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Butcher_2004_Personalityassessmentwithoutborders_ADA.pdf
JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, 83(2), 90-104 Copyright © 2004, Lawrence Eribaum A.ssociates. Inc.
2004 BRUNO KLOPFER DISTINGUISHED CONTRIBUTION AWARD
Personality Assessment Without Borders: Adaptation of the MMPI-2 Across Cultures
James N. Butcher Department of Psychology
University of Minnesota
In contemporary psychology, personality assessment knows few national or cultural bound- aries. Psychological tests developed in one country are often translated and adapted into cul- tures that might appear to be greatly different from the country of origin. In this article. I ad- dress the factors that are important lo international test adaptation and examine problems that can adversely affect cross-cultural test research programs. 1 address qualities important for ver- ifying the accuracy and adequacy of cross-cultural assessment. I review the extensive adapta- tion of the MMPI {Hathaway & McKinley. 1940) and MMPl-2 (Butcher. Dahlstrom. Graham. Tellegen, & Kaemmer. 1989). the most frequently used personality mea.sure. I highlight several contemporary research trends in international personality assessment.
During the later decades of the 2Dth century, the United States became embroiled in intetTialional conflicts with Cuba and Iran and was engaged in a Cold War with the Soviet Un- ion—nations that held opposite political, cultural, or reli- gious values. During this period, it was not unusual to hear political saber rattling, thunderous anti-American rhetoric and actions, and even overt aggressive acts such as the Bay of Pigs invasion and the taking of American hostages in Iran. Rejection of things "American" was not. however, total. Even during this period of rampant anti-Americanism, some psy- chologists in Cuba, Iran, and the Soviet Union nevertheless appeared to value one bit of "Americanism"—the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & Mc- Kinley, 1940) assessment. The test from Minnesota contin- ued to be used and researched in these countries^even for military screening during these troubled times (Butcher, Cheung, & Lim, 2003; Mendoza-Quevada & Butcher, in press; Nezami & Zamani. 1996) and cosmonaut selection in the fotTner Soviet Union (Koscheyev & Leon. 1996). Even "hot war" antagonists such as the People's Republic of China, after their internal dissensions became resolved to the point of opening their doors to the West, looked to acquiring assessment technology—specifically, the MMPI—as a way of modernizing their psychology, a strategy that clearly influ- enced their approach to research and practice in psychology as any PsycINFO database search would disclose.
My own entry into cross-cultural psychology began long before I became a psychologist in the 1960s or before I had ever heard the term MMPI. As noted in my autobiography in the Journal of Personality Assessment (Bulcher. 2003), I first became intrigued with the similarities and differences in per- sonality when I was an 18-year-old soldier serving in an in- ternational military campaign—during the Korea War in
2{){)4 Bruno Klopfer Distinguished Contribution Award Winner James N. Butcher.
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1952 to 1953. During this period of military duty. I had the occasion to share foxholes with soldiers from other coun- tries—South Korea, Columbia, Ethiopia, and Turkey who broadened my provincial view of humanity greatly. When I went to college, after the war, I eagerly took a number of courses in anthropology to gain further perspective on cul- ture and personality influences. My career in psychology has always contained a cross-cultural component.
Otie of the reasons tbat I was drawn to the MMPI as a gradu- ate student was its potential as a measure to typify personality even across cultural boundaries. Some of my earliest publica- tions on the test: African American and White differences {Butcher, Ball, & Ray, 1964; and personality characteristics of a serpent-handling religious cult; Tellegen, Gerrard, Gerrard, & Butcher. 1969) involved assessments across differing cul- tural groups. My involvement in internationally MMPI-based research intensified in 1970 when 1 organized the first interna- tional Conference on Personality Assessment in Mexico. By then, interest in the MMPI around the world was expanding, and I often found myself with packed suitcases, transparen- cies, and data files heading for places unknown—Chile, Ja- pan, Norway. Israel, and the Teheran—even to China, my former enemy during the Korean War.
INTERNATIONAL ADAPTATION OF THE MMPI AND MMPI-2
The international adaptation of the MMPi has a long his- tory—one that began shortly after the test was first published in the 1940s. Bemal del Riesgo in Cuba (Mendoza-Quevedo & Butcher, in press). Reda in Italy (Butcher & Pancheri, 1976), and Abe (1959) in Japan were among the early per- sonality as.sessment psychologists who pioneered cross-cultural test adaptation with the MMPI. Space does not allow a full discussion of MMPI adaptations in other lan- guages and cultures because there has been a substantial ac- cumulation of research (a great deal of which has been pub- lished in non-English language journals), and there were over 150 translations of the original MMPI around the world. Sev- eral recent publications have traced these developments and provided a picture of the dispersion (Arbisi & Butcher, in press; Butcher. 1996; Butcher. Cheung, et al., 2003; Butcher. Derksen, Sloore. & Sirigatti, 2003; Mendoza-Quevedo & Butcher, in press).
How Can a Personality Instrument That Was Developed in One Culture Apply Across Different Languages and Cultures?
For personality questionnaires to be effectively translated and adapted in different cultures, they should be substantially researched and applied in their home country, that is. they should have clearly demonstrated external validity and reli- ability and have a relevant research base in their country of
origin. Translation of the instrument needs to follow strin- gent procedures (as described following) to assure test equivalence (Brislin,Lonner,&Thomdike, 1973; Butcher & Pancheri. 1976). Moreover, research needs to be undertaken in the target language and culture to assure that the instru- ment operates in an equivalent manner in the new culture. Test administration procedures should be comparable in the target culture as in the origin il test development. If the ques- tionnaire operates by compai ing test takers with a normative group, then the relevance of Ihe test norms needs to be evalu- ated to determine if they are appropriate for the new culture; if not, then new norms should be developed for the target country. Einally, the psychometric characteristics, such as the factor structure, item rt sponse frequencies, and scale reliabilities need to be evaluated in the culture of adaptation.
MMPI-2: Changes for the Better
In 1989. the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom. Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer. 1989, was published after a couple of decades of planful rumination and several years of data col- lection and analyses (Butcher, 2000). Many translations of the MMPI-2 immediately eisued, and within a few years, more than 32 versions became available (see Butcher, 1996. for a listing of translations and translators). Translation and international adaptation of the MMPI-2 was easier than the original instrument for a number of reasons:
1. Standards for translaiion and adaptation had evolved to serve as guidelines for test adaptors. The test pub- lisher became proacMve with respect to translation permission requests and encouraged potential trans- lators to follow acceptable procedures and guidelines for this work.
2. Items on the revised est were more relevant and ap- propriate for assessin J problems cross culturally. The transition of MMPI to MMPI-2 was relatively seam- less because the clini:al scales were virtually identi- cal to the original test in terms of item membership. International conside ations had played an important role in the revision i)lan for the MMPI. The items were carefully edited and some out of date or cultur- ally insensitive item.s (religion items) were dropped from the test; these changes in the item pool im- proved the content and made the translation process easier.
3. The new norms for the MMPI-2 were less parochial and were based on a more diverse, multiethnic popula- tion than the original instrument, making international comparisons with American norms more appropriate.
4. The test has been sh3wn to work well clinically In other countries. Similar test patterns for clearly de- fined diagnostic problems have been reported in the literature. Research has affirmed what numerous in- ternational clinicians discovered in their clinical as-
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sessments—MMPI test patterns, researched in the United States, showed similar validity relationships in the international clinical context (Butcher & Pancheri. 1976; Han, 1996: Manos. 1985; Savasir & Erol. 1990).
5. Psychometric characteristics, such as the factor struc- ture of the scales, have been shown to be comparable across cultures (Butcher & Pancheri, 1976J.
Test Translation Guidelines
The translation of personality inventory items requires a care- ful process involving both translation and verification if the fi- nal version is to be acceptable. A set of standards has evolved for developing an equivalent form of the instrumetit in another language(Brislinetai.. !973;Butcher& Han. 1996). In brief, recommended procedures include the following:
1. Assure that issues of copyright and future publication arrangements have been resolved before work begins. There have been itistances in which eager translators have developed a translation only to discover, after the fact, that the copyright holder had earlier granted publication rights to another group and that a respect- able translation had been in use for some time.
2. Item content equivalence is usually the primary goal in test translation, and attaining linguistic equiva- lence is usually appropriate in most instances. How- ever, gaining psychological equivalence for some items might require modification or even substituting the item with a more culturally appropriate one to achieve the desired result (Butcher. 1996). Transla- tors should be true bilinguals. people who have lived and functioned in both languages for a substantial time. It is usually desirable in the translation process to have two or more bilitigual psychologists do an ini- tial translation. Then after each translator has com- pleted the task, they meet to discuss each item render- ing and arrive at the best possible meaning.
3. Once the initial translation has been completed, it is important to cotiduct a back translation of the in- structions and the item pool. When the back transla- tion is verified against the English-language version. usually about 15% of items are found to be problem- atic—some because of translation nuances, but others might result from cultural differences. The items that proved problematic in the back translation need to be retranslated until all the items pass muster in the back translation process.
4. When the back translation is complete, it is usually desirable to conduct a bilingual test-retest study. In this phase of the translation process, a group of bilinguals (usually about 100) are administered the test in both languages, typically a few days apart (for examples, see Almagor & Nevo, 1996; Butcher &
Gur. 1974). These data are then analyzed like a test-retest study.
5. Having a completed translation with a back translation and bilingual test-retest study completed, the investi- gators can begin to accumulate data to complete the adaptation process. In many cases, it will be necessary to conduct a normative study—either to assure that ex- isting norms (such as the American norms) would be appropriate or else to accumulate a normative popula- tion specific to the target country. Starke Hathaway, one of the original developers of the MMPI. did not encourage the development of specific in-country norms for the MMPI but preferred that all MMPI use (such as adolescents) involve the comparison standard originally developed (personal communication. 1970). That is, Hathaway held that there should be a single standard measuring unit for the MMPI—a one-size-fits-all norm (personal communication. 1970). Most international researchers, however, con- sider in-country norms a desirable goal. In some cases, research has revealed the fact that in-country norms are of little practical difference to the American norms and do not warrant full development.
6, External validity data and appropriate research sam- ples should be collected to enable psychometric anal- yses (sueh as factorial studies) to be completed to fur- ther verify the translation.
CHALLENGES FOR ASSESSMENT PSYCHOLOGISTS IN INTERNATIONAL
TEST ADAPTATIONS
A number of important considerations can influence the ef- fectiveness and acceptability of an MMPI-2 adaptation in another country.
One very important factor in successfully adapting the MMPI-2 to another country involves the openness of the mental health community toward new ideas in the new envi- ronment and its acceptance of the questionnaire personality assessment method. For example, prior to 1993, the MMPI was scarcely used in Holland, in large part because an earlier translation of the original MMPI was not widely accepted as a result of translation flaws. An abbreviated version of the test was available through a Dutch publisher but was poorly translated and had not made a positive impact on test use be- cause the adaptation lacked acceptable norms. After the Dutch version of the MMPI-2 was completed and appropri- ate national norms were collected, the test became a standard assessment instrument within a few months (Derksen, Sloore, de Mey, & Hellenbosch. 1993; Egger. 2002). in part as a result of an extensive series of practical workshops of- fered to teach interested test users. Acceptance of the MMPI-2 in Holland has been high. It has been estimated that over 26% of practicing psychologists in Holland use the
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MMPI-2 at present (T. J. Bogels, personal communicatioti. November 2003). In the years since the Dutch version was released, the translation has been widely used in a number of research studies (Egger. 2002; Sloore, Derksen, de Mey. & Hellenbo.sch, 1996). The Dutch MMPI-2 distributor has now released the Dutch version of the Minnesota Report—a translation and adaptation of the computer interpretation pro- gram that is widely used in the United States. Canada, and Australia.
One clear reason for the MMPi-2's wide adoption in Hol- land is that the test came to be viewed as an important means of understanding client's problems and an asset in providing mental health care. The psychologist's role in mental health care is well established as integral to the universal health pro- gram that is provided for all citizens. Psychological treatment is widely available in the country and often involves and eti- courages psychological assessment of clients in treatment.
Another factor that itifluences the acceptability of self-report personality tests iti the new culture is the appropri- ateness of the response format for the general population. I de- scribe two situations to highlight the problem. When the MMPI was first introduced in Israel back in the 1970s, some of the students in one study noted that the true-false format was somewhat awkward at first—and referred to the test format as "American tests'" because such questions were associated with American universities and not widely used in universities in Israel. Instructions had to be clarified to explain the task (Butcher & Gur, 1974). In another situation, when the Hmong version of MMPI-2 was developed for Laotian refugees living in Minnesota (Deinard. Butcher, Thao, Moua Vang. & Hang, 1996), the investigators were aware of the fact that most poten- tial clients could not read the questions. The Hmong language had only been available in written form for about 25 years at the time, and older refugees could not read. The Hmong MMPI-2 was nevertheless developed in written form with the idea that it would be transported into a tape recorded version for general use with refugees. As these situations illustrate, care must be taken to assure that the response format is appro- priate to the new culture as well as being comparable to the original MMPI-2 formats.
The days of transporting Western ideas or procedures to another culture by an academician on a sabbatical leave for a year—a situation that often occurred in early days of anthro- pology and cross-cultural psychology—are over. Imperialis- tic test adaptation programs do not work well in contemporary psychology. In cross-cultural test adaptation, it is extremely important that the project be conducted in large part by indigenous psychologist.s. In most adaptations of the MMPI-2, translations have been accomplished by in- digenous psychologists or psychiatrists, often in consultation with an MMPI person in the United States.
A note of caution is in order for psychologists planning to engage in cross-cultural investigations. Cross-cultural re- searchers need to be aware of possible difficulties in cross-cultural work. Cross-cultural collaborative research is
not the easiest avenue for an icademic psychologist to travel. Academics and practicing psychologists in other countries wishing to participate in a tt:st adaptation program may not respond to the same professional incentives or hold the same goals and values as do academics in the United States. Pro- jects may not be completed a; quickly as anticipated and may not be given high priority in the target culture
One factor that often operites in adaptation projects is the limited financial resources available for research and devel- opment. In most cases, there ire limited research funds avail- able for cross-cultural test adaptations. Projects tend to get completed when collaborato's have specific academic goals (such as completing work on a doctoral dissertation) or are otherwise professionally motivated to accomplish the project on a low budget and in a reasonable time frame.
Finally, politics (Includin;? academic dissension) In other cultures might be detrimental to progress in a study but not apparent at the outset of a prc ject. International research pro- jects can be adversely influenced by the broad political envi- ronment. For example, I once participated in a test adaptation and data collection project in Nicaragua when severe internal civil war lasting for several /ears interceded. Similarly, the Iranian revolution adversely impacted some ongoing re- search projects 1 was involved in the late 1970s. The projects were never completed. Acadf :mlc differences can also have a negative influence on a propc sed research project. For exam- pie, one study that I and my colleagues attempted to conduct in Chile was not possible because the contributing psychia- trist at one data collection sitt̂ held rigidly to a Jasperian psy- chiatric diagnostic system i circa 1938) and did not feel inclined to rethink diagnose; in terms of newer diagnostic schema (i.e., at the time, the International Classification of Diseases-9).
CRITERIA FOR CULTURAL TRANSPORTABILITY: THE DILEMMA
OF STABILITY OVER CHANGE
Novelty is a valued but often fragile commodity in today's world. People often desire End search for new tactics and models, yet many people havi; an intriguing affection for old. reliable, and established wa; s and do not feel comfortable moving away from old staridard.s. Novelty is not always good—especially when it corne.s to cross-cultural adaptation of a psychological measure. Most international scholars who are interested in adapting me: sures want the instrument to be widely researched and have the reputation of having "stood the test of time." This is anakgous to the fact that many peo- ple do not like to convert from old familiar units of measure- ment to something glitzy like the metric system.
The last few years has seen publication of new inventories (some virtual copies of the MMP!) in an effort to supplant the MMPI. They tend to follow the same models, use highly sim- ilar items, but promise to bring new psychometric strategies to outshine the MMPI-2. Yi;t, these instruments or scales
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have failed to demonstrate effective gain over the old standby; MMPI-2 use has increased rather than diminished. A review of the PsycLIT database shows that there has been more research on the MMPi/MMPI-2 in Italy. Japan, and China than there has on two competitors, the Personality As- sessment Inventory (Morey, 1996) or the Basic Personality Inventory (Jackson. 1989). in the United States.
People may also be reluctant to latch on to newly pub- lished measures within the MMPI-2 such as the Restructured Clinical scales (Tellegen et al.. 2003) because little empirical research has been provided on them. Such indexes are not readily accepted because the original instrument has a more substantial research and use base. Useful guidelines for a successful international adaptation of an instrument for cross-cultural personality assessment research have evolved;
• The instrument should have a substantial established database to allow comparisons.
• It is valuable for the test to have successful existing translations in other languages and cultures.
• The instrument should have a developed "translation lore" (e.g.. typically difficult items to translate, accept- able item content substitutions, etc.) to provide effec- tive developmental strategies to guide new projects.
• The instrument should have available interpretive text- books that focus on interpretation that can be translated into the language of the target country.
• It is usually valuable to provide training workshops on the use of the instrument for clinical practitioners. For example, when the MMPI-2 was introduced in a num- ber of countries such as Australia. China, Italy. Mexico. Norway, France, and Holland, practical training pro- grams were provided, usually through local psycholog- ical organizations.
The main reason for using widely researched techniques is that a substantial research base is needed to establish the psychometric basis (e.g.. the factor structure of an instru- ment—an important method for proving out a translated in- strument). This requires that a substantial database exist in the developing culture with a well documented factor struc- ture. Researchers from other countries developing a test ad- aptation feel assured when the particular application (e.g., studying alcohol abusing clients) has been widely studied in the United States. In cross-cultural research, high profes- sional standards that have a substantial research base and track record are usually preferred over new instruments with- out documented interpretive strategies and knowledge base.
TRENDS IN RESEARCH AND APPLICATION OF CULTURALLY ADAPTED VERSIONS
OF THE MMPI-2
What has been the impact of international development and adaptation of the MMPI-2? In this section, I examine several
recent trends in international research. These trends indicate that MMPI-2 use internationally, in many ways, parallels the research in the United States. Keep in mind that these tretids are likely to be underestimates of the international research base for the MMPI/MMPI-2 because some foreign-language journals may not be accessible through standard literature searches.
Test Adaptation Research
Test adaptation research and development are continuing at a strong pace (for a description of these developments, see Butcher 1996: Butcher. Cheung, et al. 2003: Butcher. Derksen, et al., 2003). The MMPI-2 is presently used in more than 40 countries and the MM PI-Adolescent (MMPI-A: Butcher etal., 1992) in more than 15 (Butcher et al., 2000).
Assessment of invalid response patterns. Several studies on the MMPI-2 validity scales have been reported in other countries. These studies have generally indicated that the traditiotial validity scales appear to operate in other lan- guages and cultures as they do in the United States. For ex- ample, in Italy. Sirigatti and Giannini (2000) replicated the findings of developmental research on the S scale in the United States: in Korea, Hahn (2001) cross-validated the ef- fectiveness of the MMPI-2 validity scales at assessing fake good and fake bad responding: in Mexico. Lucio, Duran, Graham, and Ben-Porath (2002) examined the pertbrmance of the traditional validity scales with adolescents: and in Puerto Rico. Jana (2001) studied the MMPI validity scales in detecting malingered psychiatric disorders . In addition, re- search has been devoted to adapting MMPI-2 validity scales to Chinese populations, for example, the F scale (Cheung. Song. & Butcher, 1991) and the K scale (Gao. 2001: Ji et al.. 1999: Zhang. 1992). Finally, in Australia, Shores and Carstairs (1998) conducted an empirical evaluation of the ef- fectiveness of the validity scale pattern analysis incorporated in the Minnesota Report. They reported that the computer- ized reports were highly effective in describing malingered profiles.
Mental Health Diagnosis
One of the reasons why the MMPI became so widely adapted around the world was that practitioners in other countries wanted a useful clinical assessment instrument and found that when translated, the MMPI scales and patterns worked as well to describe patients in their countries as it did in the United States. The effectiveness of the MMPI/MMPI-2 in assessing clinical problems was illustrated by Butcher (1996b) in a chapter that compared MMPI profiles for a sin- gle diagnostic group (paranoid schizophrenics) from several different countries—the United States, Italy. Chile, Thailand, China, and India. Regardless of language or the country, the
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paranoid schizophrenics showed similar MMPI profiles (an 8-6/6-8 profile type). A recent study of paranoid schizo- phrenics in Japan (Hayama, Oguchi, & Shinkai, 1999) with (he MMPI-2 provided further support for the cross-cultural generalizability of this 6/8-8/6 pattern.
Research on the cross-cultural assessment of psychiatric patients has been extensive. A number of studies have been re- ported on the assessment of psychopathology in China (Cheung, Song, & Zhang, 1996), Italy (Butcher & Pancheri. 1976), Greece (Kokkevi. 1996: Manos. 1985). Korea (Han, 1996): Mexico (Lucio. Palacio.s, Duran. & Butcher. 1999), and Turkey (Savasir & Erol. 1990). For example, Cheung and Song (1989) reported a substantial number of validation stud- ies (20 on schizophrenics alone that were completed in China after the test was introduced there in the 1980s) concluding that distinctive patterns were obtained for diagnostic groups that were similar to patterns obtained in the United States.
In terms of specific disorders, as with schizophrenia, simi- lar diagnostic groups have typically shown similar profiles in several countries such as Japan. Italy, and Russia: depression (Ono, 1985: Pasquini. Biondi. Picardi, Gaetano, & Pancheri, 1999: Ritsher, Slivko-Kolchik. & Oleichik. 2001: Torimaru. 1999): personality disorder in Japan (Matsui. Sumiyoshi, Niu. Kurokawa. & Kurachi, 2002) and Spain (Riesco et al., 1998): substance abuse in Cbina (Guan. Tang, Xue, & Zhou. 2002). Norway (Skinstad, Swain, & Ellertsen, 2001). Japan (Matsuoka, Kim, Toshida, & Ohshima, 2000), and Portugal (Ribeiro,Teixeira.Alves,&Ronzani. 2000): and eating disor- ders—including both anorexia and obesity—have also been addressed in several countries. A great deal of the research has been conducted in Italy, although studies have also been re- ported in Germany and Japan (Manara. Caruso. Caprioli, & Consolati, 1996: Molinari, Morosin.& Riva, 1995; Molinari. Valtolina, Peri. & Pedrabissi, 1991: Morosin & Riva. 1997: Murotsu. Tachi, & Suzuki, 2000: Ragazzoni & Riva, 1996: Riva & Molinari, 1995, 1998: Valtolina, 1996; Walitza, Schultze, & Wamke, 2001).
Assessment of personality factors in medical prob- lems. Artbisi and Butcher (in press) surveyed the literature on medical applications of the MMPI and MMPI-2 in inter- national settings and found a substantial research base in this area. Research on personality factors in medical problems has been one of the most active areas of international MMPI-2 research. The original MMPI and MMPl-2 have been widely used in research on far ranging medical condi- tions or evaluating various treatment approaches such as transplant operations or treatment compliance. Researchers in the health care area typically explore the theoretical con- nection between personality factors and symptoms experi- enced in medical conditions. To illustrate the broad range of research see the following: Alzheimer's disease (Pruneti, Rota, & Rossi, 2000): cancer (Cai, Qiao, Li. Jiao. & Lu. 2001: Kirkcaldy & Kobylinska, 1987): colitis (Costa. Papa. Gentili. Burla, & de Maria, 1998): cardiovascular disease
(delle Chiaie et al.. 1995: Hao. Zhang. Zhang, & Wang, 1999: Nordby. Ekeberg. Knardahl. & Os. 1995): diabetes (Pasqualini, Albrigo. & Borr , 1999): disability (Zhao et al., 1993): fibromyalgia (Ellertstn. Vaeroy. Endresen. & Forre, 1991: Landro. Isdal. Lillegird. & Winnem, 1992: Trygg, Lundberg, Rosenlund, Timpka, & Gerdle. 2002); head trauma (Andreetto & de Bertolini. 1999; Cattelani, Gugliotta, Maravita, & Maz^ucchi, 1996: Ellertsen. 1989: Solbakk, Reinvang, & Nielstm, 2000): headache (Ellertsen, 1988; Fan. Gu. & Zhou. 199": Fan. Yin. Gu, & Zhou. 1995: Kirkcaldy, Kobylinska, & Furnham, 1993: Mongini, Defilippi, & Negro. 1997: Pisani, Colangeli, & Popolla, 1996; Vilming. Ellertsen. T oland. Schrader, & Monstad. 1997; Zwart, Ellertsen, & Bovim, 1996): paralysis (Jia et al., 1999): hyperemesis (Huang, !^henrong, & Guo, 2000); ulcer (Jin & Wu, 1993; Levenstein, Prantera, Varvo, & Area, 1996); and insomnia (Hong, Pan. Lin. & Li, 1997). Finally, research on chronic pain has 3een one of the most active ar- eas of international MMPI-2 medical studies. In most stud- ies, research has involved examining personality factors in the assessment of chronic paii. This research has shown that essentially the same personal ty patterns of chronic pain pa- tients occur in a number of countries including Australia. China, Holland, Italy, Norway, and Sweden (Kvale, Ellertsen, & Skouen. 2001; Meldolesi. Picardi, Accivile. di Francia. & Biondi, 2000; Mongini. Ibertis, Barbalonga, & Raviola, 2000; Monsen & Havik, 2001; Sivik, 1991; Sivik, Gu.stafsson. & Olsson, 1992; Strassberg, Tilley. Bristone, & Oei. 1992; Vendrig. 1999, 20^)0: Vendrig. de Mey. Derksen. & van Akkerveeken. 1998; Wang, Wu, & Wu. 2000).
Organ transplant research. Another area of medical applications using the MMPI has involved the evaluation of clients for organ transplant (ISressi et al.. 1995: Franzese & Gentili, 1999), an area of resî arch that has been widely ex- plored in the United States (Ruchinskas et al., 2000).
Utility of Computer-Based Assessment
Theutility of computer-based assessment has been examined in several international studies. One of the earliest com- puter-based exportations was t onducted by Raymond Fowler (1969: Fowler & Butcher, 1987) who developed German and French versions of the Roche computer-based MMPI inter- pretation program. Sukigara (1996). in Japati. studied the comparability of computer-btsed test administration versus booklet administration of the MMPI. As noted previously. Shores and Carstairs (1998) reported that the computer inter- pretation system, the Minnesota Report, was effective in de- tecting malingering in clients in Australia. Finally, Butcher et al. (1998) found that computei-based reports had both a high rate of acceptance and accura:;y in international settings. In an international study, Butchei etal, (1998) evaluated the ex- tent to which clinicians agreet with the statements produced by a computer-based MMPI-2 report narrative on patients
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from Australia, France. Norway, and the United States. The clinicians in the study were asked to rate the amount of infor- mation in each MMPI-2 narrative section on a scale with the following descriptors: insufficient, some, adequate, more than adequate, and extensive. For over two-thirds of the re- cords, the clinicians judged that 80% to 100% of the com- puter-generated narrative statements in them were appropri- ate. Eighty-seven percent of the reports were considered to be at least 60% appropriate in describing the client.
One of the values of having a questionnaire that has been translated and adapted into several languages and cultures is that it is available for inclusion into cross-national studies of psychopathology. The instrument can be used for comparing and contrasting psychopathology and it"s structure and causes in different cultures. Although a few studies have used the MMPI/MMPI-2/MMPI-A with cross-national comparisons of psychopathology providing promising re- sults (Butcher et ah, 1998; Butcher &Pancheri. 1976; Scott, Butcher. Young, & Gomez. 2002), most internationally based MMPI studies have involved in-country comparisons. Yet, the potential for cross-national research to contribute to the understanding of personality and culture is high. It is my hope that the next generation of international personality as- sessment research will use self-report personality measures such as the MMPI-2 to understand personality processes across international boundaries.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MMPI-2 USE WITH DIVERSE CULTURAL GROUPS
IN THE UNITED STATES
Interestingly, many translated versions of the MMPI-2 are contributing to clinical practice in the United States. In- creasingly, foreign language versions of the test are used for assessing people of foreign descent who are living in the United States. Usually this type of application involves the clinician acquiring the foreign language version to ad- minister to a recently migrated client who does not read or speak English sufficiently to take the standard U.S. version of the test. In many cases, the specific national norms (e.g., Chinese, Mexican, or French) are used to compare the cli- ent's answers.
Several MMPI-2 translations have been developed spe- cifically for use in assessing patients from a for- eign-language background who are being assessed in mental health or forensic settings in the United States. The Spanish language MMPI-2 for the United States was devel- oped by Garcia-Peltoniemi & Azan (1993) and has been used extensively in Puerto Rico (Cabiya, 1996) as well as on the U.S. mainland; the Hmong version was developed for Hmong (Laotian) refugees (Deinard et al., 1996), and the Vietnamese translation (Tran, 1996) has been the sub- ject of several studies of refugees (Dong & Church, 2003; Nguyen, 1999; Tran, 1996).
Use of the Test With Minority Populations
The application of foreign-language versions of the MMPI-2 in the United States for refugee clients is often a temporary measure because they cannot read or understand English. Af- ter the foreign-bom person learns the English language and has acculturated to the American ways, then the English lan- guage version is likely to be more appropriate for their as- sessment. In an interesting study of the effects of accultura- tion on personality functioning. Sue, Keefe, Enomoto, Durvasula, and Chao (1996) found that Asian American stu- dents varied in terms of problems presented on the MMPI-2 depending on the level of acculturation to the United States. Asian American students that were considered to be accul- turated showed an MMPI-2 pattern similar to the White stu- dents. The presence of more severe pathology among newly immigrated persons has been noted in other studies as well (Azan, 1989; Tran, 1996). However, newly arrived Asians showed more problems than those that had acculturated to the United States. Okazaki and Sue (2000) noted the impor- tance of conducting further research on Asian American samples to assure that tests are normed appropriately for unacculturated clients.
The use of the English-language MMPI-2 with minorities born and raised in the United States can also be viewed as a cross-cultural application. The original MMPI was devel- oped in the late 1930s and early 1940s on a generally homo- geneous population of Americans—^mostly rural Minnesota Whites^and did not include minorities in the norms even though the test came to be widely used with minorities. Over the 1950s and 1960s, the utility and limitations of the original MMPI with minorities was widely explored (see Dahlstrom & Dahlstrom, 1986). When the test was revised in 1989, steps were taken to broaden the focus of the MMPI through item changes and through the collection of an expanded nor- mative base that included diverse ethnic populations. In sub- sequent research, the MMPI-2 has been shown to be equally applicable with minority groups as with the majority popula- tion (Ben-Porath, Shondrick, & Stafford, 1994; Greene, Robin. Albaugh. Caldwell, & Goldman, 2003; Hall, Bansal. & Lopez, 1999; McNulty, Graham, Ben-Porath, & Stein, 1997; Sue, Keefe, Enomoto. Durvasula. & Chao. 1996).
For the past 40 years, my involvement with personality as- sessment projects has taken me from the West Virginia hills where I grew up to the Chilean Andes to the Fjords of Nor- way to the Great Wall ofChinato Haifa and Teheran and be- yond. In this odyssey, I have tried to explore cultural factors in personality assessment and to develop effective strategies for conducting objective cross-cultural personality research. During these travels, I have enjoyed working in personality assessment and never allowed the downsides of international research dampen my enthusiasm. I have especially valued the friendships of international colleagues and the varying perspectives on personality that I have gained from them. During these projects, we have shared common goals and
97 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT WITHOUT BORDERS
values about cultural influences as well appreciating the generalizability of personality processes across cultures. Throughout my international career, I have followed a pre- cept that I learned so many years ago while sharing the perils of war as an infantry soldier in an international army: look beyond the borders, find common ground, and strive to un- derstand and tolerate any differences that emerge.
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Tellegen. A-.Gerrard. N.. Gerrard. ... & Buicher. J. N. (1969), Personality characteristics of members of a :.erpent-handling religious cult. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.). MMPI: Research developments and clinical applications (pp, 221-242). New York: McGriw-Hill.
Torimani. S. (1999). Self-referent rating of personality trait adjectives in mild depref-^ion. Japanese Journal of P.sychology, 70, 143-148.
Tran. B. C. N. (1996). Vietnamese translation and adaptation of the MMPI-2. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.), International adaptations of the MMPI-2: A handbook of reseaiv'i and applications ipp. 175-193). Min- neapolis: University of Minnesot i Press.
Trygg. T. Lundberg, G.. Rosenhind. E.. Timpka. T.. & Gerdle. B. (2002). Personality characteristics of w( men with fibromyaigia and of women with chronic neck, shoulder, or low back complaints in terms of Minne- sota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and Defense Mechanism Tech- nique modified. Journal ofMuscdoskeletal Pain. 10, 33-55.
Valtolina. G. (1996). Weight loss and psychopathology: A three-cluster MMPI typology. Perceptual & Motor Skills. H2. 275-281.
Vendrig. A. A. (1999). Prognostic fiictors and treatment-related changes as- sociated wiih return to work in the mulitmodal treatment of chronic back pain. Journal of Behavioral Med,cine, 22. 217-232,
Vendrig, A, A, (2(X)0). The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and chronic pain: A conceptual ;malysis of a long-standing but compli- cated relationship. Clinical Psycl ology Review, 20, 533—559,
Vendrig, A. A., de Mey. H, R,. Derksen. J. L., & van Akkerveeken. P, F. (1998). Assessment of chronic ba:k pain patient characteristics using fac- tor analysis of ihe MMPI-2: Wliich dimensions are actually assessed? Pain. 76. 179-188.
Vilming. S. T. Ellertsen, B.. Troland. K.. Schrader. H.. & Monstad. 1. (1997), MMPI profiles in post-lumbar puncture headache, Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 95, 1:44-188.
100 BUTCHER
Walitza. S.. Schultze. U,, & Warnke. A. (2001), Unterschiede zwischen jugendlichen Patientinnen mit Anorexia und Bulimia nervosa im Hinblick auf psychologische und psychosoziale Merkmale [Differ- ences between female patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in respect to psychological and psychosocial features]. Zeitschrift fuer Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 29, 117-125.
Wang, Y. Wu, C, & Wu, A. (2000). The MMPI results in patients with chronic pain, Chinese Mental Health Journal. 14. 321-322.
Zhang. J. (1992), A study of K corrections used in Scale 8 and Scale 9 of the Chinese normative version of the MMPi, Acta Psychologica Sinica. 24, 429^35.
Zhao. S., Cheng, Y.. Zhao, J., Sun. L,,et al. (1993), The preliminary evalua- tion of the MMPI in Chinese disabled persons, Chinese Mental Health Journal. 7. 252,251,
Zwart, J. A,. Ellertsen. B., & Bovim, G. (1996). Psychosocial factors and MMPI-2 patterns in migraine, cluster headache, tension-type headache, and cervicogenic headache. New Trends in Experimental A Clinical Psy- chiatrv. 12. 167-174.
BIOGRAPHY
James N. Butcher was born in West Virginia. He enlisted in the Army when he was 17 years old and served in the air- borne infantry for 3 years, including a 1-year tour in Korea during the Korean War. After military service, he attended Guilford College, graduating in 1960 with a BA in psychol- ogy. He received an MA in experimental psychology in 1962, and a PhD in clinical psychology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He was awarded Doctor Honoris Causa from the Free University of Brussels, Bel- gium, in 1990. He is currently professor emeritus of psychol- ogy in the Department of Psychology at the University of Minnesota and was associate director and director of the clin- ical psychology program at the university for 19 years. He was a member of the University of Minnesota Press's MMPI Consultative Committee, which undertook the revision of the MMPI in 1989. He was formerly the editor of Psychological Assessment, a journal of the American Psychological Associ- ation, and serves as consulting editor or reviewer for numer- ous other journals in psychology and psychiatry. Throughout most of his career he maintained a private clinical practice specializing in psychological assessment and psychotherapy. In 1969, he was a cofounder of a free clinic in Minneapolis (The Walk-In-Counseling Center) that provided free, brief psychological treatment to persons seeking help, Dr, Butcher has also been actively involved in developing and organizing disaster response programs for dealing with human problems following airline disasters. He organized a model crisis inter- vention disaster response for the Minneapolis-St. Paul Air- port and organized and supervised the psychological services offered following two major airline disasters: Northwest Flight 255 in Detroit, Michigan, and Aloha Airlines on Maui. He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association and the Society for Personality Assessment. He has pub- lished more than 50 books and more than 175 articles in the fields of abnormal psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and personality assessment.
SELECTED WORKS OF JAMES N. BUTCHER
Selected Books
Butcher, J. N. (Ed,). (1969), MMFl: Research developments and clinical ap- plications. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Butcher, J. N. (Ed.). (1972). Objective personality assessment: Changing perspectives. New York: Academic,
Butcher, J. N, (Ed.), (1979). New developments in the use of the MMPI. Min- neapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
Butcher, J. N, (Ed,), (1987), Computerized psychological assessment: A practitioner's guide. New York: Basic,
Butcher, J, N, (1990), The MMPI-2 in psychological treatment. New York: Oxford University Press,
Butcher, J. N, (1996), International adaptations of the MMPI-2: Research and clinical applications. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N. (Ed.). (1997), Personality as.iessment in managed care: Using the MMPl-2 in treatment planning. New York: Oxford University Press.
Butcher, J. N. (1998). The Butcher Treatment Planning Inventor}-: Manual. Toronto. Ontario. Canada: MultiHealth Systems.
Butcher, J. N. (Ed). (2000). Basic sources for the MMPI-2. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N. (Ed). (2002). Clinical personality assessment {2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press,
Butcher, J. N, (2004). MMPI-2: A beginner's guide (2nd ed,). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Butcher, J. N,. Graham, J. R,, Ben-Porath. Y. S., Tellegen, Y, S.. Dahlstrom. W, G.. & Kaemmer. B. (2001). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven- tory-2: Manual for administration and scoring. (Rev, ed,), Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
Butcher, J. N.. Graham. J. R.. Williams. C. L., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (1990). Development and use of the MMPI-2 content scales. Minneapolis: Uni- versity of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N.. Mineka, S.. & Hooley, J. (2(HM). Abnormal psychology and modern life (12th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Butcher. J. N.. & Pancheri, P. (1976). Handbook of cross-national MMPI re- search. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N.. & Spielberger, C. D. (Eds,). (1981-1995). Advances in per- sonality assessment (Volumes 1-10). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Butcher, J, N., & Williams, C, L, (2000), Essentials of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A clinical interpretation. (2nd ed.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher. J, N., Williams, C. L., Graham. J. R.. Tellegen. A., Ben-Porath. Y. S., Archer. R. P,, & Kaemmer, B. 11992). Manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for Adolescents: MMPl-A. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Keiler, L. S., & Butcher, J, N, (!991). Assessment of chronic pain patients with the MMPI-2. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Kendall. P, Butcher, J. N., & Holmbeck, G. (Eds). (1999). Handbook of re- search methods in clinical psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Pope. K. S., Butcher. J. N., & Seelen, J. (2(X)0). The MMPl/MMPI-2/MMPI-A in court (2nd ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Williams, C. L., Butcher, J. N.. Ben-Porath, Y S,, & Graham, J. R, (1992), MMPI-A content scales: Assessing psychopathology in adolescents. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Chapters
Ben-Porath, Y, S.. & Butcher. J. N. (i991). The historical development of personality assessment. In C. E. Walker (Ed.), Clinical psychology: His- torical and research roots (pp. 121-156). New York: Plenum.
Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Butcher, J. N. (1995). Personality assessment. In L. Heiden & M. Hersen (Eds.). Introduction to clinical psychology (pp. 141-172). New York: Plenum.
101 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT WITHOUT BORDERS
Berry, D., & Butcher. J. N. (1998). Detection of feigning of head injury symptoms on the MMPI-2. In C. Reynolds (Ed.), Deieciio/t ofmalinger- iiig in head injury /if;j,'(i/i<i;;(209-238). New York: Plenum.
Butcher, J. N. (1972). Personality assessment: Problems and perspectives, [n J. N. Buicher (Ed.). Objective personality assessment: Changing perspec- tives (pp. 1-20). New York: Academic.
Butcher, J. N. (1979). Personality assessnienl in ihe year 2000: A projection. In T. A. Williams & J. H. Johnson (Eds.), Menial health in the 21 st cen- tury (pp. 151-156). Lexington, MA: Lexington.
ButcherJ.N.(1979).UseoftheMMPI in personnel selection. In Butcher, J. N. (Ed.), New directions in MMPl research (pp. 165-201). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher. J. N. (1982). Cross-cultural research methods in clinical psychol- ogy. In P. Kendall & J. N. Buicher (Eds.), Handbook oj research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 273-310). New York: Wiley.
Butcher, J. N. (1985). Personality assessment in industry. InH. J. Bernardin & D. Bownas (Eds.), Personality assessment in organizations (pp. 277-309). New York: Praeger.
Butcher, J. N. (1985). Perspectives on iniernational MMPl use. In J. N. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 4, pp. 83-95). Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Butcher, J. N. (1987). Computerized clinical and personality assessment us- ing the MMPl. In J. N. Q\i\i:\\ei (^d.). A practitioner's guide to computer- ized psychological assessment {p^. 161-197). New York: Basic.
Butcher, J. N. (1988). Personality factors in drug addiction. In R. W. Pickens & D. S. Svikis (Eds.), Biological vulnerability to drug abuse (NIDA Re- search Monograph 89-1988). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Butcher, J, N. (1988). Psychological intervention with airline crash victims: A need for service. In Proceedings of the Sixth User's Workshop on Com- bat Stress. Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Health Care Studies.
Butcher. J. N. (1991). Psychological evaluation. In J. Weslermeyer, C. L. Williams. & A. N. Nguyen (Eds.), Mental health services for refugees (DHHS Publication No. ADM 91-1824; pp. 111-122). Washington. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Butcher. J. N. (1991). Screening for psychopathology: Industrial applica- tions of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2). In J. Jones, B. D. Steffey. & D. Bray (Eds.), Applying psychology in business: The manager's handbook (pp. 835-850). Boston: Lexington.
Butcher, J. N. (1993). Using computer based clinical reports: Some pitfalls lo avoid. In B. L Schlosser & K. Moreland (Eds.), Taming technology: A resource directory for practitioners (Vol. 1, pp. 92-94). Westpnrt. CT: Clarity Consulting.
Butcher, J. N. (1995). Interpretation of the MMPl-2. In L. E. Beutler & M, Berren (Eds.), fntegrative assessment of adult personality {pp. 206-239). New York: Guiiford.
Butcher, J, N. (1995). Personality patterns of personal injury litigants: The role of computer-based MMPI-2 evaluations. In Y. S, Ben-Porath, J, R. Graham, G. C. N. Hall, R. D. Hirschnian, & M. S. Zaragoza (Eds.), Foren- sic applications of the MMPl-2 (pp. 179-201). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Butcher, J. N. (1996). Translation and adaptation of the MMPI-2 for interna- tional use. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.), International adaptations of the MMPI-2 (pp. 26-45). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N. (1996). Understanding abnormal hehavior across cultures: The use of objective personality methods. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.). Interna- tional adaptations of the MMPl-2 (pp. 3-25). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N. (1997). Use of computer-based personality test reports in treatment planning. In J.N. %\iyi:\\GT {^t\.). Personality assessment in man- aged health care: Using the MMPI-2 in treatment planning; (pp. 153-172). New York: Oxford University Press.
Butcher, J. N. (1999). Research design in objective personality assessment. In P. Kendall. J. N. Butcher, & G. Holmbeck (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology i2nded..pp. 155-182), New York: Wiley.
Butcher. J. N. (2000). Starke Rosecrans Hathaway: Biography of an empiri- cist. In G. Kimhie & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Pioneers in psychology (Vol. 4; pp. 235-252), Washington DC: Atnerican Psychological Association.
Butcher, J. N. (2002). Assessment in forensic practice: An objective ap- proach. In B. Van Dorsten (Ed.), rorensicpsychology: From classroom to courtroom (pp. 65-82). New Yort; Kluwer Academic /Plenum.
Butcher. J. N. (2002). Computer-b; sed psychological assessment. In J, R, Graham & J. Naglieri (Eds.), Ctmiprehensive handbook of psychology. Vol. 10: Assessment psychology i Dp. 141-164). New York: Wiley.
Butcher, J. N. (2002), How to use c jmputer-based reports. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.), Clinical personality assessment: Practical approaches (2nd ed.; pp, 109-125). New York: Oxford University Press.
Butcher, J, N.(2(K)2). Item content ii the interpretation of the MMPi-2. in J. N. Butcher (Ed.). Clinical personality assessment: Practical approaches (2nd ed.; pp. 319-334). New Yort: Oxford University Press.
Butcher. J. N.. Atlis. M.. & Hahi. J. (in press). Assessment with the MMPl-2: Research base and future developments. In D, Segal (Bd,), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment. New York: Wiley.
Butcher, J. N., Berah, E., Ellertsen, B.,Miacii, P., Lim,J.,Nezami, E., Pancheri, P., Derksen, J., & Almagor, M. ( 998). Objective personality assessment: Computer-based MMPI-2 interpretation in International clinical settings. In C. Belar (Ed.), Comprehensive clinical psychology: Sociocidtural and indi- vidual differences (pp. 277-312). New York: Elsevier.
Butcher. J. N., & Clark, L. A. i! 979 . Recent developments in cross-cultural research. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.), New directions In MMPl research Ipp. 69-112). Minneapolis: Universit" ot Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N., Coelho, S., Tsai, J., & Nezanii, E. (in press). International ad- aptations of the Minnesota Mul iphasic Personality Inventory and the MMPI-2. In J. N. Butcher (Ed.) MMPI-2: A practitioner's handbook. Washington, DC: American Psyciological Association.
Butcher. J. N.. & Dunn. L. (!989). V uman responses and treatment needs in airline disasters. In R. Gist& B, Lubin (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of di- saster (pp. 86-119). New York: Nv'iley.
Butcher, J. N., & Finn, S. (1984). Objective personality in clinical settings. In M. Hersen. A. E. Kazdin, & A. S. Bellack (Eds.), The clinical psychol- ogy handbook {pp. 329-344). NeA- York: Pergamon.
Butcher, J.N,.& Han. K, (1995). Development of an MMPI-2 scale to as- sess the presentation of self in a sjperlativc manner: The S scale. In J. N. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Ed;,), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 10; pp. 25-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Butcher. J, N., & Han, K, (1996). Methods of establishing cross-cultural equivalence. In J. N. Butcher (id.). International adaptations of the MMPl-2 (pp. 44-66). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N., & Harlow, T. (1987) Personality assessment in personal in- jury ca.ses. In A. Hess & I. Wiener (Eds.), Handbook of forensic psychol- ogy (pp. 128-154), New York: Wiley,
Butcher, J. N..& Herzog, J. (!982). ndividual assessment In crisis interven- tion: Observation, lite history, and personality approaches. In D. Spielberger & J. N. Butcher (Ed^.), Advances in personality assessment (pp. 115-166). Hillsdale. NJ: Lav.'rence Bribaum Associates, inc.
Butcher, J. N., & iCoss, M. P. (1978) Evaluationof brief and crisis interven- tion therapies, in S. L. Garfield & A. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psycho- therapy (Rev. ed.). New York: W:!ey.
Butcher, J. N., & Maudal, G. (1976). Crisis intervention, in i. Weiner (Ed-), Handbook of clinical methods (pp. 591-648). New York: Witey interscience.
Butcher, J. N.. & Miller, K. (1999). Personality assessment In personal in- jury litigation. In A, Hess & I. E. Weiner (Eds,), Handbook of forensic psychology (2nd ed.; pp. IO4-12(). New York; Wiley.
Butcher. J. N., Narikiyo, T, & Ben is-Vitousek, K. (1993). Understanding abnormal behavior in cultural coitext. In H. Adams & P. Sutker (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of ps/chopathotogy (2nd ed.. pp. 83-108). New York: Plenum.
Butcher. J. N., Nezami, E., & Exner J. (1998). Psychological assessment ot" people in diverse cultures. In S. Kiizarian & D. R. Evans (Eds.), Cross cul- tural clinicalpsychology (pp.M-U6). New York: Oxford University FYess.
Butcher, J. N.,& Owen. P. (1978), Survey of personality inventories: Recent research developments and contemporary issues. In B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of clinical diagnosis (pp. 475-546). New York: Plenum.
102 BUTCHER
Butcher. J- N,. Rouse. S. V.. & Perry, J. N. (20(X)). Empirical description of psychopaEhology in therapy clienls: Correlates ot'MMPI-2 scales. In J. N, Butcher (Ed,l Basic sources of MMPi-2 (pp. 487-500). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Butcher, J. N,. Stelmachers, Z,, & Maudal. G. R, i 19831. Crisis inferveniion and emergency psychotherapy. In i. Weincr (Rd.), Haiidhonk qf clinical methods I2nd ed,: pp, 572-633), New York: Wiley.
Deinard, A. S.. Butcher. J, N.. Thao. U, D.. Moua Vang. S. H., & Hang. K. (1996). DeveiopmenI of a Hmong translation of the MMPI-2, In J, N, Butcher (Ed.). International aduplaiions of the MMPI-2 (pp. 194-205). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Egli. E,, Shiota. N. K.. Ben-Porath. Y. S., & Butcher. J. N, (1991). Psycho- logical inierventions. In J. Westermeyer, C. L. Williams, & A. N. Nguyen (Eds,), Mi'iiial lieiilth services for refugees {DUHS Publication No. ADM 91-1824: pp. 111-122). Washington. DC: U S Government Printing Of- tice.
Finn, S,. & Butcher. J, N. (1991), Clinical objective personality assessment. In M, Hersen, A. E, Kazdin. & A, S. Bellack (Eds.). The clinical psycho!- «,?v handbook (2nd ed.: pp. 362-373). New York: Pergamon.
Hafner. A,. Butcher. J. N.. Hall, M.. & Quast. W. (1969). Parent personality and childhood disorder: A review of MMPI findings. In J, N. Butcher (Ed.), MMPI: Research developments and clinical applications (pp, 18!-19O), New York: McGraw-Hill,
Hjemboe, S., Butcher. J. N,, & Almagor, M. (1992). Empirical assessment of marital di,stres,s: The Mantal Distress Scale (MDS) for the MMPI-2. In C. D, Spielberger & J. N. Butcher (Eds.), A /̂rrt/iccv in personality assessment. (Vol, 9. pp. 141-152). Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Eribaum AssiK-iates. Inc.
Keller. L.. Butcher. J, N., & Slutske. W. (1990), Objective personality as- sessment, in G. Goldstein & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of psychologi- cal assessment (2nd ed,. pp, 345-386). New York: Pergamon.
Klump, K.. & Butcher. J. N. (1997). Psychological tests in treatment plan- ning: The importance of objective assessment. In J. N. Butcher (Ed. ),/Vr- sonalily assessment in managed health care: Using the MMPI~2 in treat- ment planning (pp. 95-152). New York: Oxford University Pre,ss,
Koss. M. P., & Butcher,!. N. (1986). Research on brief psychotherapy. In S. L. Garfietd & A. E. Bergin (Eds.). Handbook of psychotherapy and be- havior change (3rd ed.. pp. 627-670). New York: Wiley.
Nezami. E.. & Butcher. J. N. (1999). Objective personality assessment. In G. Goldstein & M. Hersen. (Eds.). Handbook of psychological assessment
(pp, 413^.36). New York: Pergamon. Owen. P. L.. & Butcher. J, N. (1979). Personality factors in problem drink-
ing; A review of the evidence and some suggested directions. In R. Pickens & L. L. Heston (Eds.). Psychiatric factors in drug abuse (pp. 67-91). New York: Grune and Stratton.
Pen7. J.. & Butcher, J. N. 11999). The Butcher Treatment Planning Inventory (BTPI): An objective guide to treatment planning. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.). The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes as- sessment (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum AsscKiates, Inc.
Perry. J., & Butcher. J. N. (2004). The Butcher Treatment Planning Inventory (BTPI): An objective guide to treatment planning. In M. E. Maruish (Ed,), Use ofpsychological testing for treatment planning and outcome assessment (2nd ed.. pp. 589-602]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates. Inc.
Spiro, A., III. Butcher, J. N.. Levenson, M. R.. Aldwin, C. M,. & Bosse. R, (2000). Change and stability in personality: A 5-year study of the MMPI-2 in older men. in J. N, Butcher (Ed.). Basic sources for the MMPI-2 (pp. 443^63), Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Teilegen, A.. Gerrard. N,. Gerrard. L.. & Butcher. J. N, (1969). Personality characteristics of members of a serpent-handling religious cult. In J. N, Butcher (Ed,). MMPI: Research developments and clinical applications (pp. 221-242). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tsai. J. L,. Butcher. J. N.. Munoz, R. F. & Vitousek, K. (2001). Culture, eth- nicity, and psychopathology. In H. E. Adams & P. B. Sutker (Eds,). Com- prehensive handbook of psychopathology (3rii ed,; pp. 105-127). New York: Plenum.
Weed. N. C . & Butcher. J. N. (1992). The MMPI-2 development and re- search issues. In P, McReynolds {Ed.}. Advances in psychological assess- ment (Vol. 8; pp. 131-163). New York: Plenum.
Weed. N,. Butcher. J. N,. & Ben-Porath. Y, S. (1995). MMPI-2 measures of substance abuse. In J. N. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.). Advances in personality assessment (Vol, 10. pp. 121-145), Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Eribaum A,ssociates. Inc,
Journal Articles
Arbisi. P. A., & Butcher. J. N. (in press). Psychometric perspectives on de- tection of malingering of pain; The use of the MMPI-2. The Clinical Journal of Pain.
Benoist. I., & Butcher. J. N. (1977). Nonverbal cues to sex-role attitudes. Journal of Research in Personality, II. 4 3 1 ^ 4 4 2 .
Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Butcher. J. N. (1986). Computers in personality assess- ment: A brief past, an ebullieni present, and an expanding future. Com- puters in Human Behavior. 2. 167-1!S2.
Ben-Porath. Y. S.. & Butcher. J. N, (1989). The comparability of MMPi and MMPI-2 scales and profiles. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. I. 345-347,
Ben-Porath. Y. S,. & Butcher. J. N. (!9«9), The psychometric stability of re- written MMPI items. Journal of Personality Assessment. 53. 645-6,54.
Ben-Porath, Y, S., Butcher. J, N,. & Graham. J, R. (1991). Contribution of ihe MMPI-2 content scales to the differential diagnosis of psychopatliology. Psychological Assessmeni: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. S. 634-640.
Ben-Porath, Y, S,. Hostetler. K., Butcher, J. N., & Graham. J. (1989). New subscales for the MMPI-2 Social Introversion (Si) scale. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. I. 169-174,
Ben-Porath. Y. S.. Slutske. W.. & Butcher, J. N. (1989). A real-data simula- tion of computerized adaptive administration of the MMPI, Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. I. 18-22,
Ben-Porath, Y S,. Waller. N. G.. & Butcher, J, N, (1991), Assessment of coping; An empirical illustration of the problem of inapplicable items. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57. 162-176,
Butcher. J. N. (1965). Manifest aggression: MMPI correlates in normal boys. Journal of Consulting Psychology. 29, 446-455.
Butcher. J. N. (1967). Personality tests and the invasion of privacy. NEA Journal. 56. 51-522. (Abstracted in the Education Digest, January 1968)
Butcher. J. N. (1980. November), The role of crisis intervention in an airport disaster plan. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. 1260-1262.
Butcher. J. N. (1985). Assessing psychological characteristics of personal injury and workers' compensation litigants. Clinical Psychologist. 38. 84-87.
Butcher. J. N. (198,5). An introduction to the use of computers in psychologi- cal assessment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53. 746-748.
Butcher, J. N. (1987). Introduction to the special series: The need for a broadened cultural perspective in clinical psychology. Journal of Con- sulting and Clinical Psychology. 55. 459^61,
Butcher. J, N. (1988). Introduction to the special series. Personality factors in addiction. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 56, 171.
Butcher. J. N. (1990. October). Basic features of the MMPI-2. Clinician's Research Dige.tt,
Butcher. J, N. (1994). Psychological assessment by computer; Potential gains and problems to avoid. Psychiatric Annah, 20, 20-24.
Butcher. J. N. (1994). Psychological assessment of airline pilot applicants with the MMPI-2. Journal of Personality As.sessmem. 62. 31 -44.
Butcher, J. N. (1995). Linee di tendenza nella valutazione della personalita: come sara il nuovosecolo? [Lines of development in the appraisal of per- sonality: What's in store for the next century?1. Bolleltino di Psicologica Applicata. 213, 3-9.
Butcher. J. N. (1997). Introduction to the special section on assessment in psychological treatment: A necessary step for effective intervention. Psy- chological Assessment, y. 331-334.
Butcher, J. N. (2000). Dynamics of personality test responses: The empiri- cist's manifesto revisited. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 56. 375-386.
103 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT WITHOUT BORDERS
Butcher. J. N. (2()00). Revising psychological tests: Lessons learned from the revision ot the MMPI. Psychological Assessment. 12. 263-271.
Butcher. J. N. (2(H)2), Assessing pilots with "the wrong stuff;" A call for re- search on cmuiionai health factors in commercial aviators. International Jourmil tif Selection and A s s e s s m e n t , I(X\). 1 -17 .
Butcher. J. N.. Aldwin. C. Levenson. M., Ben-Porath, Y. S,. Spiro. A.. & Bosse. R. (1991). Personality and aging: A study of the MMPI-2 among older men. Psychology of Aging, 6. 361-370.
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Butcher. J. N.. Braswell. L.. & Riiney. D. (1983). A cross-cultural compari- son of American Indian, Black, and White inpatients on the MMPI and presenting symptoms. Journal of Consulting ami Clinical P.sychology. 51 587-594.
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104 BUTCHER
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James N. Butcher Department of Psyehology N-2I8EHH328I 15 East River Road University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455 E-mail: [email protected]
Received February 28, 2004 Revised March 23, 2004
