Case Study 2
CASE STUDY Stigma and Tuberculosis
The study of TB and its relationship to social stigma offers instructive lessons in societal reactions to disease (Macq, Solis, & Martinez, 2006). Numerous books have been written on the social history of TB, documenting the changing social construction of this persistent human affliction. For example, Barnes (1995) chronicles the transformation of TB in 19th-century France from the early romantic idea that consumptive women had heightened sensibilities to the harsher view that TB was a menace spread by the unhealthy behavior habits of the poor. In the 20th century, improved social conditions in urban areas and the availability of antibiotic drugs dramatically reduced TB prevalence, along with the social stigma associated with it. However, as the 20th century came to a close, decline in public health funding and infrastructure worldwide and the reemergence of TB as a coinfection with HIV/AIDS led to restigmatization of TB within societies.
In developing countries, where TB has remained a leading cause of mortality since the 19th century and earlier, the disease continues to be stigmatized because of its association with poverty and discrimination and because of the threat of contagion for people who may be exposed to the disease. Although the availability of effective antibiotic therapy has undoubtedly lowered the degree of TB stigma associated with disease communicability, exaggerated notions of transmissibility and fear of the disease continue to produce stigmatizing effects. In a four-country study of TB conducted in Bangladesh, India, Malawi, and Colombia, Weiss, Auer, Somma, and Abouihia (2006) found a substantial degree of stigma associated with the disease across sites, as well as shared perceptions of fear about contagion from the disease, despite the availability of adequate treatment. In all sites, the character of TB stigma was shaped by exaggerated concern about transmission of the disease to others and consequently reluctance to disclose the disease to significant others. Other findings of the four-country study highlight the local, site-specific aspects of TB stigma. For example, in Malawi, where HIV is hyperendemic, TB-related stigma was closely linked to HIV/AIDS. Because HIV/AIDS is strongly associated with male promiscuity in that setting, TB has taken on some of the same attributions of sexual misconduct. In Bangladesh, women scored higher than men on an overall stigma index and on specific items related to the experience of social exclusion. Finally, in India, stigma was clearly associated with the use of government clinics, which the investigators attributed to the invasion of patient privacy by home visits from health workers and related concerns about loss of confidentiality.
Recommendations for stigma reduction strategies based on the four-country study note the importance of balancing the real need for disease control measures to contain infection, such as the use of masks and short-term isolation, with the need to reduce unfounded concerns about communicability. Public health education should clearly distinguish between appropriate precautions to prevent the spread of infection and exaggerated beliefs about the risk of exposure, with the aim of reducing stigma indirectly.