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14 ADULT CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Jane Goodman

Traditionally career development was seen as a process in which young people devel- oped the maturity, knowledge, and understanding to make a career choice—note the

singular word, choice. Today, however, we recognize that career choices take place over the course of a lifetime, and therefore development is a continuous process. Helping adults with their career development draws on theories and practices used with young people but adds elements particular to adults, draws on their life experiences, and employs the understanding that this is an ongoing, not one-time, process. In this chapter, we will summarize career theories as they relate to adult career development, discuss theories that relate specifically to adults, and then focus on the role counselors play in helping adults make long- and short-term career decisions.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing the reading and exercises provided in this chapter, you will be able to:

• describe typical adult career development needs;

• summarize modern theories of career development as they apply to adults;

• demonstrate understanding of adult career development through responses to cases;

• use career counseling theories, exercises, and activities to meet the needs of a diverse groups of adults;

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• recognize issues related to the stress of losing employment; and

• be able to describe a variety of retirement scenarios so as to help adults plan for and carry out the one(s) best suited to them.

TYPICAL ADULT DEVELOPMENT NEEDS The more we learn about brain development, the more we learn that the brain remains plastic well into adulthood and even into old age. That means that adults learn, change, and, yes, develop throughout life. The idea of career maturity as a fixed destination does not jibe with these new understandings. Rather, career maturity needs to be defined as the ability to respond to the changing needs of the workplace, changing internal needs, and the changes necessitated by relationships with others. Theories of career development and career counseling are elucidated extensively elsewhere in this volume. Here we wish only to focus on how these need to be adapted to the needs of adults.

Erik Erikson (1950) was one of the first prominent theorists to discuss develop- ment beyond early adulthood. His tasks include occupational identity, generativity, productivity, and after age 60, integrity (vs. despair). Super (1980), Havighurst (1972), Levinson (1986), and others also discussed stages and developmental tasks of adult- hood. All of these classical theorists, however, considered adulthood a time of consol- idating and maintaining. The postmodern world, however, does not usually allow for adulthood to be static in that way. That is either exciting or challenging, depending on one’s point of view—and for most it is probably sometimes one, sometimes the other, sometimes both.

JOB LOSS Often the reason that adults are seeking career assistance is because they have lost their jobs. Organizations downsize, relocate, change focus, and retool in response to changing market needs, a changing economy, or changing demographics. Adults who have been performing successfully may still find themselves out of work as a result of these societal changes. Adults who have not kept up with technology, or who for other reasons have been not performing adequately, are even more likely to lose their positions. The experience of job loss can be profound. Responses have been described as resembling the stages of grief (Kubler-Ross, 1969) and can be troubling to both the adult experiencing them and to those around them. It is critical for career counselors to recognize these responses and help their clients recog- nize, understand, and manage them, perhaps even redirecting them. For example, the anger that is a common aspect of the grief experience is often directed inward. Although often unrealistic, people may be angry at themselves for somehow not seeing the unemployment coming, not avoiding the layoff. Counselors can help clients change the direction of that anger from self-blame to “They can’t keep a good (wo)man down.”

One of the more challenging aspects of career counseling with those who are newly unemployed is recognizing the need to perhaps stay immobilized while feeling this heavy grief. Spencer and Adams (1990) provided a compelling metaphor of this part of the grief process, calling it “the pit.” Each individual has a unique need for time in the pit, and

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counselors need to both recognize and allow that, along with providing a helping hand for the climb out.

ADAPTABILITY As he got older, Super modified his career development phases to see later adulthood as a time for flexibility rather than decline. Goodman (1994) discussed Super’s (1980) coining of the term “career adaptability” to describe the inappropriateness of using the construct career maturity for adults as they needed to respond to changing internal and external conditions. Super and Knasel (1981) pointed out that a critical difference between youth and adults is that adults are engaged in work whereas youth’s awareness is largely antici- patory. Hall (1986) made the case that mastery of adaptability led to adults seeing them- selves as active participants rather than passive victims of circumstances. Strategies for developing adaptability have been suggested by Gelatt (1991, 2014, 2015) and Mitchell, Levin, and Krumboltz (1999), among others.

HB Gelatt’s Positive Uncertainty Originally proposed in 1991, the theory of positive uncertainty has found resonance

with adults, who, in my personal experience, feel that it describes their lives and the struggle to make decisions in the face of a world where the pace of change is accelerating. Briefly, the theory says that one must decide and be prepared to change. Waiting for cer- tainty will lead to paralysis; sticking with a decision in the face of change may lead to a loss of adaptability. Gelatt (2015, March 15) has added to and updated his theory through a series of blogs. He restated his strategies for adaptability as Top Ten Tactics:

Do different.

• Do different things and do things differently.

• Get off your paradigm—get out of your box, rut.

• See the big picture.

• Use a telescope—take the long view.

• Use a wide-angle lens—look for the larger implications.

Act like a child.

• Do something foolish, spontaneous, child-like.

• Put your imagination in high gear—and soar.

Take the pause that refreshes.

• Reflect—play the muse.

• Don’t do something—just sit there.

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Put on some different spectacles.

• Try rose-colored glasses—try the six thinking hats.

• Change your viewpoint—get a second and third opinion.

Look at past performances.

• Review and revise the past—consider it a set of raw materials.

• Write your future history—think backward.

Rewrite the rules.

• Slay some sacred cows—invent new rules of thumb.

• Eliminate obsolete standard operating procedures.

Seek serendipity.

• Look for surprises—expect the unexpected.

• Listen for the knock of opportunity—then answer.

Stick your neck out.

• Do something risky—play the giraffe.

• Try to fail at something—if you keep succeeding, move the target.

Dream some impossible dreams.

• Dream precisely—stop dreaming vaguely.

• Imagine your ideal future—and ask how.

Gelatt (2014) also suggested that change happens to you and doesn’t wait for you. Furthermore, he states:

Although the future doesn’t exist, never did and never will, I believe it is present right behind my eyes. Foresight is defined as “the perception of the significance and nature of events before they have occurred.” Therefore, my foresight, my perception of the future, exists in my mind’s eye. My image of the future may be the most important factor in determining what it will be.

Since the future doesn’t exist, I have two choices: create it or let someone else. The future is not predetermined, not predictable, but it is persuadable. When it comes to the future, there are three kinds of people: those who make it happen, those who let it happen, and those who wonder what happened. I want to be the first kind.

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Counselors who are working with adults around career issues can use Gelatt’s ideas to help their clients be among those who “make it happen.” They can help clients develop a sense of agency about their career plans, help them be active on their own behalf, and help them not only develop a vision of their preferred future but also acquire the tools to make that vision a reality. Those tools include decision-making strategies and implemen- tation strategies. Implementation strategies may include networking; filling out applica- tions; designing resumes for online submission as well as printed versions; identifying job openings; and preparing for telephone, Skype type, or in-person interviews; and follow-up strategies. These practical components have sometimes been seen as outside the realm of career counseling, but it is not enough to know where you are going, it is important to know how to get there.

Planned Happenstance Mitchell et al. (1999) described adult career life as a series of events, some planned and

some unplanned. They believed that adults who took advantage of the unplanned events were the ones who prospered. Their theory of planned happenstance described how indi- viduals capitalized on chance events to create new opportunities. The inventions of such diverse products as Wite-Out, Velcro, and Penicillin are described rather as discoveries, deriving from making connections and chance observations. The happenstance part of the equation is clear. But what of the planned part? People frequently describe career opportunities as having been “in the right place at the right time.” But few of us are as lucky as Cinderella, who could just wait for her prince to come. The rest need to live by being in many places, in hopes one of them will be the “right place.” Mitchell et al. (1999) suggest five approaches to using chance events to improve the chances of career success:

1. Curiosity: exploring new learning opportunities

2. Persistence: exerting effort despite setbacks

3. Flexibility: changing attitudes and circumstances

4. Optimism: viewing new opportunities as possible and attainable

5. Risk Taking: taking action in the face of uncertain outcomes (p. 118)

Adult career planning, then, needs to add using and creating chance events to its repertoire of skills. Redefining indecision as open-mindedness has become another hall- mark of this theory (Krumboltz, 1992). This use of classic reframing encourages adult career changers to embrace their uncertainty. Rather than thinking they are inadequate decision makers, they can see themselves as open to opportunity, learning, and growth. Changing perspective in this way is particularly useful for adults whose first career deci- sion(s) may have been made more restrictively, by narrow information or following soci- etal or parental restraints.

Ebberwein, Krieshok, Ulven, and Prosser (2004) also examined the qualities needed by adults for successful career adaptability. Using qualitative methods, they conducted extensive interviews with 18 people who were in career transition, nine women and nine men. They summarized the results of their research into three themes: adaptive

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responses, contextual challenges, and insights into the transition. Some of the adap- tive responses included: approaching “job loss with a sense of urgency,” picturing “the details of [the] next career move—even when no transition is in sight,” getting “ready to make changes when career transitions seem imminent,” treating “decisions about stop- gap employment cautiously,” and setting “realistic goals and outlin[ing] steps to achieve them” (pp. 297-301).

Contextual challenges were described as follows: “Financial resources, or the lack of them, strongly influence how one copes with job transition.” This was found to be the most important contextual factor. “Family life significantly interacts with work life.” “An employer can have a significant impact on the experience of the transi- tion (beyond getting it started, of course)” (pp. 301-303). Finally, insights into the

Latisha Forbes had been a librarian for the whole of her working life. Now 55, she had stud- ied library science directly after completing her undergraduate degree. Her parents, as well as she, herself, had seen library work as appro- priate for a woman. She also felt that she would be able to combine this work with her hoped-for roles as wife and mother, and indeed that plan panned out. She was able to have part-time work when her children were young and only returned to full-time employment when the youngest entered high school.

Suddenly, it seemed to her, things had changed. The university library where she worked had embraced technology enthusiasti- cally, and although she had learned enough to manage her responsibilities, she found she no longer enjoyed what she did. Her youngest child would finish college in a year, she and her hus- band planned on working another 12 to 15 years before retirement, and she felt that was too long to stay in a job where she no longer looked for- ward to going to work. Latisha decided to see a career counselor to help in making a decision as to what to do next.

Her counselor had recently been to a work- shop about planned happenstance, positive uncertainty, and open-mindedness, and thought

these would provide a good framework for Latisha, whose original choices had been con- strained by perceived necessity, her parents and advisors, and her own beliefs about appropri- ate roles for women. After developing rapport and learning a bit about Latisha’s situation, the counselor began by explaining to Latisha the above-mentioned theories. Latisha understood the ideas but was uncomfortable with not being able to be certain about her choices. She wanted to know for sure that she was making a good decision. Dealing with her discomfort with ambi- guity became a subtext of their sessions together as Latisha explored, for the first time in many ways, her interests, values, temperament, skills, and hopes for the future.

Discussion Questions

1. What assessment tools might you use to help Latisha explore her career options?

2. How would you prepare Latisha for the ageism she might encounter if she decides to search for another job?

3. How would you help Latisha examine her transferable skills from her previous experience?

CASE ILLUSTRATION 14.1 THE CASE OF LATISHA FORBES

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transition were summarized thusly: “Needs and responsibilities sometimes conflict with the ideal occupation. . . . Adults in transition want counselors who attend to the big picture. . . . Personal transitions are rooted in significant changes in the world of work itself ” (pp. 303-304).

The conclusions drawn by Ebberwein et al. (2004) are that planfulness pays off, even when there is not an obvious need in sight, and that the context can influence success in navigating a transition, for good or ill. We are reminded of the dental model (Goodman 1992). This model is predicated on the idea of the periodic career checkup, even when things are going well. It also suggests ongoing career maintenance where updating one’s resume and nourishing a career network are the equivalent of flossing and brushing. Postmodern society has made it unusual for a person to choose a career and stay in it for the rest of one’s working life. Adults need to understand this reality, which may be differ- ent from what they expected when they were younger. Engaging in continuing education, networking, and staying abreast of developments in one’s career area and related career areas are all part of this ongoing career maintenance. Career management programs pro- vided by some organizations often emphasize these skills. But most individuals do not have these kinds of programs; they need to be self-directed in keeping current with trends in the employment market as well as keeping their own employability active.

Managing Transitions Schlossberg (Anderson, Goodman, & Schlossberg, 2012) developed her transition

theory out of recognition, backed by research, that it was the transitions in people’s lives that were more salient than their age or stage of life. Thus, an individual looking for a first job faced many of the same challenges and emotional experiences whether they were 20 or 60. Similarly an individual losing a job experienced many of the same thoughts and feelings whether a young married person or a worker close to retirement. She considered nonevents also to belong to the category of transitions. Thus, not getting a promotion or not getting into graduate school can be treated as transitions, because they require a redefinition of roles, hopes, and dreams. Counselors can use transition theory as an assessment process. Identifying where clients are managing their transitions well and where they need assistance can form the basis of a counsel- ing plan of action.

Schlossberg found that there were four components, all beginning with an S, to con- sider when assessing someone’s experience during a transition. These were the character- istics of the individual’s situation, the psychological self of the individual, the support obtainable, and the strategies available to be employed. In assessing the situation, one needs to look at the trigger, timing, source of the transition, who is in control, what role change happens as a result, and what the person’s previous experience with a similar transition is. In considering the self, the areas to look at are the individual’s personal characteristics—for example, mental health or ego strength—and their psychological resources—that is, the balance of assets and liabilities that support or hinder their psy- chological well-being. Furthermore, when assessing the self in relation to adult career issues, it is important to consider the salience of work in individuals’ lives; the balance among work, family, and community life; and individuals’ resilience in the face of adver- sity. It is also useful to look at their sense of self-efficacy in regard to this transition and what meaning they are making out of what they are experiencing.

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Support is the third in Schlossberg’s quartet of coping resources. Support can be internal, for example, feeling positive about oneself, one’s overall self-esteem; it can be external, that is; received from other people; or it can be provided by institutions, mem- ories, or faith or spirituality. People can provide encouragement, information, referrals, practical help, and love and intimacy. Institutions can provide practical help, also, such as unemployment insurance, resume assistance, or job leads. One’s spirituality or faith can provide a sense of comfort, belonging, and hope. From the foregoing it is clear that having adequate support is an essential component of successful weathering of a work- related transitions.

Finally, strategies form the fourth leg of Schlossberg’s transition theory. Strategies can consist of changing the situation, for example, finding a job; changing the meaning of a situation, for example, not getting the promotion allows me to spend time with my fam- ily; and/or managing the stress of the transition. Assessing which strategies are already in the arsenal of the individual and which need to be added can be a critical component of the career counseling process. For those without good stress management skills, teaching these is also a useful part of successful service.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 14.1

1. List all the work and career transitions you can think of. Consider events and nonevents. For example, losing one’s job, not getting into graduate school, or having one’s spouse accept a transfer in a different city. Try to have at least 15 examples.

2. Consider what counseling interventions might be helpful for each transition, for

example, grief counseling for the job loser or dual-career counseling for the spouse of the transferee.

3. How would the Schlossberg 4S help you to conceptualize these situations?

Juan Baez is a 48-year-old man who has just lost the only job he has ever had. Juan was hired by a small manufacturing company, Tools, Inc., when he was 19, just out of high school. He worked his way up to being a shift manager and was making a good living at this trade. When Tools, Inc. went bankrupt, Juan was unprepared and had no Plan B. He began collecting unemployment compensation

and was able to live on that and his wife’s earnings along with some savings during the time the unem- ployment compensation lasted. When that ran out, he was in a near panic, as he had no idea what to do next. Juan was used to being independent and in charge of his life. He had worked his whole life and always felt confident in his ability to support himself and his family. His wife’s income helped to

CASE ILLUSTRATION 14.2 JUAN BAEZ

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Guidelines for Individuals’ Career Mastery A search of national career development guidelines leads to the National Career

Development Association website (https://ncda.org). There the guidelines are listed by topic but are not specifically delineated between youth and adults. This is perhaps rec- ognition that all skills can be required and or mastered at different ages, but it implies less focus on adults than did the original guidelines, which specifically included an adult component.

The guidelines include three domains:

1. Personal social

2. Educational achievement and lifelong learning

3. Career management

Each domain includes goals, and each goal follows the structure of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956), comprising knowledge acquisition, application, and reflection competencies. Knowledge acquisition is defined as, “They can recall, recognize, describe, identify, clarify, discuss, explain, summarize, query, investi- gate and compile new information about the knowledge.” Application is defined as fol- lows: “Youth and adults at the application stage apply acquired knowledge to situations and to self. They seek out ways to use the knowledge. For example, they can demonstrate,

buy luxuries, but he never felt they depended on it for living expenses. He is a proud man and finds asking for help to be very difficult.

Juan and his wife have one daughter. She has just finished college and is working in her first job as a teacher. She is living at home while she and her fiancé save money for a down payment on a house. She and Juan are close, and he says he will miss her when she gets married next year. Juan has a brother, who lives 1,000 miles away near his par- ents, who are elderly and need a lot of help, finan- cial and instrumental. Juan feels bad that he has not helped much financially since he lost his job.

During his first months of unemployment, Juan stayed active in his softball league and with The Elks, where he was the coordinator of monthly luncheon programs. After a while, he let both of these go, telling the counselor he was embarrassed that he couldn't afford to be a part of the activities. His only other leisure activities were solitary ones, gardening and taking care of their house. Juan went to the unemployment

office, and they referred him to a job-counseling center, where he met with a job counselor. She used the Schlossberg 4S model to assess Juan’s assets and liabilities. Juan said that he felt he had no idea what to do next. Seeing a counselor was a big step for him, as he thought that made him seem weak, but he was desperate. He had no idea how to look for work and even less of an idea of what work he should be looking for. In thinking about Super’s developmental levels, his coun- selor thought Juan, despite being an adult, was at the exploration stage.

Discussion Questions

1. What else does the counselor need to know to use the 4S model as an assessment tool?

2. What other information would be useful as she prepares to help Juan?

3. What personal issues do you see intertwining with Juan’s career issues?

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employ, perform, illustrate and solve problems related to the knowledge.” Reflection is described thus, “Youth and adults at the reflection stage analyze, synthesize, judge, assess and evaluate knowledge in accord with their own goals, values and beliefs. They decide whether or not to integrate the acquired knowledge into their ongoing response to situa- tions and adjust their behavior accordingly.”

For example, under the personal social domain an overall goal is to develop under- standing of self to build and maintain a positive self-concept. Within that goal are knowledge—to “identify your abilities, strengths, skills and talents”; application—to “demonstrate use of your abilities, strengths, skills and talents”; and reflection—to “assess the impact of your abilities, strengths, skills, and talents on your career development.” Another goal under the personal social domain is to develop posi- tive interpersonal skills including respect for diversity. The competencies subsumed under that goal are knowledge—to “recognize that the ability to interact positively with diverse groups of people is often essential to maintain employment”; appli- cation—to “explain how the ability to interact positively with diverse groups of peoples is often essential to maintain employment”; and reflection—to “analyze the impact of your ability to interact positively with diverse groups of people on your employment.”

The domain of educational achievement and lifelong learning includes the goal of attaining a level of educational achievement that is needed to reach one’s goals as well as participating in lifelong learning to function effectively in a diverse and chang- ing economy. And the career management domain includes creating and managing a career plan as well as the skill of using accurate, current, and unbiased information for career planning.

MULTICULTURAL ISSUES Effective career counseling requires one to be knowledgeable about one’s own culture as well as about the cultures of those different from oneself. When working with adults, these cultural differences are both greater than and less than the differences when working with young people. The term multicultural is often used to describe race and ethnicity, but it can be seen to be much broader. Adults typically identify with several different groups. These may involve race and ethnicity, but they also include gender; age; religious beliefs (or lack thereof); level of education; urban, suburban, or rural; family structure; and others that are determined individually. With greater age comes more opportunities to establish multicultural identities. The United States, for one, has been described as a land of groups. Consider, for example, people who bowl, or scrapbook, or play golf, or own a certain breed of dog. All of these differences, whether central to identity or relatively trivial, affect an adult’s worldview, approach to work, leisure, civic engagement, or family life. Career counselors working with adults need not only to understand their own cultural identities but also to have a heightened awareness of their clients’ cultural identities in order to ensure that they are not inter- fering with the counseling relationship.

Super and Knasel (1979) proposed the use of the term career adaptability, but career maturity is still widely used in the profession. Adaptability has been defined as,

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“the ability to alter our responses without too much effort to fit into new or changing circumstances” (Rossier, 2015, p. 334). He stated that adaptability comprises four resources:

1. The ability to look ahead and be aware of one’s own future (concern)

2. The ability to control one’s career and life trajectories (control)

3. The ability to explore a variety of situations and roles (curiosity)

4. The self-confidence of one’s ability of reaching his or her aspirations (confidence)

The life design framework, discussed in the approaches section that follows, is one way of facilitating individuals’ adaptability (Savickas, 2012). Income level and social class are often ignored when diversity discussions are on the table. There has been a persistent myth that the United States is a classless society, but the disparity in income and restriction of the opportunity structure make it clear that this is not true. In 2013, 77% of adults from families in the top income quartile earned at least bachelor’s degrees by the time they turned 24, up from 40% in 1970, according to a new report from the University of Pennsylvania’s Alliance for Higher Education and Democracy and the Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in Higher Education. But 9% of people from the lowest income bracket did the same in 2013, up from 6% in 1970 (Korn, 2015). Although a bachelor’s level college degree may not be the best goal for everyone, family income should not be the determinant of who goes to college and who does not. When helping adults make career decisions, it is important for counselors to look at past decisions and determine if they were made freely, with full access to the opportunity structure, or if they were constrained. Constraints may come from external barriers or from internal ones. Being the first in one’s family or community to attend college, for example, may be

LEARNING ACTIVITY 14.2

1. List as many of your own cultural identities as you can. For example, you might be female, fortyish, single, heterosexual, Guatemalan born Hispanic, highly educated, urban, and caretaker of elderly parents.

2. Indicate the influence each of these identities has on your worldview and your career selection. For example, you might say as a city dweller you had a wide range of career choices; as a single person, you are able to enter into work that requires travel; or as a Spanish speaker, you can work in communities that require one to be bilingual.

On the restrictive side, being caretaker for your parents may mean that you are not geographically mobile.

3. For each of the identities listed in number 1, indicate how that might help or hinder a relationship with a client. For example, the motivation it took you to become highly educated might make it harder to empathize with someone with less motivation, and being a caretaker of your parents might make it easier to understand the challenges faced by a single mother in managing a work schedule.

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Samuel Chung came to Mary Garcia’s counsel- ing office one of the evenings that she held open for working adults. Sam was well dressed, in the “uniform” of a successful stockbroker: suit, white shirt, tie, with well-polished shoes and recently cut hair. He told Mary that he wasn't exactly sure why he was there. He had a good job and made good money, but he just wasn't sure that this work was right for him anymore. Mary thought about Hansen’s (1997) tasks as she listened to Sam’s story.

Sam told her that he was turning 50 in a few months. He was fairly recently divorced, and he had 2 children who had both graduated college and who had managed to find jobs. He joked that they both had jobs with health benefits, so he now felt free to pursue his own interests. His ex-wife had a good job, they were on decent terms, and he had no alimony to pay. Sam had never been a churchgoer, but he had recently joined a local men’s group that met in a church, and he was considering joining the choir.

As Mary listened to Sam, she sensed a yearning to be engaged in work that connected more closely to the spirituality he was discovering in himself. She asked Sam to tell her what had drawn him to

finance and being a broker. His reply told her a lot about the young man he had been. He said that he had majored in business in college, because his parents thought it was a good idea. He did well in his business classes and enjoyed them. He was offered a job with his present company after interviewing through the college placement office, and he had been there ever since. He had been successful, and he enjoyed the life that his high income allowed. Now, however, it just didn't feel like enough. He also said that the upcoming 50th birthday felt like an important milestone—kind of like it was his last chance to do something he wanted for himself. He just didn’t know what it was.

Discussion Questions

1. What else would you like to know about Sam to help him with his current dilemma?

2. How would you apply the theories of adult development you have read about thus far, that is, how would you conceptualize his issues?

3. What would be your treatment plan for helping Sam?

CASE ILLUSTRATION 14.3 THE CASE OF SAMUEL CHUNG

both external—no funds or for people in rural areas no access—or it may be internal— no one I know has ever done this, why do I think I can? When past career constraints have been identified, it is incumbent on the career counselor to look at remediation, advocacy, and other empowering activities to provide an adult client with opportunities that may have been missed when they were younger.

MODERN THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT APPLIED TO ADULTS Although there are suggestions for how to proceed with career counseling in the previous sections, the focus has been on how to understand clients and their career issues. In this section of the chapter, we will focus on ways counselors can work with clients to manage

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their careers, make decisions as necessary, and understand the role that work has in their lives. It is important to keep in mind throughout this section that a critical difference between adults and young people is that adults are able to look back on their experiences to inform future decisions, that is, to be retrospective, whereas young people can only look ahead to an imagined future, that is, to be prospective.

Life Design Savickas (2012) proposed linking constructionism and narrative approaches into a

system called life design. In that system there is a process of assisting clients to clarify their identities through telling stories, often small or micro stories. Using these, the client and the counselor can construct the client’s identity. They can then deconstruct, recon- struct, and coconstruct a new identity that is congruent with a new career identity. Let us look at each of these in turn as Savickas does.

Construction Building on the work of Cochran (1997), Savickas (2003) suggests that counselors

assist clients in telling their stories. Some of the questions that can be used to elicit these stories include the following:

1. Whom do you admire? Whom would you pattern your life after? Whom did you admire growing up? How are you like this person? How are you different from this person?

2. Do you read any magazines regularly? Which ones? Do you watch any TV shows regularly? Which ones?

3. What do you like to do in your free time?

4. Do you have a favorite saying or motto?

5. What is your earliest recollection?

These stories may then be used to help individuals understand their career history from a thematic perspective, understanding that can then lead to considering what next steps will work within, or as appropriate, counter to, these themes.

Deconstruction Many adults have grown up with narrow ideas as to their possible career areas.

These self-limiting ideas may come from parental dictates, teachers’ comments, or cultural messages from the media or the community. Taking apart stories to uncover these biases is a way of freeing adults from inappropriate constraints. For example, a woman may have been told that physical labor is “not for girls,” or a Hispanic man may have been told that he was not “college material.” Even more positive stereotypes may be hindering as, for example, an individual may have been expected to go to a four-year college and become a professional, when his or her passion was for fixing cars or fine carpentry.

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Reconstruction As its name implies, putting stories back together to form a more complete and accu-

rate narrative is the next task of the career counselor following Savickas’s structure. The French term for construction, bricolage, often cited by Peavy (1997), one of the early proponents of constructionism, provides English speakers with an image of brick by brick building of a new narrative. The counselor’s role is to identify themes, an overarching plot, and an explanatory macronarrative that can then help an individual make decisions from a knowledgeable, adult perspective, free of inappropriate constraints and informed by adult understanding.

Coconstruction This stage of the work of the career counselor involves joining with the client to cre-

ate a new narrative, one which paves the way for effective career choices that solve the problem presented by the client who has come to counseling. Savickas (2005) has said that that career selection offers us a chance to “actively master what we passively suffer.”

Integrative Life Planning Hansen (1997) formulated an approach to adult career counseling that she termed

integrative life planning. She proposed a six-step process, described in detail in Chapter 5. Her six propositions foster a counseling process that looks at career in context—context of social life, personal life, and community life. Seeing these as steps to a satisfying life, rather than simply a satisfying career, leads the adult client to a broader view of career decision making, one that includes family and social responsibility. Let us look at each of these in turn.

Finding Work That Needs Doing Entrepreneurship is said to be the fastest growing segment of the economy. Even

within organizations, so called intrapreneurship, innovation, leadership, and the ability to be self-directed are prized attributes. For an adult choosing or needing to change jobs, the idea of creating work may be foreign or daunting. Counselors who can con- nect adult clients with programs to help them explore these options are doing their clients an important service. Many small businesses fail, usually because of lack of a meaningful business plan or because of undercapitalization. Expert advice can help adults make meaningful plans and explore if this is a good option for them. Free advice can often be obtained through SCORE (https://www.score.org). They describe them- selves as follows:

The SCORE Association “Counselors to America’s Small Business” is a nonprofit association comprised of 13,000+ volunteer business counselors throughout the U.S. and its territories. SCORE members are trained to serve as counselors, advisors, and mentors to aspiring entrepreneurs and business owners. These services are offered at no fee, as a community service.” (retrieved from https:// www.sba.gov, August 21, 2015)

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Many local educational institutions have low-cost classes on starting small businesses. The important message from Hansen’s task is not just to look for job openings but also to see where a community’s needs are and to look for a way that using one’s skills can meet that these needs.

Weaving Our Lives Into a Meaningful Whole Holistic thinking about life has been eloquently presented by Myers, Sweeney, and

Wittmer (2000), who developed the Wheel of Wellness, a holistic model with 16 charac- teristics of healthy functioning. The researchers emphasized the characteristics of healthy functioning as a major component of wellness and outlined five major life tasks that can be identified with each component of the Wheel of Wellness. Somewhat parallel to Hansen’s (1997) tasks, they identify five components of wellness: spirituality, self- direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love.

Connecting Family and Work The decisions that adults make regarding work are usually more complex than

younger people because they often have partners and children. They usually have recur- ring expenses such as mortgages and childcare or educational expenses for their children. They may have aging parents who need their help, instrumental or financial. Their part- ner may have work that needs to be considered when, for example, deciding about a trans- fer or new job in another location. Career counselors often offer dual-career counseling for couples who wish to have help in sorting out priorities and plans.

Another aspect of connecting family and work is that of having time for family while meeting demands of a work milieu that increasingly expects 24/7 involvement. A cur- rent car ad shows a man leaving the office at 5:00. It states, “When did it become an act of courage to leave work on time?” Technological accessibility, leaner workforces, fewer unionized workplaces, and a high unemployment rate have all contributed to many peo- ple working long hours and taking fewer vacation days. All of these issues contribute to creating a challenge for workers in balancing work and family life. Career counselors can help clients include balance issues in their decision-making process.

Valuing Pluralism and Inclusivity Hansen’s fourth task is more of a statement of values than a task. It reminds us that

having a social conscience and a concern for other people and the world are an import- ant component of life planning, and yes, career development. Expanding this idea to other areas of social justice, Peter Plant (2014) made the case that most career theories focus on a Western, middle-class view of career development as based on individual decision making and achieving autonomy. Sharma (2005) categorized life goals devel- opmentally as, “achieving personal satisfaction, self-realization, and serving others.” Plant (2014) exhorted us to define career choice “in terms of ecology rather than just economy” (p. 313).

The idea that adults consider the societal impact of their career choices may be rad- ical, but it fits within a developmental perspective, acknowledging that life choices are

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not made in a vacuum, and that adults as they mature are more likely to look outward toward a communitarian point of view.

Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change Personal transitions have been discussed at length in earlier sections, so let us now

address organizational change. For many adults, a visit to a career counselor is not about wanting or needing to change jobs but more about how to handle the current job, as it morphs into something different. That the pace of change has accelerated is a cliché, but it is true nonetheless. Some large organizations have career centers or areas within human resources where employees may receive assistance in planning their careers or in managing the job they have. These programs may include individual counseling, group meetings, mentorship programs, tuition assistance, and the like.

Unions also provide career programs for represented workers, and there have been some joint union management programs, such as the programs supported by the so-called nickel an hour funds that provided educational assistance, and in some cases, counseling to represented workers. The unions supported these funds as they provided opportunities for their workers to achieve and perhaps advance; management supported them because they resulted in a better-trained workforce, one with the flexibility to meet the demands of technologically advanced manufacturing.

Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose Spirituality was mentioned in the section under holistic living; here is the focus

of a life-planning task. Although young people certainly are interested in finding life purpose, the need for purpose and meaning seems to grow with adulthood. There is an old joke about why an elderly grandmother was reading the bible so much. Answer: “I’m studying for my finals.” The recognition that life is finite seems to peak in late middle age, prompting many to consider their contribution or legacy. As lives develop, many people begin looking for ways to make a difference within their work life or outside of it. Jimmy Carter is often held up as a model of a past president, whose work on behalf of Habitat for Humanity and The Carter Center is almost universally respected and garnered him a Nobel Peace prize in 2002. Although we believe that it is cruel to always expect the newly unemployed to “make lemonade out of lemons,” there can be an opportunity for meaning making after the grief and anger have subsided. Reflecting back on our discussion of Schlossberg’s (Anderson et al., 2012) third S, the support dimension, we can see that although support can come externally, from people and other entities, it can also come internally, through spirituality, meaning making, and faith.

Chaos Theory Bright and Pryor’s (2008) work on applying chaos theory to transitions is particu-

larly appropriate to adults as they navigate both transitions and the rapidly changing world of work. Focusing on the uncertainties of the future, they look at the skills needed for adults to manage this environment. They coined the term shiftwork to encapsulate all of the activities needed for adults to continually reinvent themselves, capitalize on

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chance opportunities, and find meaning in their occupational pursuits. They suggest that counselors work with clients to find patterns in complex situations, be open to chang- ing circumstances, and accept with hope and optimism that unpredictability is part of the human condition. They support using stories—narrative—to tease out these pat- terns and develop an attitude of expected mastery of the complicated and ever-changing decision-making ground. We can see the connections to positive uncertainty, happen- stance, and transition theory described earlier, but chaos theory adds an important com- ponent. It recognizes that it may not be possible to move with certainty through the decisions that adults will find necessary in a world of constant change. There is comfort in knowing that this uncertainty is real, not solely a psychological state, and that there are strategies for working within the uncertainty, although one cannot eliminate it.

Identity Renegotiation The transitions discussed in all of the foregoing assume an individual is making

choices in an autonomous fashion, responding to the vicissitudes of the world at large but largely independent from its influences. Blume’s (2002, 2010) theory of identity renegotiation is based on situating identity within one’s cultural milieu. He stated that all identities are based on an interaction with others, that is relationships, and that these are moderated, for better or worse, by one’s cultural setting, that is, the context in which one operates. The implications of Blume’s point of view for career counsel- ors are profound. They lead us directly into multicultural considerations and require expanding the career counseling process from one of simply working with an individ- ual toward making good choices—tentative or at least temporarily fixed. Instead, this concept requires counselors to learn about a client’s context—social, cultural, ethnic, and so forth—in order to understand how this context mediates the client’s identity. Because career transitions usually require a change of work identity, and often a change of many other aspects of identity, this understanding is critical. As we have discussed earlier, although identity was once seen as fixed, current thinking sees it as more fluid, mutable, and open to influence. Career counselors, then, must help their clients exam- ine not only their own interests, values, goals, and so forth but also look at the world in which they express these values, including their family, their community, and the increasingly global society at large.

RETIREMENT Atchley (2000) described several phases of retirement. Meant to be a broad brush, these stages are not always followed in sequence, nor is each of them always a part of an indi- vidual’s experience. Nonetheless, they provide a schema that can be useful in helping a client plan for and navigate the retirement transition. Whether a client is looking for preretirement planning or looking for help in managing a retirement already in existence, career counseling is an appropriate intervention. Occasionally, individuals describe them- selves as retired when in actuality they have lost their jobs. Job loss after a certain age— individually defined—can be more easily stomached and more easily explained to others as retirement. Atchley’s phases are described in more detail in the following:

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Phase 1: Preretirement During this time, adults contemplate what they will do during retirement, often

focusing on the financial aspects as well as planning how and when to disengage from their current paid work. Increasingly, out of desire or necessity, individuals are return- ing to paid work after retirement from a primary occupation. They may still describe themselves as retired, may be collecting a pension and/or social security, but have not completely disengaged from the workforce. When adults seek career counseling prere- tirement, it is important to check if they have a spouse or partner and if they have made joint retirement plans. The so-called out of sync career commitment curve (Goodman & Waters, 1985) describes what happens when two members of a couple are on differ- ent career trajectories, with one ready to wind down and one still planning on staying involved in work. It is also important to investigate visions of retirement and how they mesh or do not mesh. One person’s vision of a cabin in the woods may not fit with the other member of the couple’s vision of driving an RV across the country. One person’s fantasy of volunteering at the local zoo may not fit with the other’s plans to spend half of the year visiting family out of state.

Phase 2: Retirement Atchley (2000) describes three types of retirement:

1. The honeymoon path, characterized by leisure activities, often including travel

2. Immediate retirement routine, characterized by continuing the active and involved nonwork activities established before retirement

3. The rest and relaxation path, characterized by very low activity—sometimes called the “rocking chair” phenomenon

Schlossberg (2004) describes six retirement paths:

1. Continuers—more of the same, but different

2. Adventurers—something new

3. Searchers—looking for your niche

4. Easy gliders—content to go with the flow

5. Retreaters—giving up

6. Combination paths

Each of these paths come from a different set of needs, possibilities, and plans, as well as all of the usual aspects of a career decision such as looking at interests, values, temper- ament, and so forth.

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Phase 3: Disenchantment For some, the end of the honeymoon period leads to a sense of disenchantment. This

may be when the reality sets in that one is not on an extended vacation but that this is one’s permanent reality. There can be a loss of status, of feeling productive, of identity, of a structure to one’s day, of all of the aspects of a working life discussed in the section on job loss. Western, and particularly American, individuals often define themselves by what they do. “Who are you?” is usually answered by a job title or descriptor. After retire- ment people may say, or feel internally, “I know who I was, I don’t know who I am now.” Schlossberg (2009) adds the word mattering to this discussion, describing the status of feeling that what one does makes a difference to oneself, others, and the community. The state that Atchley describes as disorienting may lead individuals toward the next stage, reorientation, or may lead to prolonged dissatisfaction and even depression. Counselors are advised to consider the missing career aspects in the lives of depressed older adults.

Phase 4: Reorientation and Phase 5: Retirement Routine Individuals at this stage are in a place to realign their needs and priorities and to make

decisions about how to spend what may be as many as 20 to 30 years. They may decide to become involved in their communities through volunteer work, serving on local boards, becoming active in their faith community, and so forth. Successful retirees work this out and have satisfying retirement years. People who are not successful at reorientation may stay in the disenchantment phase and may be very unhappy. Career counseling can be an important component of successful reorientation.

Phase 6: Termination of Retirement This seems like a logically impossible stage. Termination may come at death, but it

may also come with disability or illness, leading to a need to focus on taking care of self rather than on activities related to an active retirement.

Summary: Challenges and Opportunities

Virtually all adults work, for much or all of their preretirement lives. The old structure of learn, then work, then play (c.f., Bolles, 1981) has given way to continuous change. This new way of liv- ing in relation to work creates challenges and opportunities for career counselors. Learning has become an ongoing necessity—many occu- pations even require continuing education to maintain a license or certificate. Times of unemployment may be interspersed with times

of work, and older adults may continue employ- ment or find new forms of work—paid or unpaid.

An interesting example of the vicissitudes of a career was provided by Bruni (2015). Bruni described the career arc of a successful political pollster and strategist, Joel Benenson. His first career? The stage. He credits Shakespeare with giving him “an understanding of the rhythm and nuance of language,” invaluable in political strat- egy. He then co-owned a beer distributorship,

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during which, he said, he came in contact with people who lived paycheck to paycheck, an important understanding for a political strate- gist. Journalism occupied more of his career exis- tence before he headed into politics. Benenson’s message is as follows:

Don’t think about what you want to do for the rest of your life. Think about what you want to do next. Maybe you have a big goal out there and pursue it, but along the way, that line from A to B is not a continuum. The key will

be identifying what you are passionate about in each of those steps along the way. (Bruni, 2015, p. 3)

The dental model (Goodman, 1992) has become even more the mode, and career coun- selors may find themselves working with adults in all aspects of career decision making at any age. The information in this chapter has been provided to offer some assistance in facing those challenges and being of the most possi- ble help to adults who seek career counseling services.

Keystones

• Adult career development needs are not static as previously perceived; instead, these needs are varied and changing depending on both individuals and contextual factors.

• The modern theories of career development applicable to adults have common features of flexibility, adaptability, and active creativity.

• Counselors can help their adult clients develop a sense of agency about their career plans, help them be active on their own behalf, and help them not only develop a vision of their preferred future but also acquire the tools to make that vision a reality.

• Adult career planning, then, needs to add using and creating chance events to its

repertoire of skills, self-directed in keeping current with trends in the employment market as well as keeping their own employability active.

• Counselors can use Schlossberg’s transition theory to identify where clients stand in managing their transitions and form the basis of a counseling plan of action.

• It is important to recognize the intense stress of losing employment to adults and impacts on individuals, family, and career trajectory.

• Understanding and navigating pre- and postretirement scenarios would help adults plan for and carry out the one(s) best suited to themselves.

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