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Chapter 18

Sexual Images and Selling Sex

Sexuality Now – Embracing Diversity 6e

Chapter Outline

Erotic Representations in History

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts

Pornography: Graphic Images and Obscenity

Sex Work: Trading Sex for Money

The Government’s Role in Sex Work

Sex Work Around the World

Sex Trafficking: Modern Day Slavery

The Development of Pornography

Early cave drawings contain naked or scantily clad people

Great ancient civilizations have drawings of erotic images

Most sexual representations throughout history had a specific purpose

Erotica refers to sexual representations that are not pornographic

Erotic Representations

Early erotic art was often public art. The city of Pompeii included large, erect phalluses on street corners, and erotic frescoes adorned many people’s homes.

Source: The Art Archive/Art Resource, NY

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Erotic Literature

Societal forces, usually the clergy, censored nudity in public art

In the 16th century, many began to censor sexual art and literature, which seems to have started the pornographic subculture that exists today

The erotic novel started pornography as a business, provoking responses from religious and governmental authorities

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Television and Film

TV sanitizes and edits the world it displays

Issues such as contraception, STIs, morality, sexual dysfunctions, and regret are rarely discussed

Many new shows are graphically explicit in their treatment of sex

70% of shows today contain some sexual content (compared to 56% in 1998)

11% of primetime network shows refer to sexual risks and responsibilities (same amount as 1998)

Sex-Related Themes in Media

Television shows, such as Orange Is the New Black, boldly explore themes related to sexual orientation and gender identity, with strong lesbian, bisexual, and transgender characters. In 2014, Laverne Cox, who plays Sophia Burset (the hairdresser in this photo), became the first openly transgender person to be nominated for an Emmy.

Source: Netflix/Everett Collection

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Minority Sexuality

Television lacks much exposure of same-sex behavior and portrayals of the elderly, the disabled, and racial and ethnic minorities

Of late, minorities, especially female minorities, have been better represented in reality television

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Gender

Sexual information on TV is both explicit and implicit

Men are often in positions of leadership

Women, even if in high positions, are sexual temptations

Gender stereotyping is especially extreme in TV commercials

Newer shows are helping to portray women as smart and independent

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Television and Children

Many children’s shows lack positive female roles and have stereotyped roles for men and women

TV executives believe boys will not watch cartoons featuring a female lead, but that girls will watch cartoons with male leads

More television viewing is correlated with greater sexual stereotyping in certain groups of children

The more hours teens watch, the more likely they believe their peers are sexually active

The Movement Against the Sexualization of the Visual Media

Most Americans want stronger regulation of sexual content and profanity

Some movies have multiple versions that vary in the amount of sexual content

Some argue that G- and PG-rated releases make more money than R-rated movies

Some boycotted shows get high ratings because they address complex issues (e.g., abortion and homosexuality)

Popular Controversy

After a controversial season full of negative reviews for the scandalous nature of the show, Gossip Girl launched a highly successful ad campaign that used negative quotes from several watchdog organizations to promote the show. Another ad campaign for the show included the acronym WTF in bold letters, which was said to mean “Watch This Fall.”

Source: © Janell Carroll

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Advertising

Advertising is a modern invention that permeates our life

Children see 40,000 advertisements on TV each year

Advertising affects how children think about the world and it influences how they form ideas of sexuality and gender roles

Graphic Advertising

Calvin Klein often challenges limits in advertisingcampaigns by featuring graphic nudity and sexual themes. This controversial 50- foot billboard in a New York City neighborhood featured a scantily-clothed man and woman.

Source: Richard H. Cohen/Corbis

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Advertising and Gender Role Portrayals

Ads do not show realistic representations of men and women

Gender-role portrayals in television advertising from seven countries show that females still are portrayed stereotypically

The naked body is still the primary means of selling a product

Sexuality has been used to sell products since the early 1900s

Advertising Reflects and Shapes Culture

In early 2011, this J. Crew advertisement caused controversy by showing a woman painting her son’ s toenails pink. Critics argued this could increase the chances of the boy being gay or transgendered.

Source: AP Images

Sexuality in the Media and the Arts – Electronic Technologies and the Internet

Average teen spends more than 11 hours per day with electronic media

Can change the way children think and lead to difficulty in reading emotions and having empathy

Sexuality is manifested online in many ways

Porn sites, videos, photos, image sharing, forums, merchandising, streaming, camming

Wearable computers and virtual reality devices changing how people view porn

Google Glass

Google Glass, a type of wearable technology, enables users to access e-mail, texts, and the Internet via voice and physical commands. An app called “Sex with Glass” allows users to record themselves having sex from their partner’s perspective.

Source: Sergio Azenha/Alamy Stock Photo

Pornography: Graphic Images and Obscenity (1 of 2)

There is almost limitless access to pornography

Many advocates and opponents

Free-speech advocates

Antiporn and anti-antiporn feminists

Religious groups

Presidential commissions

American Civil Liberties Union

Pornography industry

Pornography: Graphic Images and Obscenity (2 of 2)

Anticensorship arguments

Restriction of pornography will lead to a society ruled by censorship and the ability to try to challenge sexual stereotypes

Anticensorship feminists believe censoring will lead to censorship of feminist writing and gay erotica

Argue that it is not clearly shown that pornography harms women

Pornography: Defining Obscenity (1 of 2)

Court decisions

First Amendment allows for “freedom of speech,” although the interpretation has been debated

Three-part U.S. legal definition of obscenity

Appeals to prurient interest

Offends contemporary community standards

Lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value

Pornography: Defining Obscenity (2 of 2)

Presidential commissions

1970 Commission on Obscenity and Pornography

1986 Attorney General’ s Commission on Pornography (the “Meese Commission”)

Antipornography arguments

Pornography reinforces second class status of women

Some believe pornography is more about power than sex; therefore, it should be banned

e.g., Dworkin and MacKinnon

Pornography: Studies on Its Effects

Society-wide studies

Contradictory results on rates of rape in relation to availability of pornography

Individual studies

Little evidence that nonviolent, sexually explicit films provoke antifemale reactions

Many studies show violent or degrading pornography does influence attitudes but confounded with effects of viewing violence on male behavior

Pornography: Entertainment and Attitudes

The adult entertainment industry

Increased availability online

Online use negatively affects relationships

Recent legislation in CA mandated safe-sex practices for all pornographic movies filmed in the state

Public attitudes about pornography

Many are ambivalent, though most want to ban violent pornography because they believe it can lead to a loss of respect for women

Sex Work: Trading Sex for Money

U.S. legal code is ambiguous about what sex work or prostitution is; each state has its own codes

Sex work, according to your text, is “the exchange of money or goods for sexual services”

Can include a range of sexual behaviors from erotic interactions without physical contact to high-risk sexual behaviors

Estimated two million sex workers in the United States

Sociological Aspects of Sex Work

Sex work may have developed from the patriarchal nature of most societies

Women exploit the only asset that cannot be taken away—their sexuality

From an economic standpoint, they are giving something that is free to them

Amsterdam’s Happy House

Xaveria Hollander, one of New York’ s leading madams during the 1960s, was arrested for prostitution in 1969 and thrown out of the United States a few years later. Today, she operates Xaveria’ s Happy House, a bed and breakfast, in Amsterdam.

Source: © Petra Lambert

Female Sex Workers

Average age of entry is 14

Live in pseudofamilies

Psychological problems are common

Early sexual contact and family violence may be a predisposing factor

Various types of female sex workers

High-Priced Escorts

Investigators believe that Eliot Spitzer spent up to $80,000 for sex workers over a period of several years. One woman he hired was Ashley Dupré, a $1,000-an-hour call girl working with Emperor’ s Club VIP.

Source: Amy Sussman/Getty Images

Male Sex Workers

Hustlers—male prostitutes who serve men; may be heterosexual otherwise

Gigolos—male prostitutes who serve wealthier women for both social/sexual needs

Majority are between 16 and 29 years old

Have mentors or “sugar daddies”

Motivated by money

Early sexual experience may be a predisposing factor

Other Types of Sex Workers

Adolescent sex workers

85% of runaways become involved with prostitution

Many have been sexually abused and have psychological problems

Many controlled by pimps

Other players in the business

Pimps

Clients

The Government’s Role in Sex Work

Legalization of sex work is primarily blocked because it is viewed as immoral by most

Although some Nevada counties allow legal brothels, they cannot advertise for sex workers

COYOTE—sex workers’ rights group claim it should be respected as a career choice

Most Americans believe the benefits of legalized sex work should be examined

Lower STI rates, less disorderly conduct, $20 billion per year in taxes

Sex Work and Sexually Transmitted Infections

Prostitutes try to minimize their risk by using condoms, rejecting clients with obvious STIs, and routinely taking antibiotics

Antibiotics can create resistant strains and cannot fight viral infections

Male prostitutes are more likely to practice high-risk sexual behaviors

Outside the United States, increasing condom use and AIDS education have been important

Quitting Sex Work

Many sex workers see themselves as deviant, making it difficult to stop

Reasons for leaving

Fear, experiencing violence, wanting to reestablish a religious lifestyle, personal or family relationships, exhaustion, and age

Sex Work Around the World (1 of 2)

Imperial Japanese Army placed women (comfort girls) in brothels for Japanese soldiers during World War II

GABRIELA: Fights sex work, harassment, rape, and battering

Thailand: Organized “sex tours”

A government STI monitoring system

100% condom use program

Belief in reincarnation reduces fear of death

Sex Work Around the World (2 of 2)

Amsterdam

De Wallen: Designated district with sex shops, adult shows, and street and window prostitutes

Prostitution is loosely regulated

Cuba

Jineteros exchange sex for clothing or luxuries from tourists

Sex Tours in Thailand

At a beach resort in Thailand, young prostitutes wait for a buyer.

Source: STEPHEN SHAVER/Getty Images

Holland’s Red Light District

The Red Light District in Amsterdam, Holland, is a designated area for legalized sex work.

Source: Stefano Paterna/Alamy

Sex Trafficking

Most common form of modern-day slavery

600,000 to 800,000 people trafficked across international borders annually

80% are female; 50% are children

100,000 to 300,000 children trafficked in the United States

Physical and psychological costs are high

U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act (2000)

T-visa allows international victims to stay in United States to assist in prosecution of traffickers

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