English Cause and Effect Assignment

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6. Arguments of Cause/Effect By Angela M. Lopez

Introduction This chapter focuses on the understanding of the cause-and-effect relationship as it relates to essay writing in academia. Students will research, analyze, and understand basic principles associated with cause-and-effect discourse; the overall objective is for students to make use of knowledge learned and create a well-versed, intellectually sound essay. Cause-and-effect relationships must be supported with proper logical reasoning. In addition, this chapter features examples of cause-and-effect relationships, theory, logical reasoning, reading comprehension, and questions for analysis. Furthermore, supplemental writing practice and organizational charts are part of the learning process as students learn to decipher the difference between direct and probable causal relationships in contrast to unwarranted assumptions or implausible associations; this saves time and avoids frustration when writing the final essay.

Students will learn that cause-and-effect relationships are not mere correlations, associated events, or random occurrences, but are proven logical associations with a direct cause-and-effect sequence. In other words, just because two events occur simultaneously does not mean that one necessarily caused the other or that the two are related in any way. This chapter focuses on a variety of cause-and-effect relationships, including those that are simple and direct, linked, based on various causes, have aberrant or bizarre causes or outcomes, and those that have anticipated or expected results. This chapter closes with three detailed outlines to guide and direct students in the formation, organization, and writing process of the final cause and effect academic product. 

Cause-and-Effect Relationships Cause-and-effect essays incorporate a writing approach that evaluates the reasons why certain situations exist, and these essays discuss outcomes, repercussions, and fallouts. Simple and direct causal arguments attempt to analyze and prove that one event is the root cause of a previous occurrence or that one situation directly led to a certain result or event. Cause-and-effect relationships are varied and may occur in any field of study or subject.

Business or Economics

An increase in unemployment (cause) led people in that predicament to start their own online business and generate capital for themselves (effect)

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A large amount of money donated to charity (cause) led to a profitable refund or tax credit (effect).

Social Issues

The increase of identity theft (cause) led to the invention of fingerprint identity sensors that use the proprietor’s unique fingerprint pattern as the password for the device (effect).

Environment and Climate

Drought and heat waves (cause) led to forest fires in Arizona during the summer of 2013 (effect).

Food and Snack Consumption

Sugary and processed foodstuffs eaten in excess (cause) may lead to obesity and diabetes (effect).

At times, causal argument relationships can be complex and contain many ongoing factors that are best understood when diagrammed as a multiple cause-and-effect reaction chain. A causal chain, where one incident perpetuates another, is best described as a sequence of significant occurrences that leads to a specific result. This cause-and- effect association creates a product (effect) which transforms into a new causal factor, which in turn generates a new result. This cause-and-effect pattern repeats itself until there is an overall concluding outcome (effect). In order to understand this concept with clarity, consider a domino effect: when one domino tips over, it hits another domino causing it to tip over and hit another domino; this continues until no dominoes are left standing. If even one domino fails and remains upright, the outcome is an aberration from expectation.

The issue of cyberbullying (cause) has led to homeschooling (effect) or, in extreme cases, has led to self-destructive behavior (effect-cause), then clinical depression (effect-cause), and then suicide (final effect).

Frequent lack of dental hygiene (cause) leads to halitosis (effect-cause), cavities (effect-cause), and then root-canal treatment (final effect).

As the examples above show, cause-and-effect chains are repeated responses (effects) to previous outcomes (causes).

Proving Causal Relationships To better understand the two methods for cause-and-effect argumentation, it is important to discover the three types of causal relationships (Ramage, Bean, & Johnson, 2012, p. 260).

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1. One-time occurrence: This type of relationship is based on immediate evidence or proof that one event directly caused another.

2. Recurring occurrence: This type of relationship is a cause-and-effect connection that occurs repeatedly or with frequency.

3. Confusing or baffling occurrence: This type of relationship examines a new phenomenon or event that is happening everywhere.

One-time occurrence: Because the alarm clock did not work (cause), the student was late for school (effect).

Recurring occurrence: Self-hatred and psychological issues (cause) lead to anorexia, bulimia, or body dysmorphic disorder (effect).

Confusing or baffling occurrence: The sharp rise in antipsychotic medication given to children and teenagers for ADHD results in bi-polar issues and depression (effect).

Discuss the Causal Relationship Directly This is the simplest and most commonly used method to analyze causal relationships. It describes the action of the person, thing, situation, circumstance, or overall element that creates the groundwork (cause) for the following result, conclusion, or ending event to occur (effect).

Figure 6.1

Cause and Effect Patterns

The key to this method is the plausibility of persuasion through support, evidence, and facts. Each factor must lead the reader to the probability that the next factor is the logical conclusion (Ramage, Bean, & Johnson, 2012, p. 261). Please refer to Chapter 2 for further reference of probability and evidence.

Inductive Reasoning Strategy In the circumstance that a direct causal link is difficult to decipher, another strategy to prove cause-and-effect association is inductive reasoning. Do not confuse inductive

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reasoning with deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning creates universal generalizations from definite perceptions or observations until enough of them have been observed to create a generalization; however, the possibility for a faulty outcome still exists.

Deductive reasoning is based on the reasoning that what is typically believed to be accurate and customary of an item, entity, or object leads to undoubting certainty for all objects in that category (“Deductive Reasoning,” 2012).

Inductive reasoning: Adrian is a swimmer. All swimmers are tall and athletic. Adrian is tall and athletic.

Deductive reasoning: All college students have loans; Sonya is a college student; therefore, Sonya has a student loan.

Chapter 6: Check for Understanding 1

Three Modes of Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is based on finding and connecting specific ideas, comparisons, contrasts, and thought analogies in order to formulate a valid, general conclusion. Three inductive methods are listed below:

1. Common element: This type of inductive reasoning focuses on finding an identical component or factor to a repeated event or occurrence and demonstrates the reason why (Ramage, Bean & Johnson, 2012, p. 263).

2. Single difference: This type of inductive reasoning focuses on the discovery of a definite dissimilarity or distinctness that may possibly make sense when evaluating a new event or occurrence (Ramage, Bean & Johnson, 2012, p. 263).

3. Correlation: This type of inductive reasoning focuses on finding a correlation, which means the interaction of two circumstances, situations, or events that happen together; however, that in itself does not create a cause-and-effect relationship (Ramage, Bean & Johnson, 2012, p. 263).

Common element: Teen pregnancy stems from various factors, but in an effort to decipher why teenage girls become sexually active, it was ascertained that these young girls lack father figures and are looking for value from male counterparts; this has been found to be true for many but not all (Ellis et al., 2003).

Single difference: The rise in autism may have a connection to the consumption of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Hoover, 2013). GMOs dominated the world food market in 1999 (Woolsey, 2012); in 2002, there was a 30% increase in infants born with autism (Jaslow, 2014). This differential factor led investigators and scientists to research GMOs as a possible contributor to autism.

Correlation: There may be a correlation between aging and male baldness. As men age their hair progressively falls out; however, age may not be the determining factor, as stress and genetic factors can also cause male baldness.

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Chapter 6: Check for Understanding 2

Three Types of Causal Arguments Speculations on Possible Causes The first type of causal argument focuses on discovering the reasons why (cause) certain events, circumstances, or phenomenon occur (effect). This type of analysis is dependent on formulating various educated guesses to determine the factor or factors that led to the result. This class of causal argument is based on listing several plausible explanations for one effect (Ramage, Bean, & Johnson, 2012, p. 256).

Drug addiction, domestic violence and abuse, or psychological issues may be contributing factors (cause) that result in a life of violent crime (effect).

The purpose of this kind of causal argument is to analyze and discover why the effect occurred by identifying numerous justifications for one outcome.

Exercise 1

1. Begin by brainstorming phenomena related to current events or trends, such as political issues, social problems, or nuances in education. (Example: Working parents gravitate towards online degree programs.)

2. Create a “why” question (cause) related to your theme (effect) of choice. (Example: Why do working parents gravitate towards online degree programs?)

3. List three possible causes for the effect.

4. Select three different effects and determine a “why” statement for each. Then describe three separate speculative causes for each effect.

Example 1: Working parents often have busy and erratic daytime and nighttime weekday schedules; in addition, many working parents have active weekend schedules. Working parents need a flexible academic program to learn required competencies and earn their degree at their own pace.

Example 2: Working parents are able to continue with their line of work and family duties if they choose to study in an online platform; otherwise, working parents might have to take a leave of absence in order to fulfill traditional education attendance requirements.

Example 3: Working parents prefer online degrees because they are less expensive than traditional university tuition.

Aberrant or Unanticipated Causes

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This form of causal argument is based on critical thinking and the persuasive power of the individual making the argument. The purpose of this type of argument is to convince the reader that the possibility exists for bizarre, unusual, or unnatural causes; this allows for reasoning that is outside the box (Ramage, Bean, & Johnson, 2012, p. 257).

Those who are unable to fall asleep and remain asleep (effect), have a variety of accepted causes, including too much caffeine, stress, racing thoughts, too much light, too much noise, or even restless legs syndrome.

However, there are also aberrant or unanticipated causes to insomnia, such as sleeping with pets, undiagnosed reflux disorder, certain medications and over-the- counter supplements, and extreme exhaustion (“6 Surprising Sleep Wreckers,” n.d.).

 

Exercise 2

Create a list of subtopics related to a field of study, major, or future profession. Conduct an online general research inquiry regarding the subject and select an effect of interest. Describe three unusual causes for the selected effect.

Example: A student who studies psychology is interested in the cause of supreme athletic performance. Standard thought dictates that in order to achieve optimum effects, athletes must practice rigorously, focus on muscle strength, and consume a healthy diet. However, there are peculiar, unconventional concepts that improve sport proficiency, such as meditation, visualization, positive affirmations, and listening to music. These are examples of atypical and nonstandard causes for exceptional athleticism.

Anticipated Outcomes This type of causal argument centers on causal indicators that allow for common-sense expectation, probability, and conclusions. This type of argument is normally associated with decision making that involves risk and the probability of great benefit or great failure, specifically as it relates to finances. This type of argument requires a foreseeable economic analysis and must persuade the audience that the anticipated benefits of a proposed action will offset any risk, sacrifice, or expenditure (Ramage, Bean, & Johnson, 2012, p. 257).

Chapter 6: Check for Understanding 3

Causal Argument and the Toulmin Analysis Philosopher, writer, and university professor Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009) created the Toulmin Model of Argumentation. Toulmin devised and established a thought process that not only evaluated theoretical arguments, but also explored theoretical debates in everyday situations (Grimes, 2009). This type of analysis is crucial in proving the writer’s thesis, specifically in the area of cause-and-effect reasoning. As discussed in Chapter 3,

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the Toulmin framework supports the following ideas: the thesis (claim), the reasons (grounds) why this claim is true and accepted, and the unspoken assumption that connects these two ideas. Furthermore, the Toulmin framework discusses the concept of warrants, which links ideas joined together by inferential thoughts or hypotheses and serves to connect the claim and grounds statement together. There are six argumentative methods associated with warrant analysis, including generalization, analogy, sign, causality, authority, and principle. Please refer to Chapter 3 for additional details and examples.

A Closer Analysis of Warrants Warrants are linked ideas joined together by inferential thoughts or hypotheses and serve to connect the claim and grounds statements together. There are six argumentative methods associated with warrant analysis: generalization, analogy, sign, causality, authority, and principle. This section is crucial as these methods are needed to create logically sound and well-understood cause-and-effect evaluation chains (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

1. Generalization: This type of argument is based on a representative sample of the whole. The idea behind this rationalization is that the small sample used is sufficient to be considered typical (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

2. Analogy: This type of argument is based on the idea that two circumstances or situations are parallel enough as to cause the same outcome. The believability of this reasoning depends on how similar or dissimilar the two situations are purported to be (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

3. Sign or Clue: This type of argument is based on the concept that facts, premises, and evidence exist to forecast an acceptable conclusion (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

4. Causal Argument: This type of argument is based on the notion that one factor, the cause, directly led to another, the effect (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

5. Authority: This type of argument is based on the respect, value, and opinion of the authority figure quoted (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

�. Principle: This type of argument uses the validity of principle, which is an accepted truth, accepted manner of behavior or social conduct, fundamental basis of doctrine or morality, or established law or regulation (The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, n.d.).

Generalization: This Rottweiler has been known to be dangerous and violent; therefore, it follows that all Rottweilers are dangerous and violent.

Analogy: Identical twins Steven and John are both heavy smokers. Steven has lung cancer; therefore, it follows that John, too, will have lung cancer.

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Sign or Clue: Joan earned an A on her exam; therefore, she must have studied diligently for her test.

Causal Argument: Marty was severely dehydrated as a result of running a marathon.

Authority: Olivia decided to become a vegetarian because Harvard-educated cardiologists stated that eating red meat is a leading factor in arterial blockages, which lead to heart attacks.

Principle: Academic dishonesty is unacceptable; therefore, online classes should be banned, as it is difficult to regulate student honesty when exams are taken without supervision.

Organization and Draft of a Cause-and-Effect Essay In this section, there are four organizational cause-and-effect methods proposed with corresponding outlines and associated details. As a rule, essay authors must choose one method and follow the outline; mixing outline ideas will cause confusion and frustration when writing the final essay product. An academic cause-and-effect essay will discuss and analyze the reasons for a situation, occurrence, circumstance, or result; it is the author’s duty to make clear the relationship connection between cause and effect. Remember that the audience will generally not know as much about the essay subject; it is the author’s responsibility to prove to the reader that the information and analysis presented fits and connects together logically.

Brainstorming, Prewriting, and Outline Chart Before writing, students must engage in brainstorming various topics and ideas in a clear and organized manner. While thinking of issues, trends, and events for an essay topic, a writer should make a list of the ones that are the most interesting. Modern subject ideas may include, but are not limited to, relationships, social media, social issues, medicine and genetic engineering, technology, education, professional athletics, and politics; however, topic selection may not be up to the writer, as sometimes, cause-and-effect essay topics are preselected by instructors. From the brainstorming list, the writer can determine a final effect topic for the cause-and-effect essay. Writers should brainstorm further to discover ideas for possible causes of the effect. Decide whether the organization of the essay will have the form of three causes written in three separate paragraphs that lead to one effect, or if there is only one cause that leads to three effects, discussed in three separate paragraphs.

Figure 6.2

Cause and Effect Flowchart

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Another writing option is to consider an essay that focuses on a causal chain or a puzzling cause relationship. Successful essays will follow one of these outlines for the four organizational methods.

Method 1: Three Causes with One Effect The introduction: The first paragraph in any cause-and-effect essay introduces the subject discussed, sets the tone and direction of the paper, and states the thesis, also known as causal statement. The purpose of this section is to provide background information about the topic and allows the reader to evaluate whether the subject discussed is indeed a logical and plausible cause-and-effect association. The paragraph should begin with a topic statement followed by an academic discourse focusing on a brief history of the cause-and-effect subject. Consider addressing the following points:

1. Discuss how the issue originated.

2. Discuss the circumstances that precipitate the cause-and-effect relationship.

3. Discuss a brief history that surrounds the cause-and-effect relationship. Consider using a compare and contrast approach.

1. Skyrocketing divorce rates are caused by the disintegration of the nuclear family.

2. Circumstances related to divorce include a family of two working parents, a couple who marries at a young age, or various life stressors, such as illness or infertility.

3. Discuss the lifestyle of the nuclear family before divorce became commonplace. Explore and describe reasons why couples remained married and changes in social mores that allowed for divorce acceptability, such as traditional or religious beliefs, economical factors, or the

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assumption that children are psychologically better adjusted in an active two-parent home

A causal statement is required of any cause-and-effect essay. It must be stated with clarity and precision. Placing the causal statement in the final sentence of the introductory paragraph is recommended; however, always follow instructor guidelines if they differ. The reader must comprehend the purpose of the essay and the argument advanced by the writer. Cause-and-effect causal statements contain the stated subject to be discussed and the writer’s opinion on the subject.

This paper focuses on the discussion and analysis of (state event here-effect) and attempts to prove that the root causes are based on X, Y, and Z.

Body paragraphs: The paragraphs that comprise the body must identify and describe the factors related to the proposed causal statement. Each paragraph must be organized and analyze a single factor. A topic statement must be placed as the first sentence in each paragraph. These statements must be supported with factual, credible evidence and logical analysis. The causes will be discussed individually in body paragraphs two, three, and four. The fifth paragraph will address the effect analysis.

Conclusion: The final paragraph is the concluding paragraph, which is centered on the final persuasive attempt to prove the argument, confirm the causal statement, and the reasons for the author’s argument. No new information should be introduced in the final paragraph of the essay.

Method 2: One Cause with Three Effects Introduction: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the introduction paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Body paragraphs: Cause and effect essays using this method should discuss the cause in paragraph two and the effects in paragraphs three, four, and five.

Conclusion: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the conclusion paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Method 3: Causal Chain Introduction: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the introduction paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Body paragraphs: The body paragraphs of a causal chain argument must identify and evaluate the cause-and-effect relationship by means of examining the links that connect the ideas described in the causal statement. It is recommended that each paragraph be organized in a cause and effect manner; in other words, paragraph two must focus on cause and paragraph three must focus on the following effect, and so on. Each paragraph must analyze a single factor A topic statement must be placed as the first sentence in each paragraph. These statements must be supported with factual evidence from the Grand Canyon University library database, proper APA citation, and logical analysis. Contemplate and anticipate objections in order to create a stronger cause-and-effect

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strategy. With reference to paragraph number, always follow guidelines as given by instructor.

Conclusion: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the conclusion paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Method 4: Puzzling Cause Introduction: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the introduction paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Body paragraphs: For the puzzling cause essay, contemplate and consider related assumptions or logical results for the selected topic. The first body paragraph of a puzzling cause argument must discuss and analyze the most prevalent assumption of the puzzling cause or effect and rebut it within a single paragraph.

The subsequent paragraphs will support the argument for the puzzling cause or effect causal statement. Each paragraph must be organized and analyze a single factor, with a topic statement as the first sentence in each paragraph. Discuss and analyze the puzzling cause or effect, evaluating logical reasoning associated with the cause-and-effect relationship. Contemplate and rebut objections in order to create a stronger cause-and- effect strategy. These statements must be supported with factual evidence from the Grand Canyon University library database, proper APA citation, and logical analysis.

Conclusion: Writers using this method to compose a cause-and-effect essay should approach the conclusion paragraph in the same manner as described for Method 1.

Example Cause and Effect Argument Essay

Causes of the Black Market

A black market has been in existence from the time the sale of human organs became prohibited. Out of 120,000 waiting individuals, today, just 79 of them will be able to receive an organ transplant while 18 of those waiting will die (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). Because of the shortage of human organ donors, thousands of people will not live to see the day when they will receive a successful transplant. According to Section 274e of the National Organ Transplant Act of 1984 (2010), the sale of human organs is prohibited. A ban on the sale of human organs causes desperate individuals to turn to the black market. For those awaiting an organ transplant, the dialysis cost, procedures, and emotional misery provide reason to turn to the black market for help. Individuals with financial troubles see the black market as a way to help their situation. Both the donor and the recipient turn to the black market for the help it can provide. Criminals, brokers, traffickers and even surgeons take advantage of the profits that can be made from the sale of human organs. The existence of the black market in the sale of human organs comes from the shortage of human organ donors, the trouble that comes with awaiting an organ transplant, an existing ban on all sales and the benefits that are provided to all parties involved. The overwhelming demand for organs needed for transplantation is not met by the number of organ donors. As the clock ticks by, those who are on the waiting list might not live to receive a successful organ transplant. So far this year, only 16,884 transplants were performed (Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network, n.d.). However, there are more than

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120,000 people waiting for a transplant. There is a much higher need for donated organs than there are available. The demand is not being met, causing people to turn elsewhere for their needs. The black market is in existence for people faced with desperation. With such a shortage of human organ donors, individuals turn to the black market for the opportunity to live.

Treatments for those in need of an organ transplant change the individual’s life. The failure and disease of the kidneys creates a need for dialysis. When kidneys fail, they stop performing tasks such as filtering waste, excess fluid, and toxins from the blood (Miller, 2020). A machine undertakes the tasks that the kidney would normally perform. In undergoing dialysis, the treatments can take an emotional and physical toll on an individual. Patients can receive one of two different types of dialysis. Hemodialysis requires vascular access and often times treatments have to take place three to four times a week, depending on the individual’s medical situation (Kidney Dialysis, 2014). Peritoneal dialysis requires surgery to create access and the patient can perform the draining and filling process themselves up to four times a day, which takes approximately 30 to 40 minutes per exchange (Kidney Dialysis, 2014). According to WebMD (Kidney Dialysis, 2014), dialysis might cause an individual to have less energy, be affected by depression, and feel as if they do not have enough time available because of the strict scheduling of dialysis. The emotional and physical effects that dialysis has on individuals can cause them to turn to the black market for a way out of the misery.

People of all financial standings are in need of organ transplants. The cost of treatment for dialysis rises into overwhelming digits that are a financial and emotional burden on the recipients. Some individuals are fortunate to be covered by medical insurance while others are not. Treatments for dialysis cost significantly more than that of an organ transplant. In 2011, for each patient receiving hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis treatments, Medicare was billed about $88,000 and $71,000 respectively; in that same year, for each patient receiving a transplant, Medicare was billed $33,000 (National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse, 2014). Because dialysis continues until there is an available organ for transplantation, the costs of dialysis provide enough reason to turn to the black market for help out of the emotional, physical, and financial misery.

Faced with difficult financial times, some individuals look for help by taking desperate measures. Paul Mircov, a resident of Serbia stated, “When you need to put food on the table, selling a kidney doesn’t seem like much of a sacrifice.” (Bilefsky, 2012, para. 3). People are faced with a situation in which they might sacrifice everything to survive, including selling their organs. The organ trade in Serbia is illegal and is punishable by 10 years in prison. Organ trade also is illegal in the United States: “It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly acquire, receive, or otherwise transfer any human organ for valuable consideration for use in human transplantation if the transfer affects interstate commerce. The preceding sentence does not apply with respect to human organ paired donation.” (National Organ Transplant Act of 1984, 2010). The penalty that follows is a fine of no more than $50,000 or imprisonment of no more than five years, or both. Disregarding these laws and possible punishment, individuals from both sides, donors and recipients, risk everything to benefit their situation.

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Traffickers in the human organ black market prey upon desperate people. Jonathan Ratel stated, “Organized criminal groups are preying upon the vulnerable on both sides of the supply chain: people suffering from chronic poverty, and desperate and wealthy patients who will do anything to survive.” (Bilefsky, 2012, para. 6). The one who purchases the organ usually spends an average of $150,000, which in some cases can be higher, while the donor receives approximately $5,000 (Archer, 2013). The traffickers receive the profit, which would be approximately $145,000 based on the case mentioned above. Criminals, brokers, and traffickers can run the organ trade, but surgeons and hospitals play a large role in the act. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, has spent years studying the human organ black market and she stated, “there are 'broker-friendly' U.S. hospitals, complete with surgeons who either don't know or don't care where the organs come from,” (Archer, 2013, para. 5). Doctors and medical personnel disregard all legal acts in an effort to provide profit for themselves. The participants of the black market exploit the donors of human organs by providing them financial help in their situation; however, the amount that is compensated is far less than the amount that is collected and handed out to the exploiters. Everyone involved uses a system that is beneficial to donors and the recipients of the donation. From criminals to brokers to traffickers and even to surgeons, the black market exists because profits can be made off of vulnerable and desperate people.

The shortage of organ donors and the ban on all organ purchases results in the existence of the black market. Behind the shortage of organ donors stand thousands of people who are faced with ongoing dialysis treatment while waiting for the day that they will receive a transplant. With the waiting list being so long, individuals might not live long enough to receive a successful transplantation. The costs combined with physical and emotional pain that come from dialysis treatments often are enough to cause people to seek help from the black market. For poverty- stricken individuals, the black market gives them hope that, in selling their organs, they will be able to redeem themselves out of their situation. Brokers, traffickers, and criminals work together to take advantage of the sellers and the purchasers of organs for their own profit. Disregarding the prohibition of the sale and transfer of human organs, surgeons, alongside hospitals, perform procedures that, in return, will bring them profit. Every single individual involved in the black market is being exploited in one way or another. The black market exists to supply organs to individuals while disregarding the prohibition of the industry and exploiting each party involved.

References Archer, D. (2013, November 13). Body snatchers: Organ harvesting for profit.

Psychology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/reading-between- the headlines/201311/body-snatchers-organ-harvesting-profit

Bilefsky, D. (2012, June 28). Black market for body parts spreads among the poor in Europe. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/29/world/europe/black-market-for-body- parts-spreads-in-europe.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

Miller, K. (2020). When do I need dialysis? WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z- guides/kidney-dialysis?page=1

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National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse. (2014). Financial help for treatment of kidney failure. http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/financialhelp/#how

National Organ Transplant Act of 1984, 42 U.S.C § 274e. (2010). Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network. (n.d.). Home page.

http://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2014). The need is real: Data.

http://www.organdonor.gov/about/data.html

 

Helpful Hint

Remain on topic throughout the essay, and do not divert from the discussion and analysis of the cause-and-effect relationship as stated in the causal statement; immaterial and trivial information will only detract from the argument. For example, when arguing the relationship of an all-female learning institution having the effect of creating a strong foundation for learning and discipline, which leads to a successful and profitable career, it would be inadvisable to introduce the disadvantages of an all-girls learning environment, such as difficulty for these women to relate to men later in life.

Conclusion In conclusion, cause-and-effect relationships must be supported with proper logical reasoning. This is done through proper understanding of strategies and evidence typical of cause/effect arguments, like causal chains and inductive reasoning, intended to prove sensible and valid arguments. Included in this chapter are discussions and analysis related to various forms of cause-and-effect relationships. In addition, discussion of various types of causal arguments are evaluated and studied for student comprehension and critical thinking.

Key Terms Aberration from Expectation: The purpose of this type of argument is to convince the reader that the possibility exists for bizarre, unusual, or unnatural causes.

Causal Argument: A cause-and-effect chain consisting of repeated responses (effects) to previous outcomes (causes).

Causal Chain: A situation in which one incident perpetuates another causing a sequence of significant occurrences that leads to a specific result. This cause-and-effect association turns a product of an action into a new causal factor, which in turn generates a new result. This cause-and-effect pattern repeats itself until there is an overall concluding outcome (effect).

Causal Relationship: An association that attempts to analyze and prove that one event is rooted from a previous occurrence or that one situation directly led to a certain result or

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event. Cause-and-effect relationships are varied and may occur in any field of study or subject.

Causal Statement: Cause-and-effect thesis statements contain the stated subject to be discussed (the topic) and the author’s opinion on the subject.

Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning that typically is believed to be accurate and customary of an item, entity, or object leads to undoubting certainty for all objects in that category.

Inductive Reasoning: This type reasoning is based on finding and connecting specific ideas, comparisons, contrasts, and thought analogies in order to formulate a valid, yet general conclusion.

References Ellis, B., Bates, J., Dodge, K., Furgusson, D., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G., & Woodward, L.

(2003). Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? Child Development, 74, 801–821. doi: 10.1111/1467- 8624.00569

Grimes, W. (2009). Stephen Toulmin, a philosopher and educator, dies at 87. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/education/11toulmin.html

Hoover, A. (2013). Poor gut health and autism linked through GMOs (genetically modified organisms). http://healthandwellnessmagazine.net/content/features/poor-gut- health-and-autism-linked-through-gmos-genetically-modified-organisms/

Jaslow, R. (2014). Autism rates rise 30 percent in two-year span: CDC. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/autism-rates-rise-30-percent-in-two-year-span-cdc/

Live Science. (2012). Deductive reasoning vs. inductive reasoning. http://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html

Ramage, J., Bean, J., & Johnson, J. (2012). Causal arguments. Writing arguments, a rhetoric with readings (9th ed.). (pp. 254–271). Longman.

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