital seeking to recover for injuries he sustained as a result of a nosocomial infection he allegedly contracted at the hospital.40 The plaintiff claimed that his infection was a result of an act or omission on the part of the hospital in failing to protect him from such infections. During the discovery phase of the proceedings, the plaintiff filed a motion for production of documents seeking studies done by the hospital regarding the nosocomial infection rates per patients admitted. The hospital objected to this request, and the plaintiff obtained an order to compel the hospital to produce the documents. The court of appeal, on review, reversed the trial court’s ruling, determining that statutes rendering hospital records confidential barred the information from disclosure.
The Louisiana Supreme Court, however, held that the records sought by the plaintiff were not entirely privileged from disclosure. The reliance of the court of appeal on La. R.S. 13:3715.3(A) and 44:7(D) was partially misplaced. These provisions were intended to provide confidentiality to the records and proceedings of hospital committees, not to insulate from discovery certain facts merely because they have come under the review of any particular committee. Such an interpretation could cause any fact that a hospital chooses to unilaterally characterize as privileged to be barred from discovery. The plaintiff sought facts relating to nosocomial infection rates in the defendant’s hospital. A nosocomial infection is the same malady that gave rise to the plaintiff’s injuries. Such facts would be highly relevant to the plaintiff’s case or highly likely to lead to such evidence.
Peer Review Documents Privileged
In Estate of Hussain v. Gardner,41 discovery was sought regarding the statements given by a physician to the hospital’s internal peer review committee regarding the management and treatment of a patient. In this medical malpractice action, the plaintiff alleged that the defendant-physician deviated from accepted medical standards in the care and treatment of the decedent during surgical procedures. The New Jersey Superior Court held that the statements given by the defendant were protected.
In In re Investigation of Liberman,42 long-term patient Liberman fell and injured her head while unattended. She later died, apparently as a result of complications from the fall. The attorney general (AG) commenced a criminal investigation into Liberman’s death, with more than 15 employees being questioned by the AG. The AG obtained and executed an investigatory search warrant for hospital documents. Before the documents left the hospital’s premises, however, some of the documents were sealed because the hospital deemed them privileged peer review documents.
A hearing was held in district court regarding the AG’s motion for permission to unseal the documents. The district court was persuaded that the privilege statute asserted by the hospital did not apply because the documents were seized pursuant to a search warrant. The district court allowed the AG to unseal the documents, but the district judge stayed the decision to give the hospital an opportunity to appeal to the circuit court.
On appeal, the circuit court ruled that the peer review documents were protected by peer review privilege and that the privilege could be enforced even against documents seized pursuant to a search warrant. The court determined that the legislature intended the privilege to apply regardless of whether the documents were seized pursuant to a subpoena or a search warrant.
The Michigan statute MCL 333 § 21515 provides:
(1) peer review information is confidential; (2) peer review information is to be used “only for the purposes provided in this article;” (3) peer review information is not to be a public record; and (4) peer review information is not subject to subpoena.
The legislation commands that a hospital maintain a peer review process for the purpose of improving patient care. Allowing a prosecutor to obtain a hospital’s peer review materials pursuant to a search warrant would be to allow the prosecutor’s general investigative powers to override the specific privilege of confidentiality that covers such materials. Accordingly, the Michigan Court of Appeals concluded that documents created by a peer review body exclusively for peer review purposes are not subject to disclosure pursuant to a search warrant in a criminal investigation.
Peer Review Documents Not Privileged
The identity of peer review committee members and individuals who may have given information to such committees is not always considered privileged. A state, for example, may access peer review reports relating to a physician suspected of criminal negligence.43 In a civil action, a hospital may be required to identify all persons who have knowledge of an underlying event that is the basis of a malpractice action, whether or not they were members of a peer review committee.44
The surgeon in Robinson v. Magovern 45 brought an action under the Sherman Antitrust Act, as well as under state law, seeking recovery because he had been denied hospital privileges. The plaintiff moved in the U.S. District Court for an order compelling the defendants and certain third-party witnesses to respond to discovery requests and deposition questions. The defendants objected, claiming that the information sought was privileged and that the Pennsylvania Peer Review Protection Act seeks to foster candor and discussion at medical review committee meetings through grants of immunity and confidentiality. The court held that although there was a powerful interest in confidentiality embodied in the Pennsylvania Peer Review Protection Act, the Act would not be applied to shield from discovery events surrounding the denial of staff privileges, including what occurred at meetings of the hospital’s credentials committee and executive committee. The need for evidence was greater than the need for confidentiality in this case. The defendants’ objections were overruled, and the motion to compel was granted.
In a similar case, the physician in Ott v. St. Luke Hospital of Campbell County, Inc.46 brought a civil rights suit because his application for medical staff privileges was denied. The physician contended that he was not invited to several peer review committee meetings or given an opportunity to be heard. The hospital filed for a protective order that would bar discovery of the proceedings of the peer review committee. The hospital argued that such committees would become ineffective if their deliberations were discoverable and that the privilege claimed by the hospital is recognized in Section 311.377 of the Kentucky Revised Statutes Annotates (1990). The U.S. district court held that where there was no real showing that the peer review committee’s functions would be impaired substantially, and where the benefit gained for correct disposal of the litigation by denying privilege was overwhelming, the hospital would not be permitted to assert privilege. The hospital’s motion was therefore denied. The court indicated that it cannot permit the discharge of its responsibility to conduct a search for the truth to be thwarted by rules of privilege in the absence of strong countervailing public policies.
Staff Privileging Documents Discoverable
In May v. Wood River Township Hospital,47 the patient’s guardian sued the hospital and physicians, alleging that the hospital was negligent in providing care to the patient and in granting staff privileges to Dr. Marrese. The circuit court granted the guardian’s motion and ordered the hospital to answer certain interrogatories. The hospital appealed.
The hospital submitted a memorandum of law and an affidavit stating that all documents concerning the granting of associate staff privileges to Marrese were kept for the purpose of improving the quality of patient care and were protected by the Illinois Code of Civil Procedure.
The trial court denied the hospital’s motion for a protective order and granted the plaintiff’s motion to compel, ordering the hospital to answer all of the plaintiff’s interrogatories. The court determined that nothing related to work done, communications between executive committee members during their meetings, or discussions related to Marrese is protected; in addition, the minutes of the committee were also not protected as long as this information existed or was created before the actual decision to grant privileges to Marrese. The hospital urged on appeal, however, that no Illinois case has interpreted the code as being inapplicable to the credentialing process.
The Illinois Appellate Court held that the code of civil procedure did not protect information generated prior to the physician’s application for staff privileges or his application for the privileges. The same is true of a host of materials that might be considered by the committee, for example:
• Whether staff privileges were granted, denied, or revoked at other hospitals
• Whether licenses to practice medicine were awarded, denied, suspended, or revoked in a given state
• Whether an applicant has ever been sued for malpractice
These facts would exist independent of a peer review process. That which is nonprivileged cannot be converted to being privileged simply by handing the facts to a committee. On the other hand, if the committee sought to generate new opinions or information for consideration by the committee, a privilege could attach. For example, if the committee interviewed a colleague of Marrese’s to elicit an opinion on Marrese’s ability as a physician, that opinion could be privileged. If, however, the same opinion had been stated earlier in a deposition in a malpractice case and the committee reviewed the deposition, no privilege could attach to conceal the deposition from the discovery process.
Staff Credentialing Documents Not Discoverable
The underlying action in McGee v. Bruce Hospital System 48 involved a wrongful death claim. A circuit court order granted the plaintiffs a motion instructing the defendant, Bruce Hospital System, to produce the credentialing files and clinical privileges for each of the defendant-physicians. The defendant-physicians contended that such documentation is protected by South Carolina confidentiality statute [S.C. CODE ANN. § 40-71-20 (Supp. 1992)]. The trial judge found that the materials sought were discoverable.
On appeal, the South Carolina Supreme Court held that: (1) applications for staff privileges and supporting documents of appropriate training were protected by the confidentiality statute; (2) the confidentiality statute did not preclude discovery of general policies and procedures for staff monitoring; and (3) the patient could discover a listing of clinical privileges either granted or denied by the hospital. The overriding public policy of the confidentiality statute is to encourage healthcare professionals to monitor the competency and professional conduct of their peers in order to safeguard and improve the quality of patient care. The underlying purpose behind the confidentiality statute is not to facilitate the prosecution of civil actions but to promote complete candor and open discussion among participants in the peer review process.
Section 40-71-20 of the South Carolina statute does not preclude the discovery of the general policies and procedures for staff monitoring. The information contained in the written rules, regulations, policies, and procedures for the medical staff would not compromise the statutory goal of candid evaluation of peers in the medical profession.
The outcome of the decision-making process is not protected. The confidentiality statute was intended to protect the review process, not to restrict the disclosure of the result of the process. Accordingly, the plaintiffs were entitled to a listing of clinical privileges either granted or denied by the hospital.
15.15 CHARTING: SOME HELPFUL ADVICE
The medical record is the most important document in a malpractice action. Both the plaintiff and defendant use it as a basis for their actions and defense in a lawsuit. The following suggestions on documentation should prove helpful when charting in a patient’s record.
• The medical record describes the care rendered to a patient. It should provide a clear timeline of patient care needs and how they were addressed from the time of admission to the time of discharge. It should include a complete and accurate medical history and physical, medications at the time of admission, allergies, over-the-counter drugs, vitamins, differential diagnoses, treatment plan, care rendered, and follow-up instructions.
• Medical record entries should be timely, legible, clear, and meaningful to a patient’s course of treatment. Illegible medical records not only damage one’s ability to defend oneself in a court action, but also can have an adverse effect on the credibility of other healthcare professionals who read the record and act on what they read.
• Progress notes should describe the symptom(s) or condition(s) being addressed, the treatment rendered, the patient’s response, and status at the time inpatient care is discontinued. All notes must be dated and signed in order to provide an accurate history of the patient’s care and treatment during the hospital stay. Follow-up on other caregiver notes should be described in the progress notes (e.g., observations of consultants, dietitians, nurses, pharmacists, physical therapists, and respiratory therapists).
• Long, defensive, or derogatory notes should not be written. Only the facts should be related. Criticism, complaints, emotional comments, and extraneous remarks have no place in the medical record. Such remarks can precipitate a malpractice suit.
• Erasures and correction fluid should not be used to cover up entries. Do not tamper with the chart in any form. A single line should be drawn through a mistaken entry, the correct information entered, and the correction signed and dated.
• Charts related to pending legal action should be placed in a separate file under lock and key. Legal counsel should be notified immediately of any potential lawsuit.
• A medical record has many authors. Entries made by others must not be ignored. Good patient care is a collaborative interdisciplinary team effort. Entries made by healthcare professionals provide valuable information in treating the patient.
• Reasoning for not following the advice of a consultant should be noted in the medical record, not so as to discredit the consultant, but to show that due consideration was given to the consultant’s medical opinion.
|
|
The Court’s Decision |
Sanfiel violated Florida Administrative Code by violating the confidentiality of information or knowledge concerning a patient. Florida Code Rule 59S-8.005 states in part that unprofessional conduct includes violating the confidentiality of information or knowledge concerning a patient. The board reasonably interpreted this provision to apply to the circumstances present in this case. Sanfiel knew that a nurse could be disciplined for disclosing such information, yet he intentionally released the information to the news media. It is reasonable to characterize Sanfiel’s actions as unprofessional conduct.49
CHAPTER REVIEW
1. Information management is the process of facilitating the flow of information within and among departments and caregivers.
2. The medical record is the principal means of communication among healthcare professionals in matters relating to patient care.
3. The contents of inpatient medical records provide evidence of a patient’s care from admission to discharge (e.g., admission record, authorization for treatment forms, advance directives, history and physical examination, treatment plans, physicians’ orders, progress notes, nursing notes, diagnostic reports, consultation reports, vital signs charts, anesthesia assessments, operative reports, medication administration records, discharge planning documentation, patient education, and discharge summary).
4. Patient care documentation must be complete and accurate. Federal funding can be denied for inaccurate record keeping.
5. The Privacy Act of 1974 was enacted in part to safeguard individual privacy from the misuse of federal records and to give individuals access to records concerning themselves that are maintained by federal agencies.
6. HIPAA requires the establishment of national standards for electronic healthcare transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. HIPAA provisions also address the privacy and security of health information.
7. Medical records are maintained for the benefit of patients and are considered the property of the healthcare provider. Patients, providers of care, and third parties such as insurance carriers generally have access to patient records for billing purposes. They are also available for criminal investigations.
8. The requirements for the length of time medical records must be retained are based on statutory requirements, advice from legal counsel, patient needs, future need for the records, and legal considerations.
9. Although electronic medical records improve the ease and efficiency with which data are compiled and shared, they also pose confidentiality risks.
10. Records can be used as important evidentiary tools. The integrity and completeness of a medical record can be crucial in reconstructing the events surrounding alleged negligence.
11. Falsification of medical or business records is grounds for both criminal indictment and civil liability.