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Chapter 11

Sexual Orientation

Sexuality Now – Embracing Diversity 6e

Chapter Outline

What Determines Sexual Orientation?

Why are there Different Sexual Orientations?

Homosexuality in Other Times and Places

Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Throughout the Life Cycle

Homophobia and Heterosexism

Differences Among Homosexual Groups

Homosexuality in Religion and the Law

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation—the gender(s) that a person is attracted to emotionally, physically, sexually, and romantically

Heterosexual—predominantly attracted to members of the other sex

Homosexual—predominantly attracted to members of the same sex

Bisexual—attracted to both men and women

Variation in Sexual Orientation

People can show enormous variety in their sexual behavior, sexual fantasies, emotional attachments, and sexual self-concept, and each contributes to a person’s sexual orientation.

Source: © Angela Hanlon

What Determines Sexual Orientation?

Models of sexual orientation

Kinsey and colleagues believed sexual orientation better represented on a continuum

7-point scale from exclusively heterosexual behavior to exclusively homosexual behavior

Emphasizes behavior and is static in time

Klein sexual orientation grid (KSOG)—expanded Kinsey’s continuum

Expanded dimensions and incorporates past, present, and ideal

The Kinsey Continuum

Figure 11.1 The Kinsey Continuum. The 7-point scale is based on behaviors ranging from exclusively heterosexual behavior to exclusively homosexual behavior. From H. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948. Reprinted with permission of The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc.

Source: From Kinsey, A., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc.

Klein Sexual Orientation Profile

Figure 11.2 The Klein Sexual Orientation Grid was designed to examine seven dimensions of an individual’ s sexual orientation to determine whether these dimensions have changed over time and to look at a person’ s fantasy of his or her “ideal” sexual orientation. The KSOG gives a set of numbers that can be compared to determine rates of different sexual orientations. Use the Kinsey categories in this grid to rate yourself.

From Fritz Klein, Homosexuality/Heterosexuality, p. 280. Reprinted with permission of The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc.

Source: From Klein, F. (1990). The need to view sexual orientation as a multivariable dynamic process: A theoretical perspective. In D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders, & J. M. Reinisch (Eds.), Homosexuality/heterosexuality: Concepts of sexual orientation (p. 280). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc.

Measuring Sexual Orientation: How Prevalent?

National Health Interview Survey, 2015

Conducted annually by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

1.6% of respondents identified as gay or lesbian

0.8% identified as bisexual

Increase in Americans identifying as LGBT

2012: 8.25 million (3.5%)

2016: 10 million (4.1%)

Why Are There Different Sexual Orientations?—Biological Theories

Genetics

The closer genetic relatedness in siblings, the more likely they shared sexual orientation

Genes account for at least half of the variance in sexual orientation

Hormones

Weak support for influence during prenatal development

Mixed results for differences in adult hormone levels

Biological Theories

Birth order

Gender and number of siblings may have impact

Maternal Immune Hypothesis: Proposes that later-born sons could develop immune response that influences gene expression during brain development

Physiology

Brain differences exist in cerebral hemisphere

Ratio of the index and ring fingers

Development Theories (1 of 2)

Freud and the Psychoanalytic School

All of us are naturally bisexual

Male homosexuality: Unresolved Oedipal complex

Lesbians: Cannot have their father and thus, reject him and all men; less understood

Viewed homosexuality as narcissistic

Rado: Homosexuality as a mental illness

Bieber: Gay men had intimate and seductive mothers, and absent or hostile fathers

Development Theories (2 of 2)

Gender-role nonconformity

Correlational studies suggest children exhibiting cross-gender traits are more likely to be gay or lesbian as adults

Peer group interaction

Storms (1991) suggests early sexual development leads to homosexuality

Lacks support

Behaviorist/Sociological Theories

Behaviorist theories

Homosexuality is due to reinforcement of homosexual tendencies and/or punishing of heterosexual tendencies

However, society does not provide reinforcement for homosexual behavior

Sociological theories

Sexual orientation is learned through culture

Prevalence of homosexuality differs in time and culture

Interactional Theory

Proposes that homosexuality results from a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors

Bem’ s theory suggests biology (genetics, hormones, neuroanatomy) contribute to childhood temperaments that influence preferences for sex-typical or atypical behaviors

Limited empirical support

Homosexuality in History (1 of 2)

The Classical Era

Homosexual activity was common

Sodomy and buggery considered crimes

Lesbianism a mystery to ancient writers

The Middle Ages

Little Church interest through the 13th century

After 13th century, homosexuality punishable by death

Has influenced Western view of homosexuality to present day

Historical Evidence for Same-Sex Behavior

Ancient societies left evidence to show that same-sex behavior was not uncommon.

Source: Mimmo Jodice/Corbis

Homosexuality in History (2 of 2)

The Modern Era

Many periods of both tolerance and of harsh oppression

The United States, of Puritan origins, is more disapproving than Europe

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, “passing women” operated as men in U.S. society

Psychiatry viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder into the 1970s

Same-Sex Behavior in Other Cultures (1 of 2)

Latin American countries

Emphasis is on masculinity and femininity, not homosexuality and heterosexuality

In many countries, one is not considered homosexual if in active, penetrating role

Men who mimic female behaviors are disgraceful and shameful

Arabic cultures

Sex is based on power and dominance

Male homosexuality is taboo

Same-Sex Behavior in Other Cultures (2 of 2)

Asian and Pacific countries

A Western “social disease” in some countries

Buddhism does not condemn homosexuality

African countries

Illegal/punishable by death in many countries

Practice of “corrective” rape of lesbians in South Africa

Sambia, of Papua New Guinea

Male homosexual behavior cultural practice until age of 18

Legalizing Same-Sex Marriage

In 2016, Columbia became the fourth country in Catholic-majority South America to legalize same-sex marriage, following Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.

Source: Fernando Vergara/AP Images

Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Throughout the Life Cycle

Growing up gay, lesbian, or bisexual

Few models are applicable to homosexual youth

The societal message is a negative one

Coming out to self and others

Acknowledging one's sexual identity to self and then others

Much anxiety over possible rejection

Coming Out to Self and Others

Family reactions to coming out

Positive familial coming out experiences related to higher self-concepts, lower depression, and healthier adjustment

Children rejected by parents have increased isolation, loneliness, depression, thoughts of suicide, STIs, and homelessness

About 25% are forced to leave home

20%-40% of street youth are not heterosexual

Effects of Stigma

GLB youth experience many problems due to the pressures of living in a society that discriminates

Higher levels of depression; more likely to think about and commit suicide

Higher rates of substance abuse problems

Higher rates of truancy, homelessness, and sexual abuse

Workplace discrimination

Unequal pay

Sexuality and Relationship Satisfaction

Relationship satisfaction is very similar across couple types (same- and other-sex). However, same-sex couples may be more upbeat in the face of conflict and remain more positive after disagreements.

Source: Creatista/Shutterstock

Life Issues: Partnering, Sexuality, Parenthood, and Aging (1 of 2)

Looking for partners

Many social institutions help people meet

GLB clubs, support groups, organizations, meeting areas, and dating apps

GLB persons in committed relationships experience less sadness, lower stress, increased well-being

Life Issues: Partnering, Sexuality, Parenthood, and Aging (2 of 2)

Lesbian and gay parenting

Society assumes a heterosexist view of parenting

No significant differences in sexual orientation for the offspring of homosexual and heterosexual mothers

Adopting Children

Same-sex couples in all states can adopt children today, although couples may be required to be in a legally recognized relationship.

Source: GOGO Images/SuperStock

Surrogacy is an Option

Pop singer Ricky Martin is the proud father of two sons who were born via surrogate mother.

Source: Handout/Getty Images

Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Seniors

Seniors face a number of issues

Survivor benefits, lack of health insurance, Social Security, and assisted living needs

Specialized retirement homes are being formed for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered seniors

Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Organizations

Social services, political, medical, entertainment, and religious organizations meet the needs of the GLB population

Harvey Milk School in NYC: The first public school for GLBTQ youth

Gay, lesbian, and bisexual media includes magazines (The Advocate) and newspapers

Homophobia and Heterosexism (1 of 2)

What is homophobia?

Strongly negative attitudes toward homosexuals and homosexuality

Homophobes are likely to be older, less educated, religious, conservative, authoritarian, less supportive of equality of the sexes, less sexually permissive, and heterosexual men

Homosexuals with homophobia have lower self-esteem, more shame, and psychological distress

Heterosexism—a presumption of heterosexuality in society

Homophobia and Heterosexism (2 of 2)

Hate crimes against lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals

The third most common type of hate crime in 2015; largely viewed as socially acceptable

The most socially acceptable form of hate crimes

Why are people homophobic?

Personality, especially authoritarian personalities; anything not “correct” is not tolerated

Suppressed homosexual desires

Ignorance about homosexuality

How Can We Combat Homophobia and Heterosexism?

Legislation

College campuses required to report all hate crimes

The media

Gay, lesbian, and bisexual media representation is increasing

Education

Much opposition to teaching sexuality, including homosexuality, in schools

Lesbianism

Women’s sexual identity is more fluid than men’s

More bisexual attraction and experiences than men

Relationships are more satisfying, egalitarian, empathic than heterosexual ones

The lesbian community is vibrant

Lesbians have poorer health than heterosexual women

Shorter life expectancy; higher poverty rate

Bisexuality

Often first identify as heterosexual; identify as bisexual later in life

Experience hostility and discrimination from both heterosexuals and homosexuals

Some claim it is a myth, denial of homosexuality, identity confusion, or an attempt to be trendy

More Americans exhibit bisexual behavior than exclusively homosexual behavior

Sequential bisexuality—sex solely with one gender, followed by sex solely with the other

Minority Homosexuality

Many ethnic groups are less accepting of homosexuality

Homosexual community does not readily accommodate expressions of ethnic identity

GLB minorities feel being between two communities, rather than part of any one; “double jeopardy” being in two stigmatized minority groups

Challenges for Minorities

Lesbians, gays, and bisexuals who belong to other minority groups must deal

with the prejudices of society toward both groups, as well as each group’s prejudices toward the other.

Source: Geoff Manasse/Getty Images

Same-Sex Sexual Behavior in Prison

Sexual contact between inmates is prohibited but still occurs in prisons

Sexual behaviors governed by roles and relationships that define one’s position in prison system

Forced sex does occur; less common in women’s prisons

Majority are not homosexuals and return to heterosexuality upon release

Situational homosexuality, when men and women spend long periods of time together

Homosexuality and Religion

Welcoming Christian religions: United Church of Christ, Metropolitan Community Churches

Liberal and conservative views in Presbyterian, Methodist, Lutheran, and Episcopalian churches

Homosexuality is a sin in Catholic, Southern Baptist, and Assembly of God churches

Muslims believe homosexuality is wrong; American Muslims have more liberal views

Reform Jews are most accepting in Judaism

Buddhists no consensus, encourage mutually loving and supportive relationships

Religious Acceptance of Homosexuality

Although there is still hostility toward homosexuality within many major religions, religious scholars have begun to promote a more liberal attitude, including ordination of gay and lesbian clergy and marriage or commitment ceremonies.

Source: AP Images/David Zalubowski

Homosexuality and the Law

All 50 states outlawed homosexual behaviors until 1961

Homosexuals face discrimination on the job, in housing, health care benefits, tax breaks, Social Security, benefits, and rights of inheritance

Military’ s “don’ t ask, don’ t tell” policy ended in 2010

Supreme Court in 2015 rules marriage bans unconstitutional, legalizing same-sex marriage nationwide

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