Ethics

42 PART I , INTRODUCTION: THEORY AND PRACTJCE

4. G ive som e reasons against FGM . (Your reasons need not be only m oral.)

5. Could a society's cu ltura l approval of FG M ever m ake such a practic e m ora lly

right or even the m oral duty of wom en in that society? Tie your response in

with the discussions of relativism and objectivism .

Case3

Religious Exemption and the Death of Matthew Swan13

If relativism is correct, then what is right is whatever a society or culture takes to be right. The terms "society" and "culture" are somewhat vague, however, since distinct social groups can include religious communities, for instance, as well as countries or cultural communities. This makes it possible for moral standards to vary not just from country to country but also from one religious group to another even within a single country.

For example, according to the teachings of Church of Christ, Scientist, illness is caused by sin and can only be healed by prayer. Ordinary physicians do not actu- ally heal disease but merely relieve its symptoms. Seeking medical care is consid- ered morally wrong because it amounts to a sinful rejection of faith in God. Instead, Christian Scientists may only consult Christian Science Practitioners-people spe- cially approved by the Church of Christ, Scientist. The only exception is that anyone may set a broken bone, since this is not an illness. Christian Scientists are not the only group forbidding various types of medical care. In the United States, there are groups that oppose all medical care and only practice faith healing.

For some members of these groups, the consequences have been devastating. Douglas and Rita Swan had been Christian Scientists all their lives and so knew little of even basic medicine. In 1977, their only son, sixteen-month-old Matthew, devel- oped a high fever. The Christian Science practitioners maintained that Matthew was being made sick by the negative feelings of his parents and that prayer was needed to cure him. When Matthew didn't get better, Douglas and Rita considered going to a doctor, but according to Rita Swan, they "were terrified that the doctor wouldn't be able to treat the disease, ... and then we'd have no way to resume the Christian Science healing. Thus, if we made the wrong decision, we could find ourselves bereft of help from both medical science and God:'14 After twelve days, a practitioner sug- gested to the Swans that Matthew had a broken bone, which allowed them to go to a doctor. They did so immediately. In the hospital, Matthew was diagnosed with men- ingitis, which is very serious but can be treated effectively with antibiotics if diag- nosed early enough. Unfortunately, it was not early enough for Matthew, and he died in the hospital after receiving intensive care for a week. The Swans left the Christian Science church. In 1983, they founded Children's Health Care Is a Legal Duty (CHILD), an organization designed to protect children from "religion-based medical neqlect'"?

The Swans are not the only ones whose religious adherence cost them the life of their child. About 170 child deaths related to faith healing have been reported over the past twenty-five years. More recently, Neil Beagley died in 2008 of complications from a

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CHAPTER TWO , Moral Relativism 43

Case 3 ( Continued)

urinary tract blockage.16 Neil died surrounded by his family and a number of members of his church. His parents were tried and convicted for criminally negligent homicide.

Parents cannot normally be prosecuted in such cases, however, because of reli- gious exemption laws, which, in effect, hold members of certain religious commu- nities to different laws. Such laws provide special exemptions to child-abuse and neglect laws, allowing parents to refuse medical treatment for their children on religious grounds. Over forty U.S. states have some such laws. In states without rel i- gious exemptions, these kinds of cases may be treated as manslaughter or criminal mistreatment. Even in exemption states, parents who do not practice an exempt religion are subject to legal prosecution for failing to seek medical attention for their seriously sick children. In effect, then, the law establishes different standards regarding a parent's responsibilities towards their child and when medical treat- ment is required. These standards depend on the community one belongs to.

THOUGHT QUESTIONS

1. If there were no religious exemption, how would that have affected the Swans? 2. Do you think a religious community constitutes a distinct social group for

relativism? 3. From a relativist perspective, could a Christian Scientist oppose the moral

values of his or her religion? Why or why not? 4. Parents have a moral responsibility to do what is best for their children, which

includes availing themselves of needed medical treatment for a sick child. Chris- tian Scientists also seem to have a moral responsibility to follow the beliefs and teaching of their church, which forbids their use of modern medicine. An Amer- ican Christian Scientist belongs to both groups. When an American Christian Science parent has a seriously sick child, which set of responsibilities applies?

5. Do you think that the Swans and the Beagleys should have sought medical attention for their children? Do the deaths of their children raise any problems for relativism?

6. Is it morally justifiable to have religious-exemption laws, allowing parents to refuse medical care for their children? Tie your response in with the discussion of relativism.

Case4

Women in the Middle East17

Many religious and cultural traditions set different standards of behavior for men and women. For example, in many Islamic cultures women must veil themselves- a requirement that does not apply to men. Islamic scholars say that the stricture to

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