summaries

The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 73, No. 4, Winter 2017 ©2017 by the University of Texas Press

Published for the North American Society of Adlerian Psychology.

The Work Life Task: Adler’s Influence on Career Counseling and Development

Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca

Abstract

Adler recognized career development as an integral component of life. His holistic view of lifestyle as active in career endeavors is a fundamental factor in many ca- reer theories. Although his work is often not recognized in career theories, many of the constructs used are similar to those professed by Adler. One emerging theory of career development and counseling uses many of the constructs presented in Individual Psychology. Career construction theory focuses on the counseling process and uses many autobiographical memory techniques to understand the client’s mo- tivation and movement. This article highlights Adler’s many contributions to under- standing career development.

Keywords: Individual Psychology and career development, Adler and career, lifestyle and career development, career theory and Individual Psychology

I have a personal philosophy in life: If somebody else can do something that I’m doing, they should do it. And what I want to do is find things that would represent a unique contribution to the world—the contribution that only I, and my portfolio of talents, can make happen. Those are my priorities in life.

—Neil deGrasse Tyson

Adler understood the centrality of work in adult life. This is evident in his conceptualization of the three life problems: occupation, social, and love (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). Adler considered these three prob- lems (often referenced as “life tasks”) interdependent, meaning that the solu- tions to address one carried over to the others. From this conceptualization, Adler indicated that attempting to separate work life from the other aspects of living was impossible. Many career theorists and researchers (Apodaca, 2015; Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Krumboltz, 1993; Stoltz & Haas, 2015; Super, 1993; Zunker, 2008) continue to posit the impossibility of separating career from other types of counseling. Adler recognized this integration and professed it in his theory. This holistic focus from Adler may be one specific reason a well-formed vocational theory steeped in Individual Psychology (E. C. Watkins, 1984) took several years to emerge.

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Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) presented the occupation task (work life task) as first in Adler’s conceptualization. According to them, Adler noted the social embeddedness of work roles, the usefulness and contribution of each role in an economy, and the fairness of each participant receiving pay- ment for contribution. When discussing society (the social task), Adler iden- tified individualized contributions through the division of labor. In this social task, he stressed the importance of adapting the self in cooperation with others to form the various divisions in meeting societal needs. Finally, Adler identified that work contributed to the love task by being a way to support a family and further the next generation. This amalgamation of life tasks explains how each one relates to the other and leads to the view of Adler’s theory as holistic and humanistic. However, this strength in the theory also contributes to the difficulty in defining a specific vocational theory based on Individual Psychology. Although there may be difficulty in defining a clear and concise voca- tional theory based on Adler’s Individual Psychology, E. C. Watkins (1984) developed the most complete articulated vocational theory to date using Individual Psychology. Similar to Super’s (1957) emphasis that vocational choice is an effort to implement the self-concept, Watkins emphasized that vocational choice was an attempt to apply the lifestyle in a work context. He went on to underscore the importance of how a worker’s attitude toward others influences the way the individual interacts and perceives work. This perspective is included in much organizational research on worker attitudes (e.g., followership: Kelley, 1992; Work Experience Scale, WES: Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006). Finally, Watkins articulated that early familial re- lationships influenced workers’ perspectives of work including collaborative relationships. Kern and Peluso (1999) offered conceptual understanding of this phenomenon by drawing parallels between family of origin and worker relationships and roles. By using birth order, lifestyle, and early recollec- tions, Watkins posited statistical corollaries that are being used across a wide spectrum of organizational, vocational, and career psychologies, although his contribution remains obscure in the reference literature. The purpose of this article is to review contemporary vocational de- velopment and counseling theories and to highlight the aspects of Adler’s constructs that add to or influence those theories. To accomplish this, we provide a brief review of several common vocational theories. We present the constructs and show direct or indirect relationships to Adler’s ideas con- cerning vocation. Our overall intention with this article is to provide readers with a greater understanding of how Adler’s work infiltrated and influenced vocational theory and career counseling. In addition, similar to Adler, we hope to encourage practitioners and researchers to practice from a more holistic perspective and include the work life task as a natural and integral component of mental health counseling.

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Career Theories and the Work Life Task

Super (1990) developed the life-span, life-space approach to career development and is recognized as one of the most influential theorists in the career development literature. His theory was actually a collection of theories (Hartung, 2013) that included the matching approach (e.g., Parsons, 1909; Holland, 1997), developmental stages (Super, 1957), and self-concept theory (Rogers, 1951). Super did not draw directly from Adler in his writing, but he conceptualized self-concept to describe the subjectively held per- spectives of self. In his 1990 description of the theory, Super used a diagram to explain self-concept development from early childhood. He explained that children possess a natural curiosity to explore. If thwarted by conflict, he indicated that children withdraw. This process is similar to Dreikurs and Soltz’s (1991) goal of misbehavior: withdrawal from society. In Super’s case, the withdrawal is particularly damaging, as it can stump the growth of self- concept and exploration of the world leading to a lack of self-knowledge concerning interests. Promoting exploration would be served by encour- agement. Additionally, Super recognized that children look around the en- vironment and choose role models or key figures. These key figures serve to influence the self-concept. From an Individual Psychology perspective, these key figures represent the teleological goals in others that the individual is seeking for the self. Here are the seeds to self-concept development that run parallel to many of Adler’s ideas; the child has a natural curiosity that can be thwarted by discouragement and lead to withdrawal. Encouragement promotes exploration, and key figures in the environment help the child rec- ognize internal self-concept and self-expression goals. Furthermore, Super described vocational choice as an expression of the self-concept. Here lies the nexus of Adler’s view of lifestyle and Super’s construct of self-concept. Both recognize that the constructs develop early in life, are influenced by early life experiences, and are expressed in social encounters like work. In this process of self-expression, Super (1957) discussed career maturity. Career maturity can be conceptualized as meeting the socially prescribed career tasks, similar to Adler’s life tasks. However, these career tasks were focused on identifying personal career interests, narrowing those interests, and ultimately selecting the career interests for further exploration and self- expression. Later, Super and Knasel (1981) reconceptualized the maturity construct as adaptability. They reasoned adaptability as a lifelong pursuit of accomplishing career tasks. Maturity represented a finite amount or leveling off, where adaptability insinuated continual growth and development. This construct is very similar to Adler’s striving for superiority. Work becomes a way of deepening identity through self-expression, of adapting and striving to achieve individual potential. Although Super did not reference Adler, sim- ilarities emerge in studying the two theories. The expression of self-concept

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includes many aspects of the lifestyle and striving for superiority constructs from Adler’s theory. One of the most influential and best-known theories of career devel- opment is Holland’s (1997) career typologies or vocational personalities. Holland theorized six types of individuals: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. He noted that as organizations come together, these types mingle to create specific work environments that have similar characteristics to the individual types. Each type is explained with personality characteristics (e.g., investigative, logical, analytical), which are accompanied by values (e.g., rationality, independence) and preferred ac- tivities (e.g., learning, exploring). At first glance, these descriptions seem limited to work and career. However, Holland (1997) mentioned Adler’s (1939b) lifestyle types when conceptualizing worker and environmental ty- pologies. Holland recognized that individuals draw on early life experiences to develop specific values, skills, and interests that help them prepare for contributing at work. This reference to Adler’s lifestyle types demonstrates the integration or holistic nature that Holland used to build his theory. Another significant theory that uses a specific aspect of Adler’s work is the cognitive information processing model (CIP; Peterson, Sampson, Lenz, & Reardon, 2002). The CIP model reflects Adler’s conceptualization of private logic. These authors did not acknowledge Adler’s contribution to cognitive psychology; however, many theorists have credited the lineage of Adler’s contribution (e.g., Beck, 1976; Ellis, 1970). Beck, Ellis, and others acknowledged Adler for highlighting the concept of cognition (private logic) and furthering the study of the effects patterns of cognition have on behavior. For a thorough review of Adler’s contribution to cognitive psychology, see Watts and Critelli (1997). In the CIP model (Peterson et al., 2002), the authors present CIP as a way to assist career-counseling clients by focusing on the cognitive tools for rec- ognizing, analyzing, and solving career-related problems. There is recogni- tion that career problems are immersed in the client’s life, and Peterson et al. used the term “lifestyle” to define the integration of career problems with the personal, family, spiritual, and leisure aspects of the client’s existence. This reference to lifestyle is further defined as the “guiding purpose, meaning, and directions in one’s life” (Peterson et al., 2002, p. 316). These authors go on to explain the complex cognitive processes involved in career problem solving and include the affective components of experiences related to ca- reer issues. Within this theory is the acknowledgment that people develop specific individualized cognitive styles and ways of processing career infor- mation. Intervention helps realign thinking to be more rational, giving clients greater use of cognitive processing skills that aid in clarity of self-knowledge, career information, and discerning personal career opportunities. These gen- eral concepts are fundamental in Individual Psychology for helping clients

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gain self-knowledge concerning thinking patterns and how those patterns may affect many aspects of the individual’s life, including career issues. Recognizing the influence of cognition on career development, Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) developed the social cognitive career theory (SCCT) based on Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory (SCT). One aspect of developing SCCT was an attempt to integrate or converge several career theories into a single metatheory. SCT (Bandura, 1986) includes biological, early development, internal emotional and cognitive, and physical factors in the model. These come to influence the present activities of the individual in much the same way life- style represents movement. According to SCT, all human endeavor includes personal beliefs about an individual’s ability to complete specific tasks (self- efficacy) and the motivation to engage in tasks (outcome expectations). These two concepts are the crux of SCT, and SCCT uses them to explain the development of career interests. Bandura’s links to Adler can be tracked through the work of Rotter (1954) and Lefcourt (1976). These researchers contributed much to the cognitive aspects of Bandura’s theory (Kelland, 2015), and either referenced Adler (Lefcourt) or were directly influenced by Adler (Rotter). Additionally, Wong (2015) drew parallels between Adler’s and Dreikurs’s views of encouragement and the verbal persuasion aspects of Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy. Many aspects of Adler’s concepts can be found in SCT, which is used to build SCCT. Blustein (2006), in The Psychology of Working, highlighted a new per- spective for public policy concerning career development. Blustein recog- nized the drastic changes occurring in the workplace and called for a focus on social connection and self-determination. Although Blustein did not couch his thesis in Adlerian concepts, there are many parallels to Individual Psychology. He calls his approach relational, recognizing the human need and striving for relatedness. This is synonymous in many ways to Adler’s idea of social interest and belongingness. Bluestein highlights relational challenges in work life and states, that when navigated in productive pro- relational ways, worker’s career satisfaction, and social abilities increase to create safe havens in the workplace. These outcomes promote what Adler would call social interest and belongingness in the work task. Additionally, Blustein emphasizes self-determinism using self-determi- nation theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985). He describes a process of helping career clients move from external regulation (working for external goals or rewards) to internal regulation (working from a set of internal goals and values). This process and theory is focused on three outcome constructs: au- tonomy, relatedness, and competence. Autonomy and competence in Indi- vidual Psychology represent striving for superiority. This striving is described as an internal endeavoring to actualize an individual’s full potential. Al- though Blustein does not use the striving for superiority term, his description

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illuminates this striving in work life. More easily referenced, Blustein uses relatedness to explain the intricate social nature of striving to belong. As outlined already, many contemporary vocational development and counseling theories include aspects or similar constructs discussed by Adler. However, one emerging theory uses Adler’s Individual Psychology as a core construct in conceptualizing career development and counseling. Career construction theory (CCT) portrays career development in many concepts similar to those of Adler and focuses on the development of identity (pri- vate logic, schema of apperception, lifestyle) and adaptability (striving for superiority and belongingness) as central constructs for the focus of career counseling.

Career Construction Theory: Theoretical Links to Adler

CCT includes aspects of Super’s (1990) life-span, life-space theory, Holland’s (1997) vocational personality theory, Adler’s (1939a, 1939b) In- dividual Psychology, and White and Epston’s (1990) narrative counseling. Savickas (2002) discussed the developmental aspects of CCT and used sim- ilar propositions as Super, Savickas, and Super (1996) to ground the theory. Of specific interest, Savickas (2002) noted that careers do not simply unfold but are actively constructed in the social context. This is a similar concep- tualization to Individual Psychology being a relational constructivist theory (Watts, 2003). This view of purposeful construction is similar to Adler’s view of lifestyle and represents the teleological philosophy underlying CCT (Del Corso, Rehfuss, & Glavin, 2011). Savickas goes on to indicate that indi- viduals develop careers across the life span and specific early experiences form the self- concept. These early experiences (early recollections, favorite school subjects) and personal iconic symbols (early life role models) be- come the fund of knowledge (private logic) for forming the teleological goals (schema of apperception) that the individual pursues. In this explanation, Savickas is using Adler’s idea that early childhood experiences contribute to the formation of the teleological goals that the individual uses as a life guide and worldview. This is similar to C. J. Watkins’s (1993) view that lifestyle in- cludes the individual’s morality, values, and preferences. However, Savickas extends Adler’s ideas beyond the family and into the widening social milieu (e.g., television, print and electronic material, important relationships be- yond the family). One of the questions posed in the Career Construction Interview (CCI) focuses on iconic figures in the form of role models. Savickas (2011) specifies that asking the client to think of role models or heroes be- yond family is critical. He posits that family is not chosen but is imposed on the individual. Role models or heroes are iconic figures that the person selects, early in life, to represent desired aspects or goals in the emerging

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self- concept. These early individual icons are identified when working with clients using CCT to unearth aspects of the lifestyle. We are using lifestyle here as a broader construct that includes self-concept. These icons inform the counselor about specific ways the client may interact while addressing the work life task. In addition, the icons help to define values, social interest (C. J. Watkins, 1993), and strategies for overcoming perceived obstacles. Within the icons of the client are specific ways of thinking about the world (schema of apperception). This worldview and associated private logic is exposed when discussing the icons. Savickas (2011) uses follow-up ques- tions about role models (e.g., How are you like this role model? How are you different from this role model?) to refine and deepen the understanding of the client. This exposes more of the self-perception and strategies for addressing the work life tasks. Stoltz, Barclay, Reysen, and Degges (2013) referred to these icons as occupational images that the person uses to compare actual work life with imagined work life (goal-oriented perceptions). Through this comparison, the individual defines conflicts and deepens understanding of personal strengths and perceptions that come to bear on career experiences and decisions. After discussing role models, the next question in the CCI pertains to interests and vocational personality. The question refers to current activities (e.g., magazines read, websites visited, television shows) in which the client engages. These become ways of assessing current interests (manifest inter- ests) and indicate preferred work environments (Savickas, 2011). Although Holland’s vocational personalities are present here, the question goes be- yond the matching paradigm. Simply attempting to fit the client’s interests is not the focus of this question. The intention here is to recognize possible ways of expressing the worker self as a lifestyle. Similarly, Amerikaner, Elliot, and Swank (1988) noted, “It may be how the individual perceives the work environment which determines its fit with the worker’s lifestyle” (p. 320). Thus, by assessing general interests and daily activities the counselor gains a better understanding of how the individual perceives work and work envi- ronments. These data become part of the personal narrative of the individual and are used for exploring various work environments. The CCI includes a question concerning the client’s favorite book or movie. In essence, Savickas (2011) believes stories resonate with the client’s life plot (movement). These stories foretell the client’s perspective of facing life challenges (schema of apperception) and reveal strategies (lifestyle) for navigating life. Savickas is intimating that clients live these stories over the life span and use the strengths and weaknesses of specific characters in the stories as moral and behavioral guides to resolving the life tasks. This can be equated to what Del Corso et al. (2011) called “narrating the fictional goals” (p. 92). Work is another stage upon which the lifestyle is enacted, and fa- vorite stories give clues to the perceived plot and characteristics of the actor.

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Another important question in the CCI refers to a favorite motto or saying. According to Savickas (2011), the motto or saying is the client’s self- advice. When facing obstacles or challenges, the motto or saying becomes a script for self-guidance. This equates to an element of private logic gained from the person’s experiences and culture. Here, as in the previous ques- tions, Savickas is relying on memories from which the client draws guidance to face life challenges and tasks and works toward the overall life goals. The last question in the CCI sequence is very familiar to Adlerians. Savickas (2011) suggests collecting three early recollections (ERs) from the individual. Savickas believes that the ERs represent the client’s preoccupation in life. He further describes ERs as scenes from the client’s early life that indi- cate life perspectives (schema of apperception). Additionally, Savickas states that the emotions included in ERs can reflect a consistent emotional theme reported by the client across the lifespan. Finally, Savickas suggests that the client construct a headline for the ER. He specifies a headline that includes a verb. This verb is thought to represent movement in life and encapsulates the client’s general attitude toward action and activity. The content of the ERs is used to help the client understand persistent themes that appear in the client’s work life and holistic life experiences. Ultimately, this last question represents Adler’s and others’ (Apodaca, 2015; Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Krumboltz, 1993; Stoltz & Haas, 2015; Zunker, 2008) insistence that career and mental health issues cannot be explored and treated separately. Another construct that runs through the CCI as a significant aspect of CCT is career adaptability. Career adaptability is a construct derived from ideas concerning career maturity (Super & Knasel, 1981). The construct is built on the premise that individuals must continually adapt to changes in work across the life span. With the advent of the protean (Hall, 1996) and boundaryless career (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), the focus on career adapt- ability became much more important. These two descriptors (protean and boundaryless) explain that workers in the 21st century must update skills constantly and network across job sectors to remain competitive in the new world economy. Career adaptability is a construct meant to indicate an individual’s ability to meet the demands of constant updating and networking. Savickas (2013) conceptualized four dimensions of career adaptability (i.e., concern, control, curiosity, and confidence). Concern is an overall alertness and at- tention to continual development in career and life planning. Control repre- sents a person’s abilities to modulate emotional responses in stressful work situations. Curiosity relates directly to Super’s (1990) ideas of curiosity in childhood. Savickas indicates that continued curiosity and interest in new and expanding cultural, technological, and social ideas helps an individual maintain adaptability. Finally, Savickas (2011) portrayed confidence as the feelings of efficacy an individual uses to make movement in facing career

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issues. Adaptability is very similar to the use of lifestyle in navigating the life tasks. Many Adlerian researchers (e.g., Del Corso et al., 2011; Sonstegard, 1998; Stoltz, Wolff, Monroe, Mazahreh, & Farris, 2013) discussed the use of lifestyle as adapting. In addition, adaptability and striving for superiority coalesce as the need for accomplishment depends much on the individual’s adaptability and sense of belonging. Although Savickas’s focus is on the narrative elements of career con- struction practice, many fundamental aspects of the theory are drawn from Individual Psychology. The use of reflective autobiographical techniques throughout the theory constitute strong reliance on Adler’s ideas concerning early memory work and lifestyle. Additionally, developing perceptions of the client’s life themes, worldview, and overall ability to adapt in facing the life tasks is synonymous to the practice of Individual Psychology. More than 100 years ago, Adler recognized the importance of work in life. He theorized the genesis of career as originating in early childhood and included genetic, social, and psychological factors as antecedents to forming career pursuits (Adler, 1939a). He recognized career as central to adult life and described the complex relationships between work and the other life tasks. Finally, he understood and advocated that work life could not be disintegrated from other functioning in life. Adler worked from an integrated perspective including cognition, personality, social, and existen- tial factors. Although many present-day theorists and practitioners may not reference Adler directly, his influence reverberates throughout career theory and counseling.

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Kevin B. Stoltz is assistant professor in the Department of Individual, Family, and Community Education, University of New Mexico.

Marty Apodaca is a career development facilitator at the University of New Mexico. He is currently pursuing a PhD in counselor education at UNM. Apodaca is past president of the New Mexico Career Development Associa- tion and an active member of the National Career Development Association.

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