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Chapter 17

Power and Sexual Coercion

Sexuality Now – Embracing Diversity 5e

Chapter Outline (1 of 2)

Sexual Violence: Definitions, Incidence, Perpetrators, and Theories

Attitudes About Sexual Violence and Cultural Variations

Sexual Violence on College Campuses

Effects of Sexual Violence

When Men Are Victims of Sexual Violence

Chapter Outline (2 of 2)

Coping with Sexual Violence, Reporting Sexual Violence, and Treating Perpetrators

Sexual Abuse of Children

Intimate Partner Violence

Sexual Harassment

Defining Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is completed or attempted unwanted vaginal, oral, or anal penetration through the use of physical force, threats of violence, or when the victim is under the influence of drugs or alcohol

Sexual Violence Statistics

Estimates: One in three women and one in six men in the United States have experienced some form of sexual violence in their lives

In the majority of cases, the victims know their assailants

Rape and sexual assault are among the most underreported crimes in United States; only half of all incidents are reported

Reasons for not reporting

Nonconfidentiality, shame, or humiliation

Rates of Sexual Violence

Figure 17.13 Rates of sexual violence, United States 1994-2014

Source: The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN)

Myths About Rape (1 of 2)

Although there are many rape myths, the ones listed here are among the most common.

Only “bad” women get raped.

Women make false reports of rape.

Women fantasize about rape.

Men can’t be raped.

You can tell a rapist by the way he looks.

No woman or man can be raped against his or her will.

A man can’t rape his wife.

Myths About Rape (2 of 2)

Rape only happens to young, attractive women.

Most rapists rape only once.

False reporting of rape is common.

Characteristics of Sexual Violence Perpetrators

Primarily male, single, ages 15 to30

History of personal violence

High levels of impulsivity, aggression, sexist views of women, rape myth acceptance

Majority are serial offenders with average of six victims

Sexual violence can be perpetrated by or against members of any sex

Theories About Sexual Violence (1 of 2)

Rapist psychopathology: a disease model

Men rape due to alcohol intoxication, mental illness, or uncontrollable sexual urges

Disease or alcohol leads men to rape

Victim precipitation theory: blaming the victim

Victims make themselves vulnerable to rape by their dress, behaviors, or where they walk

Men are more likely to believe this theory than women

Theories About Sexual Violence (2 of 2)

Feminist theory: keeping women in their place

Rape and the threat of rape are used by society to keep women in a position subordinate to men’s

Sex-role stereotyping encourages rape

Sociological theory: balance of power

Rape is an expression of power differentials in society

Evolutionary theory: product of evolution

Males and females differ in their reproductive strategies

Gender Differences in Attitudes About Sexual Violence

Men are less empathetic and sensitive than women toward victims of sexual violence, believe more rape myths, and blame victims more

Rape prevention programs have been related to attitudinal and behavioral changes in college males

Ethnic Differences in Attitudes About Sexual Violence

Ethnic minorities tend to have traditional attitudes toward women

College students from most to least sympathetic of victims:

Non-Hispanic Whites

African Americans

Hispanics

Japanese Americans

Asian Americans are least sympathetic

Sexual Violence in Different Cultures

Varies by each culture’s definition

Rape as an entitlement and something that women enjoy: South Africa has the highest reported rape rate

Rape as a punishment and/or a legitimate form of control: Cheyenne Indians, Marshall Islands, Gusii people, Pakistan

Rape as an initiation: Kikuyu, Arunta

Societies that promote male violence have higher incidences of rape

Sexual Violence Legislation on Campus

Know Your IX (2013)

Campaign aimed at educating students about Title IX and empowering them to stop sexual violence on college campuses.

White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault

Established by President Obama in 2014

NotAlone.gov

Rape and Campus Safety

A controversial ruling on a rape case at Stanford University in 2014, in which a student who sexually assaulted a classmate was allowed to remain on campus and graduate, prompted a national debate about how rape on college campuses should be handled.

Source: Gary Reyes/Bay Area News Group

Alcohol and Sexual Violence

Alcohol use is one of the strongest predictors of sexual violence

Alcohol reduces inhibitions, which increases the chances of engaging in risky sexual behaviors for both women and men

A drunk man accused of rape is seen as less responsible

A drunk woman who was raped is seen as more responsible for her behavior

Fraternities and Sexual Violence

Fraternities have an ethic of masculinity that values dominance and sexual prowess

Secrecy and protection of the group create environment for sexual violence

Many fraternities sponsor rape and assault prevention programs, and invite speakers from rape crisis centers

Men attending these programs are less likely to commit sexual assault

Athletes and Sexual Violence

Student athletes have higher acceptance of rape myths

Higher rates of sexually abusive behavior among male athletes on high revenue-producing teams compared to athletes on teams that produce less revenue

Female athletes blame the victim more than do female nonathletes

Rape Trauma Syndrome (RTS) (1 of 2)

A two-stage response pattern of physical, behavioral, psychological, and sexual problems

Acute phase (stage 1)—begins immediately and may last many weeks

Fear of being alone, of strangers, and of the place where the rape occurred

Wide mood fluctuations; difficulties sleeping; nightmares

Anger, anxiety, confusion, shock, disbelief, incoherence, guilt, humiliation, shame, self-blame

Rape Trauma Syndrome (RTS) (2 of 2)

Long-term reorganization (stage 2)—can persist for several years

Involves restoring order and regaining control

Sexual difficulties can persist for years and counseling can help

Fear of sex

Desire and arousal disorders

Problems with sexual behaviors

Positive crisis intervention and support from others can decrease trauma symptoms

Responses to Sexual Violence

It’s common to experience emotions such as sadness, confusion, anger, guilt, and/or humiliation after experiencing sexual violence

Talking to a counselor can be very helpful in working through these feelings

Source: David Buffington/Photodisc/Getty Images

Silent Rape Reaction

Some victims never discuss the rape with others; they repress and deny it until they feel stronger emotionally

Will experience many of the same symptoms of RTS

Those who take longer to tell another person usually suffer a longer recovery period

Sexual Violence, Partners, and Other Special Populations

Marital rape

Lesbians and bisexuals

Transgender people

Older women

Women with disabilities

Sex workers

Secondary victims of sexual violence

Sexual Violence and Older Women

Older women are also victims of sexual violence and may experience increased trauma due to declining physical health and more conservative attitudes about sexuality.

Source: Mel Curtis/Getty Images

When Men Are Victims of Sexual Violence (1 of 2)

Sexual assault of men by women

Female rapists often use forced sex and verbal coercion; most use psychological or pressured contact

Unlike female victims, male victims are more likely to be sexually assaulted by a stranger

When Men Are Victims of Sexual Violence (2 of 2)

Sexual assault of men by men

All men are at risk for sexual violence; 40% of male victims were homosexual in one study

Most common sexual assault is anal penetration, then oral penetration

Emotional reactions are shame, embarrassment, self-blame, hostility, and depression

May lead to questioning of sexual orientation and feel assault makes them less a “real man”

Prison Rape

Federal Prison Rape Elimination Act (2003)

reduces tolerance for prison sexual assault

mandates national data collection

funds research and programs

About 18% of inmates report sexual threat

Females most often victimized by prison staff

Inmates must continue to interact with their assailants; can increase the length of RTS

Prisoners often lack access to crisis centers

Coping with Sexual Violence

Sexual assault is only violent crime in which our culture expects the victim to fight back

Victims should write what they remember after the assault before memory fades

Immediately seek help (friend, family, police, crisis center) and get medical assistance

Do not shower or clean up to allow for “rape kit” evidence collection

Reporting Sexual Violence (1 of 2)

Reporting helps victims regain sense of control

More likely if perpetrator was a stranger or if violence or a weapon used

Sexual minorities may feel more barriers to reporting due to further marginalization

Campus police cannot press formal charges

Telling local police may prevent other crimes; provides formal report for legal action

Some victims report negative experience with police

Reporting Sexual Violence (2 of 2)

Pressing charges

Charges are pressed because of anger, to protect others, or for justice

Not pressing charges may be due to fear, wanting to forget, pitying the rapist

Often the victim feels as if they are going through a second rape because they are put on trial more than the accused rapist

Going to Court

Testifying in a rape case can be emotionally and physically draining. Many survivors feel isolated and overwhelmed by the process. Having a trusted friend or advocate in the courtroom can make the process less intimidating.

Source: RubberBall/Alamy

Treating Perpetrators of Sexual Violence

Shock treatment, support groups, behavioral therapy, psychotherapy, Depo-Provera

Results for these methods are inconclusive

Attitudes appear to change, but behavioral changes are not clear

Most important first step is accepting responsibility for actions

Treatment for repeat offenders has shown limited success

Incidence of Child Sexual Abuse of Children—Incidence

Accurate statistics are difficult to attain

Reported incidences increasing

9.2% of children are sexually abused

Gender difference: one in five girls and 1 in 20 boys are victims

False child abuse reports occur in fewer than 10% of cases

Victims of Child Sex Abuse

Most vulnerable age for abuse is 7 to 13

40% of abused boys and 21% of abused girls are abused by strangers

29% of abused girls and 11% of abused boys are abused by family members

Reactions to abuse: fear, shame, self-blame

Incest with biological father: longest report delay

Incest with stepfathers or live-in partners: more likely to be reported

How Children Are Affected

Psychological and emotional reactions

Feelings of betrayal, powerlessness, shame, guilt, fear, anger, self-blame, frustration, low self-esteem, and intimacy problems

Dissociative disorder

Dissociative identity disorder

Personality disorders and PTSD

Long-term effects

Traumatic sexualization

Eating disorders, drug/alcohol abuse, prostitution

Characteristics of Child Sexual Abusers

Three prominent theories

Learning: sexually abused as a child

Gender: not taught how to express affection without sexuality; socialized to be attracted to smaller mates

Biological: elevated levels of hormones (not testosterone); neurological differences between incest offenders and nonsex criminal offenders

Helping Child Sexual Abuse Victims Heal

Most effective treatments combine cognitive and behavioral psychotherapies

Teach victims how to understand and handle trauma of assault

Victims often have difficulty developing and maintaining intimate relationships as adults

Partners of victims can also benefit from counseling

Treating Child Sexual Abusers

Main goal: decrease arousal to children

Other goals: better adult relations, assertiveness training, empathy and respect, sexual education

High recidivism rates

Preventing Child Sexual Abuse

“Just say no” campaign—teaches children how to say no to inappropriate advances

Also teach children where to go and whom to talk to about situations

Funding and staffing child welfare agencies

Health care providers and educators must be trained to spot signs of abuse

Intimate Partner Violence

Physical and sexual violence, stalking, psychological aggression, and/or control of reproductive or sexual health

One in three in the United States report experiencing IPV

Risk factors: stress, early parenthood, drinking in abuser, severe poverty, unemployment

Intimate partner homicide: 76% of victims are women

Intimate Partner Violence in Same-Sex Relationships

Although less is known about the prevalence and experience of intimate partner violence in lesbian relationships, we do know that IPV in lesbian relationships looks similar to IPV in heterosexual relationships.

Reactions to Intimate Partner Violence

Psychological symptoms: depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, antisocial behavior, fear of intimacy

Physical symptoms: headaches, back pain, broken bones, stomach problems, gynecological disorders

Preventing Intimate Partner Violence

Related factors: history of partner violence in the offender’s family

Educational programs and safe housing can help victims

Need to increase available services for LGBT, elderly, disabled person

Sexual Harassment

Quid pro quo (“this for that”) harassment and hostile environment harassment

Severe or chronic harassment can cause psychological response similar to rape

Assertiveness is most effective strategy; tell someone else or confront the offender

phys270 11

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