OE6 Due in 36 hours

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be

able to:

• explain the concept of globalization;

• describe the role of information technology in

globalization;

• identify the issues experienced by firms as they

face a global economy; and

• define the digital divide and explain Nielsen’s three

stages of the digital divide.

Introduction

The Internet has wired the world. Today it is just as simple to

communicate with someone on the other side of the world as it

is to talk to someone next door. But keep in mind that many

businesses attempted to outsource different needs in technology,

only to discover that near-sourcing (outsourcing to countries to

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 245

Internet Statistics by Continent. Source: https://www .internetworl dstats.com/ stats.htm. (Click to enlarge)

which your country is physically connected) had greater advantage.

This chapter looks at the implications of globalization and the

impact it is having on the world.

What Is Globalization?

Globalization refers to the integration of goods, services, and

culture among the nations of the world. Globalization is not

necessarily a new phenomenon. In many ways globalization has

existed since the days of European colonization. Further advances

in telecommunication and transportation technologies accelerated

globalization. The advent of the the worldwide Internet has made all

nations virtual next door neighbors.

The Internet is truly a worldwide phenomenon. As of December

2017 the Internet was being used by over 4.1 billion people world

wide. 1 From its initial beginnings in the United States in the 1970s to

the development of the World Wide Web in the 1990s to the social

networks and e-commerce of today, the Internet has continued to

increase the integration between countries, making globalization a

fact of life for citizens all over the world.

1. [1]

246 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

The Network Society

In 1996 social-sciences researcher Manuel Castells published The

Rise of the Network Society, in which he identified new ways

economic activity was being organized around the networks that

the new telecommunication technologies had provided. This new,

global economic activity was different from the past, because “it

is an economy with the capacity to work as a unit in real time on

a planetary scale.” 2 Having a world connected via the Internet has

some massive implications.

The World Is Flat

Thomas Friedman’s 2005 book The World Is Flat uses anecdotal

evidence to present the impact the personal computer, the Internet,

and communication software have had on business, specifically the

impact on globalization. Three eras of globalization are defined at

the beginning of the book. 3

:

• “Globalization 1.0″ occurred from 1492 until about 1800. In this

era globalization was centered around countries. It was about

how much horsepower, wind power, and steam power a

country had and how creatively it was deployed. The world

shrank from size “large” to size “medium.”

• “Globalization 2.0″ occurred from about 1800 until 2000,

interrupted only by the two World Wars. In this era, the

dynamic force driving change was multinational companies.

The world shrank from size “medium” to size “small.”

2. [2]

3. [3]

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 247

• “Globalization 3.0″ is our current era, beginning in the year

2000. The convergence of the personal computer, fiber-optic

Internet connections, and software has created a “flat-world

platform” that allows small groups and even individuals to go

global. The world has shrunk from size “small” to size “tiny.”

According to Friedman, this third era of globalization was brought

about, in many respects, by information technology. Some of the

specific technologies include:

• Graphical user interface for the personal computer popularized in the late 1980s. Before the graphical user interface, using a computer was relatively difficult, requiring

users to type commands rather than click a mouse. By making

the personal computer something that anyone could use, the

computer became a tool of virtually every person, not just

those intrigued by technology. Friedman says the personal

computer made people more productive and, as the Internet

evolved, made it simpler to communicate information

worldwide.

• Build-out of the Internet infrastructure during the dot-com boom during the late-1990s. During the late 1990s, telecommunications companies laid thousands of miles of fiber

optic cable all over the world, turning network

communications into a commodity. At the same time, the

Internet protocols, such as SMTP (e-mail), HTML (web pages),

and TCP/IP (network communications) became standards that

were available for free and used by everyone through their

email programs and web browsers.

• Introduction of software to automate and integrate business processes. As the Internet continued to grow and become the dominant form of communication, it became essential to build

on the standards developed earlier so that the websites and

applications running on the Internet would work well together.

Friedman calls this “workflow software,” by which he means

248 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

software that allows people to work together more easily, and

allows different software and databases to integrate with each

other more easily. Examples include payment processing

systems and shipping calculators.

These three technologies came together in the late 1990s to

create a “platform for global collaboration.” Once these technologies

were in place, they continued to evolve. Friedman also points out

a couple more technologies that have contributed to the flat-world

platform, namely the open source movement discussed in Chapter

10 and the advent of mobile technologies.

Economist Pankaj Ghemawat authored the book World 3.0 in 2011

in an attempt to provide a more moderate and research-based

analysis of globalization. While Friedman talked with individuals and

produced an anecdotally-based book, Ghemawat’s approach was to

research economic data, then draw conclusions about globalization.

His research found the following:

• Mailed letters that cross international borders = 1%

• Telephone calling minutes that are international = 2%

• Internet traffic that is routed across international borders =

18%

• National, as opposed to international, TV news sources = 95%

• First generation immigrants as portion of world’s population =

3%

• People who at sometime in their lives will cross an

international border = 10%

• Global exports as portion of the value of all goods produced in

the world = 20% 4

According to Ghemawat, while the Internet has had an impact on

4. [4]

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 249

the world’s economy, it may well be that domestic economies can be

expected to continue to be the main focus in most countries. You

can watch Ghemawat’s Ted Talk here. Current and future trends will

be discussed in Chapter 13.

The Global Firm

The new era of globalization allows virtually any business to become

international. By accessing this new platform of technologies,

Castells’s vision of working as a unit in real time on a planetary scale

can be a reality. Some of the advantages include:

• Ability to locate expertise and labor around the world. Instead of drawing employees from their local area,

organizations can now hire people from the global labor pool.

This also allows organizations to pay a lower labor cost for the

same work based on the prevailing wage in different countries.

• Ability to operate 24 hours a day. With employees in different time zones all around the world, an organization can literally

operate around the clock, handing off work on projects from

one part of the world to another as the normal business day

ends in one region and begins in another. A few years ago

three people decided to open a web hosting company. They

strategically relocated to three places in the world which were

eight hours apart, giving their business 24 hour coverage while

allowing each to work during the normal business day.

Operating expenses were minimized and the business provided

24/7 support to customers world wide.

• Larger market for their products. Once a product is being sold online, it is available for purchase from a worldwide

customer base. Even if a company’s products do not appeal

beyond its own country’s borders, being online has made the

product more visible to consumers within that country.

250 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

In order to fully take advantage of these new capabilities,

companies need to understand that there are also challenges in

dealing with employees and customers from different cultures.

Some of these challenges include:

• Infrastructure differences. Each country has its own infrastructure with varying levels of quality and bandwidth. A

business cannot expect every country it deals with to have the

same Internet speeds. See the sidebar titled “How Does My

Internet Speed Compare?”

• Labor laws and regulations. Different countries (even different states in the United States) have different laws and regulations.

A company that wants to hire employees from other countries

must understand the different regulations and concerns.

• Legal restrictions. Many countries have restrictions on what can be sold or how a product can be advertised. It is important

for a business to understand what is allowed. For example, in

Germany, it is illegal to sell anything Nazi related.

• Language, customs, and preferences. Every country has its own unique culture which a business must consider when

trying to market a product there. Additionally, different

countries have different preferences. For example, in many

parts of Europe people prefer to eat their french fries with

mayonnaise instead of ketchup. In South Africa a hamburger

comes delivered to your table with gravy on top.

• International shipping. Shipping products between countries in a timely manner can be challenging. Inconsistent address

formats, dishonest customs agents, and prohibitive shipping

costs are all factors that must be considered when trying to

deliver products internationally.

Because of these challenges, many businesses choose not to

expand globally, either for labor or for customers. Whether a

business has its own website or relies on a third-party, such as

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 251

Comparison of top world Internet speeds in 2019. Source: https://www .statista.com /chart/ 7246/ the-countrie s-with-the-f astest-intern et/ (Click to enlarge)

Amazon or eBay, the question of whether or not to globalize must

be carefully considered.

Sidebar: How Does My Internet Speed Compare?

How does your Internet speed compare with others in the world?

The following chart shows how Internet speeds compare

in different countries. You can find the full list of countries by going

to this article . You can also compare the evolution of Internet

speeds among countries by using this tool .

So how does your own Internet speed compare? There are many

online tools you can use to determine the speed at which you are

connected. One of the most trusted sites is speedtest.net, where

you can test both your download and upload speeds.

252 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

The Digital Divide

As the Internet continues to make inroads across the world, it is also

creating a separation between those who have access to this global

network and those who do not. This separation is called the “digital

divide” and is of great concern. An article in Crossroads puts it this

way:

Adopted by the ACM Council in 1992, the ACM Code of

Ethics and Professional Conduct focuses on issues involving

the Digital Divide that could prevent certain categories of

people — those from low-income households, senior

citizens, single-parent children, the undereducated,

minorities, and residents of rural areas — from receiving

adequate access to the wide variety of resources offered

by computer technology. This Code of Ethics positions the

use of computers as a fundamental ethical consideration: “In

a fair society, all individuals would have equal opportunity

to participate in, or benefit from, the use of computer

resources regardless of race, sex, religion, age, disability,

national origin, or other similar factors.” This article

summarizes the digital divide in its various forms, and

analyzes reasons for the growing inequality in people’s

access to Internet services. It also describes how society

can bridge the digital divide: the serious social gap between

information “haves” and “have-nots.” 5

The digital divide can occur between countries, regions, or even

neighborhoods. In many US cities, there are pockets with little or no

5. [5]

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 253

Internet access, while just a few miles away high-speed broadband

is common.

Solutions to the digital divide have had mixed success over the

years. Many times just providing Internet access and/or computing

devices is not enough to bring true Internet access to a country,

region, or neighborhood.

A New Understanding of the Digital Divide

In 2006, web-usability consultant Jakob Nielsen wrote an article

that got to the heart of our understanding of this problem. In his

article he breaks the digital divide up into three stages: the

economic divide, the usability divide, and the empowerment

divide 6

.

• Economic divide. This is what many call the digital divide. The economic divide is the idea that some people can afford to

have a computer and Internet access while others cannot.

Because of Moore’s Law (see Chapter 2), the price of hardware

has continued to drop and, at this point, we can now access

digital technologies, such as smartphones, for very little.

Nielsen asserts that for all intents and purposes, the economic

divide is a moot point and we should not focus our resources

on solving it.

• Usability divide. Usability is concerned with the fact that “technology remains so complicated that many people couldn’t

use a computer even if they got one for free.” And even for

those who can use a computer, accessing all the benefits of

having one is beyond their understanding. Included in this

group are those with low literacy and seniors. According to

6. [6]

254 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

Nielsen, we know how to help these users, but we are not

doing it because there is little profit in doing so.

• Empowerment divide. Empowerment is the most difficult to solve. It is concerned with how we use technology to empower

ourselves. Very few users truly understand the power that

digital technologies can give them. In his article, Nielsen

explains that his and others’ research has shown that very few

users contribute content to the Internet, use advanced search,

or can even distinguish paid search ads from organic search

results. Many people will limit what they can do online by

accepting the basic, default settings of their computer and not

work to understand how they can truly be empowered.

Understanding the digital divide using these three stages provides

a more nuanced view of how we can work to alleviate it. More work

needs to be done to address the second and third stages of the

digital divide for a more holistic solution.

Refining the Digital Divide

The Miniwatts Marketing Group, host of Internet World Stats, has

sought in 2018 to further clarify the meaning of digital divide by

acknowledging that the divide is more than just who does or does

not have access to the Internet. In addition to Nielsen’s economic,

usability, and empowerment divides, this group sees the following

concerns.

• Social mobility. Lack of computer education works to the disadvantage of children with lower socioeconomic status.

• Democracy. Greater use of the Internet can lead to healthier democracies especially in participation in elections.

• Economic growth. Greater use of the Internet in developing countries could provide a shortcut to economic advancement.

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 255

Using the latest technology could give companies in these

countries a competitive advantage.

The focus on the continuing digital divide has led the European

Union to create an initiative known as The European 2020 Strategy.

Five major areas are being targeted: a) research and development,

b) climate/energy, c) education, d) social inclusion, and e) poverty

reduction. 7

Sidebar: Using Gaming to Bridge the Digital Divide

Paul Kim, the Assistant Dean and Chief Technology Officer of the

Stanford Graduate School of Education, designed a project to

address the digital divide for children in developing countries. 8

In their project the researchers wanted to learn if children can

adopt and teach themselves mobile learning technology, without

help from teachers or other adults, and the processes and factors

involved in this phenomenon. The researchers developed a mobile

device called TeacherMate, which contained a game designed to

help children learn math. The unique part of this research was

that the researchers interacted directly with the children. They

did not channel the mobile devices through the teachers or the

schools. There was another important factor to consider. In order

to understand the context of the children’s educational

environment, the researchers began the project by working with

7. [7]

8. [8]

256 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

parents and local nonprofits six months before their visit. While the

results of this research are too detailed to go into here, it can be

said that the researchers found that children can, indeed, adopt and

teach themselves mobile learning technologies.

What makes this research so interesting when thinking about

the digital divide is that the researchers found that, in order to be

effective, they had to customize their technology and tailor their

implementation to the specific group they were trying to reach. One

of their conclusions stated the following:

Considering the rapid advancement of technology today,

mobile learning options for future projects will only

increase. Consequently, researchers must continue to

investigate their impact. We believe there is a specific need

for more in-depth studies on ICT [Information and

Communication Technology] design variations to meet

different challenges of different localities.

To read more about Dr. Kim’s project, locate the paper referenced

here.

Summary

Information technology has driven change on a global scale.

Technology has given us the ability to integrate with people all over

the world using digital tools. These tools have allowed businesses to

broaden their labor pools, their markets, and even their operating

hours. But they have also brought many new complications for

businesses, which now must understand regulations, preferences,

and cultures from many different nations. This new globalization

has also exacerbated the digital divide. Nielsen has suggested that

the digital divide consists of three stages (economic, usability, and

empowerment), of which the economic stage is virtually solved.

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 257

Study Questions

1. What does the term globalization mean?

2. How does Friedman define the three eras of globalization?

3. Which technologies have had the biggest effect on

globalization?

4. What are some of the advantages brought about by

globalization?

5. What are the challenges of globalization?

6. What perspective does Ghemawat provide regarding

globalization in his book World 3.0?

7. What does the term digital divide mean?

8. What are Jakob Nielsen’s three stages of the digital divide?

9. What was one of the key points of The Rise of the Network

Society?

10. Which country has the highest average Internet speed? How

does your country compare?

Exercises

1. Compare the concept of Friedman’s “Globalization 3.0″ with

Nielsen empowerment stage of the digital divide.

2. Do some original research to determine some of the

regulations that a US company may have to consider before

doing business in one of the following countries: China,

Germany, Saudi Arabia, Turkey.

3. Give one example of the digital divide and describe what you

would do to address it.

4. How did the research conducted by Paul Kim address the three

258 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

levels of the digital divide?

Lab

1. Go to speedtest.net to determine your Internet speed.

Compare your speed at home to the Internet speed at two

other locations, such as your school, place of employment, or

local coffee shop. Write a one-page summary that compares

these locations.

1. Internet World Stats. (n.d.). World Internet Users and 2018

Population Stats. Retrieved from

http://internetworldstats.com/↵

2. Castells, M. (2000). The Rise of the Network Society (2nd ed.).

Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.↵

3. Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the

twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.↵

4. Ghemawat, P. (2011). World 3.0: Global Prosperity and How to

Achieve It. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.↵

5. Kim, K. (2005, December). Challenges in HCI: digital divide.

Crossroads 12, 2. DOI=10.1145/1144375.1144377. Retrieved from

http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1144375.1144377↵

6. Nielsen, J. (2006).Digital Divide: The 3 Stages. Nielsen Norman

Group. Retrieved from http://www.nngroup.com/articles/

digital-divide-the-three-stages/↵

7. Miniwatts Marketing Group. (2018, May 23). The Digital Divide,

ICT, and Broadband Internet. Retrieved from

https://www.internetworldstats.com/links10.htm↵

8. Kim, P., Buckner, E., Makany, T., and Kim, H. (2011). A

comparative analysis of a game-based mobile learning model in

Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide | 259

low-socioeconomic communities of India. International Journal

of Educational Development. Retrieved from https//doi:10.1016/

j.ijedudev.2011.05.008.↵

260 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be

able to:

• describe what the term information systems ethics

means;

• explain what a code of ethics is and describe the

advantages and disadvantages;

• define the term intellectual property and explain

the protections provided by copyright, patent, and

trademark; and

• describe the challenges that information

technology brings to individual privacy.

Introduction

Information systems have had an impact far beyond the world of

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information

business. New technologies create new situations that have never

had to be confronted before. One issue is how to handle the new

capabilities that these devices provide to users. What new laws are

going to be needed for protection from misuse of new technologies.

This chapter begins with a discussion of the impact of information

systems has on user behavior or ethics. This will be followed with

the new legal structures being put in place with a focus on

intellectual property and privacy.

Information Systems Ethics

The term ethics means “a set of moral principles” or “the principles

of conduct governing an individual or a group.” 1 Since the dawn

of civilization, the study of ethics and their impact has fascinated

mankind. But what do ethics have to do with information systems?

The introduction of new technology can have a profound effect

on human behavior. New technologies give us capabilities that we

did not have before, which in turn create environments and

situations that have not been specifically addressed in an ethical

context. Those who master new technologies gain new power while

those who cannot or do not master them may lose power. In 1913

Henry Ford implemented the first moving assembly line to create

his Model T cars. While this was a great step forward technologically

and economically, the assembly line reduced the value of human

beings in the production process. The development of the atomic

bomb concentrated unimaginable power in the hands of one

government, who then had to wrestle with the decision to use

it. Today’s digital technologies have created new categories of

ethical dilemmas.

1. [1]

262 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

Facebook logo

For example, the ability to anonymously make perfect copies of

digital music has tempted many music fans to download

copyrighted music for their own use without making payment to the

music’s owner. Many of those who would never have walked into a

music store and stolen a CD find themselves with dozens of illegally

downloaded albums.

Digital technologies have given us the ability to aggregate

information from multiple sources to create profiles of people.

What would have taken weeks of work in the past can now be

done in seconds, allowing private organizations and governments

to know more about individuals than at any time in history. This

information has value, but also chips away at the privacy of

consumers and citizens.

Sidebar: Data Privacy, Facebook, and Cambridge Analytica

In early 2018 Facebook acknowledged a

data breach affecting 87 million users. The

app “thisisyourdigitallife”, created by Global

Science Research, informed users that they

could participate in a psychological research

study. About 270,000 people decided to

participate in the research, but the app failed

to tell users that the data of all of their

friends on Facebook would be automatically

captured as well. All of this data theft took place prior to 2014, but it

did not become public until four years later.

In 2015 Facebook learned about Global Science Research’s

collection of data on millions of friends of the users in the research.

Global Science Research agreed to delete the data, but it had already

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 263

been sold to Cambridge Analytica who used it in the 2016

presidential primary campaign. The ensuing firestorm resulted in

Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook, testifying before the U.S.

Congress in 2018 on what happened and what Facebook would

do in the future to protect users’ data. Congress is working on

legislation to protect user data in the future, a prime example of

technology advancing faster than the laws needed to protect users.

More information about this case of data privacy can be found at

Facebook and Cambridge Analytica. 2

Code of Ethics

A code of ethics is one method for navigating new ethical waters.

A code of ethics outlines a set of acceptable behaviors for a

professional or social group. Generally, it is agreed to by all

members of the group. The document details different actions that

are considered appropriate and inappropriate.

A good example of a code of ethics is the Code of Ethics and

Professional Conduct of the Association for Computing Machinery, 3

an organization of computing professionals that includes

academics, researchers, and practitioners. Here is a quote from the

preamble:

Commitment to ethical professional conduct is expected of

every member (voting members, associate members, and

student members) of the Association for Computing

Machinery (ACM).

2. [2]

3. [3]

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This Code, consisting of 24 imperatives formulated as

statements of personal responsibility, identifies the

elements of such a commitment. It contains many, but not

all, issues professionals are likely to face. Section 1 outlines

fundamental ethical considerations, while Section

2 addresses additional, more specific considerations of

professional conduct. Statements in Section 3 pertain more

specifically to individuals who have a leadership role,

whether in the workplace or in a volunteer capacity such

as with organizations like ACM. Principles involving

compliance with this Code are given in Section 4.

In the ACM’s code you will find many straightforward ethical

instructions such as the admonition to be honest and trustworthy.

But because this is also an organization of professionals that focuses

on computing, there are more specific admonitions that relate

directly to information technology:

• No one should enter or use another’s computer system,

software, or data files without permission. One must always

have appropriate approval before using system resources,

including communication ports, file space, other system

peripherals, and computer time.

• Designing or implementing systems that deliberately or

inadvertently demean individuals or groups is ethically

unacceptable.

• Organizational leaders are responsible for ensuring that

computer systems enhance, not degrade, the quality of

working life. When implementing a computer system,

organizations must consider the personal and professional

development, physical safety, and human dignity of all workers.

Appropriate human-computer ergonomic standards should be

considered in system design and in the workplace.

One of the major advantages of creating a code of ethics is that

it clarifies the acceptable standards of behavior for a professional

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 265

group. The varied backgrounds and experiences of the members

of a group lead to a variety of ideas regarding what is acceptable

behavior. While the guidelines may seem obvious, having these

items detailed provides clarity and consistency. Explicitly stating

standards communicates the common guidelines to everyone in a

clear manner.

A code of ethics can also have some drawbacks. First, a code of

ethics does not have legal authority. Breaking a code of ethics is

not a crime in itself. What happens if someone violates one of the

guidelines? Many codes of ethics include a section that describes

how such situations will be handled. In many cases repeated

violations of the code result in expulsion from the group.

In the case of ACM: “Adherence of professionals to a code of

ethics is largely a voluntary matter. However, if a member does

not follow this code by engaging in gross misconduct, membership

in ACM may be terminated.” Expulsion from ACM may not have

much of an impact on many individuals since membership in ACM is

usually not a requirement for employment. However, expulsion from

other organizations, such as a state bar organization or medical

board, could carry a huge impact.

Another possible disadvantage of a code of ethics is that there

is always a chance that important issues will arise that are not

specifically addressed in the code. Technology is quickly changing

and a code of ethics might not be updated often enough to keep up

with all of the changes. A good code of ethics, however, is written

in a broad enough fashion that it can address the ethical issues of

potential changes to technology while the organization behind the

code makes revisions.

Finally, a code of ethics could also be a disadvantage in that it

may not entirely reflect the ethics or morals of every member of the

group. Organizations with a diverse membership may have internal

conflicts as to what is acceptable behavior. For example, there may

be a difference of opinion on the consumption of alcoholic

beverages at company events. In such cases the organization must

266 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

make a choice about the importance of addressing a specific

behavior in the code.

Sidebar: Acceptable Use Policies

Many organizations that provide technology services to a group

of constituents or the public require agreement to an Acceptable

Use Policy (AUP) before those services can be accessed. Similar to

a code of ethics, this policy outlines what is allowed and what is

not allowed while someone is using the organization’s services. An

everyday example of this is the terms of service that must be agreed

to before using the public Wi-Fi at Starbucks, McDonald’s, or even

a university. Here is an example of an acceptable use policy from

Virginia Tech.

Just as with a code of ethics, these acceptable use policies specify

what is allowed and what is not allowed. Again, while some of the

items listed are obvious to most, others are not so obvious:

• “Borrowing” someone else’s login ID and password is

prohibited.

• Using the provided access for commercial purposes, such as

hosting your own business website, is not allowed.

• Sending out unsolicited email to a large group of people is

prohibited.

As with codes of ethics, violations of these policies have various

consequences. In most cases, such as with Wi-Fi, violating the

acceptable use policy will mean that you will lose your access to

the resource. While losing access to Wi-Fi at Starbucks may not

have a lasting impact, a university student getting banned from the

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 267

university’s Wi-Fi (or possibly all network resources) could have a

large impact.

Intellectual Property

One of the domains that has been deeply impacted by digital

technologies is intellectual property. Digital technologies have

driven a rise in new intellectual property claims and made it much

more difficult to defend intellectual property.

Intellectual property is defined as “property (as an idea, invention,

or process) that derives from the work of the mind or intellect.” 4

This could include creations such as song lyrics, a computer

program, a new type of toaster, or even a sculpture.

Practically speaking, it is very difficult to protect an idea. Instead,

intellectual property laws are written to protect the tangible results

of an idea. In other words, just coming up with a song in your head

is not protected, but if you write it down it can be protected.

Protection of intellectual property is important because it gives

people an incentive to be creative. Innovators with great ideas will

be more likely to pursue those ideas if they have a clear

understanding of how they will benefit. In the US Constitution,

Article 8, Section 8, the authors saw fit to recognize the importance

of protecting creative works:

Congress shall have the power . . . To promote the Progress

of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to

Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective

Writings and Discoveries.

4. [4]

268 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

An important point to note here is the “limited time” qualification.

While protecting intellectual property is important because of the

incentives it provides, it is also necessary to limit the amount of

benefit that can be received and allow the results of ideas to become

part of the public domain.

Outside of the US, intellectual property protections vary. You can

find out more about a specific country’s intellectual property laws

by visiting the World Intellectual Property Organization.

The following sections address three of the best known

intellectual property protections: copyright, patent, and trademark.

Copyright

Copyright is the protection given to songs, computer programs,

books, and other creative works. Any work that has an “author” can

be copyrighted. Under the terms of copyright, the author of a work

controls what can be done with the work, including:

• Who can make copies of the work.

• Who can make derivative works from the original work.

• Who can perform the work publicly.

• Who can display the work publicly.

• Who can distribute the work.

Many times a work is not owned by an individual but is instead

owned by a publisher with whom the original author has an

agreement. In return for the rights to the work, the publisher will

market and distribute the work and then pay the original author a

portion of the proceeds.

Copyright protection lasts for the life of the original author plus

seventy years. In the case of a copyrighted work owned by a

publisher or another third party, the protection lasts for ninety-

five years from the original creation date. For works created before

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 269

1978, the protections vary slightly. You can see the full details on

copyright protections by reviewing the Copyright Basics document

available at the US Copyright Office’s website.

Obtaining Copyright Protection

In the United States a copyright is obtained by the simple act of

creating the original work. In other words, when an author writes

down a song, makes a film, or develops a computer program, the

author has the copyright. However, for a work that will be used

commercially, it is advisable to register for a copyright with the

US Copyright Office. A registered copyright is needed in order to

bring legal action against someone who has used a work without

permission.

First Sale Doctrine

If an artist creates a painting and sells it to a collector who then,

for whatever reason, proceeds to destroy it, does the original artist

have any recourse? What if the collector, instead of destroying it,

begins making copies of it and sells them? Is this allowed? The first

sale doctrine is a part of copyright law that addresses this, as shown

below 5 :

The first sale doctrine, codified at 17 U.S.C. § 109, provides

that an individual who knowingly purchases a copy of a

copyrighted work from the copyright holder receives the

5. [5]

270 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

right to sell, display or otherwise dispose of that particular

copy, notwithstanding the interests of the copyright owner.

Therefor, in our examples the copyright owner has no recourse if

the collector destroys the artwork. But the collector does not have

the right to make copies of the artwork.

Fair Use

Another important provision within copyright law is that of fair use.

Fair use is a limitation on copyright law that allows for the use

of protected works without prior authorization in specific cases.

For example, if a teacher wanted to discuss a current event in

class, copies of the copyrighted new story could be handed out in

class without first getting permission. Fair use is also what allows a

student to quote a small portion of a copyrighted work in a research

paper.

Unfortunately, the specific guidelines for what is considered fair

use and what constitutes copyright violation are not well defined.

Fair use is a well-known and respected concept and will only be

challenged when copyright holders feel that the integrity or market

value of their work is being threatened. The following four factors

are considered when determining if something constitutes fair

use: 6

1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such

use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational

purposes;

2. The nature of the copyrighted work;

3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation

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Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 271

to the copyrighted work as a whole;

4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of,

the copyrighted work.

If you are ever considering using a copyrighted work as part of

something you are creating, you may be able to do so under fair

use. However, it is always best to check with the copyright owner to

be sure you are staying within your rights and not infringing upon

theirs.

Sidebar: The History of Copyright Law

As noted above, current copyright law grants copyright protection

for seventy years after the author’s death, or ninety-five years from

the date of creation for a work created for hire. But it was not always

this way.

The first US copyright law, which only protected books, maps, and

charts, provided protection for only 14 years with a renewable term

of 14 years. Over time copyright law was revised to grant protections

to other forms of creative expression, such as photography and

motion pictures. Congress also saw fit to extend the length of the

protections, as shown in the following chart. Today, copyright has

become big business with many businesses relying on the income

from copyright protected works for their income.

Many now think that the protections last too long. The Sonny

Bono Copyright Term Extension Act has been nicknamed the

“Mickey Mouse Protection Act,” as it was enacted just in time to

protect the copyright on the Walt Disney Company’s Mickey Mouse

character. Because of this term extension, many works from the

1920s and 1930s that would have been available now in the public

domain are still restricted.

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Evolution of copyright

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act

As digital technologies have changed what it means to create, copy,

and distribute media, a policy vacuum has been created. In 1998, the

US Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA),

which extended copyright law to take into consideration digital

technologies. Two of the best-known provisions from the DMCA are

the anti-circumvention provision and the “safe harbor” provision.

• The anti-circumvention provision makes it illegal to create

technology to circumvent technology that has been put in

place to protect a copyrighted work. This provision includes

not just the creation of the technology but also the publishing

of information that describes how to do it. While this provision

does allow for some exceptions, it has become quite

controversial and has led to a movement to have it modified.

• The “safe harbor” provision limits the liability of online service

providers when someone using their services commits

copyright infringement. This is the provision that allows

YouTube, for example, not to be held liable when someone

posts a clip from a copyrighted movie. The provision does

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 273

require the online service provider to take action when they

are notified of the violation (a “takedown” notice). For an

example of how takedown works, here’s how YouTube handles

these requests: YouTube Copyright Infringement Notification.

Many think that the DMCA goes too far and ends up limiting our

freedom of speech. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) is at

the forefront of this battle. In discussing the anti-circumvention

provision, the EFF states:

Yet the DMCA has become a serious threat that jeopardizes

fair use, impedes competition and innovation, chills free

expression and scientific research, and interferes with

computer intrusion laws. If you circumvent DRM [digital

rights management] locks for non-infringing fair uses or

create the tools to do so you might be on the receiving end

of a lawsuit.

Sidebar: Creative Commons

Chapter 2 introduced the topic of open-source software. Open-

source software has few or no copyright restrictions. The creators

of the software publish their code and make their software available

for others to use and distribute for free. This is great for software,

but what about other forms of copyrighted works? If an artist or

writer wants to make their works available, how can they go about

doing so while still protecting the integrity of their work? Creative

Commons is the solution to this problem.

Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization that provides legal

tools for artists and authors. The tools offered make it simple to

license artistic or literary work for others to use or distribute in a

274 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

manner consistent with the author’s intentions. Creative Commons

licenses are indicated with the symbol . It is important to note

that Creative Commons and public domain are not the same. When

something is in the public domain, it has absolutely no restrictions

on its use or distribution. Works whose copyrights have expired are

in the public domain.

By using a Creative Commons license, authors can control the use

of their work while still making it widely accessible. By attaching a

Creative Commons license to their work, a legally binding license is

created. Here are some examples of these licenses:

• CC-BY. This is the least restrictive license. It lets others distribute and build upon the work, even commercially, as long

as they give the author credit for the original work.

• CC-BY-SA. This license restricts the distribution of the work via the “share-alike” clause. This means that others can freely

distribute and build upon the work, but they must give credit

to the original author and they must share using the same

Creative Commons license.

• CC-BY-NC. This license is the same as CC-BY but adds the restriction that no one can make money with this work. NC

stands for “non-commercial.”

• CC-BY-NC-ND. This license is the same as CC-BY-NC but also adds the ND restriction, which means that no derivative works

may be made from the original.

These are a few of the more common licenses that can be created

using the tools that Creative Commons makes available. For a full

listing of the licenses and to learn much more about Creative

Commons, visit their web site.

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 275

Patent

Patents are another important form of intellectual property

protection. A patent creates protection for someone who invents a

new product or process. The definition of invention is quite broad

and covers many different fields. Here are some examples of items

receiving patents:

• circuit designs in semiconductors;

• prescription drug formulas;

• firearms;

• locks;

• plumbing;

• engines;

• coating processes; and

• business processes.

Once a patent is granted it provides the inventor with protection

from others infringing on his or her patent. A patent holder has the

right to “exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or

selling the invention throughout the United States or importing the

invention into the United States for a limited time in exchange for

public disclosure of the invention when the patent is granted.” 7

As with copyright, patent protection lasts for a limited period of

time before the invention or process enters the public domain. In

the US, a patent lasts twenty years. This is why generic drugs are

available to replace brand-name drugs after twenty years.

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Obtaining Patent Protection

Unlike copyright, a patent is not automatically granted when

someone has an interesting idea and writes it down. In most

countries a patent application must be submitted to a government

patent office. A patent will only be granted if the invention or

process being submitted meets certain conditions.

• Must be original. The invention being submitted must not have been submitted before.

• Must be non-obvious. You cannot patent something that anyone could think of. For example, you could not put a pencil

on a chair and try to get a patent for a pencil-holding chair.

• Must be useful. The invention being submitted must serve some purpose or have some use that would be desired.

The job of the patent office is to review patent applications to

ensure that the item being submitted meets these requirements.

This is not an easy job. In 2017 the US Patent Office granted 318,849

patents, an increase of 5.2% over 2016. 8

The current backlog for a

patent approval is 15.6 months. Information Technology firms have

apply for a significant number of patents each year. Here are the

top five I.T. firms in terms of patent applications filed since 2009.

The percents indicate the percent of total I.T. patents filed since

2009. Notice that over half of patent filings come from just these

five corporations.

• International Business Machines (IBM) 21.6%

• Microsoft Corporation 14.2%

• AT & T, Inc. 7.1%

• Alphabet (Google), Inc. 5.0%

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• Sony Corporation 4.7%

You might have noticed that Apple is not in the top five listing.

Microsoft holds the lead in Artificial Intelligence (AI) patents. 9

Sidebar: What Is a Patent Troll?

The advent of digital technologies has led to a large increase in

patent filings and therefore a large number of patents being

granted. Once a patent is granted, it is up to the owner of the patent

to enforce it. If someone is found to be using the invention without

permission, the patent holder has the right to sue to force that

person to stop and to collect damages.

The rise in patents has led to a new form of profiteering called

patent trolling. A patent troll is a person or organization who gains

the rights to a patent but does not actually make the invention that

the patent protects. Instead, the patent troll searches for those who

are illegally using the invention in some way and sues them. In many

cases the infringement being alleged is questionable at best. For

example, companies have been sued for using Wi-Fi or for scanning

documents, technologies that have been on the market for many

years.

Recently, the U.S. government has begun taking action against

patent trolls. Several pieces of legislation are working their way

through the U.S. Congress that will, if enacted, limit the ability of

patent trolls to threaten innovation. You can learn a lot more about

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278 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

Apple logo

patent trolls by listening to a detailed investigation conducted by

the radio program This American Life, by clicking this link.

Trademark

A trademark is a word, phrase, logo,

shape or sound that identifies a

source of goods or services. For

example, the Nike “Swoosh,” the

Facebook “f”, and Apple’s apple (with a

bite taken out of it) are all

trademarked. The concept behind

trademarks is to protect the

consumer. Imagine going to the local

shopping center to purchase a

specific item from a specific store and

finding that there are several stores all with the same name!

Two types of trademarks exist – a common law trademark and

a registered trademark. As with copyright, an organization will

automatically receive a trademark if a word, phrase, or logo is being

used in the normal course of business (subject to some restrictions,

discussed below). A common law trademark is designated by placing

“TM” next to the trademark. A registered trademark is one that has

been examined, approved, and registered with the trademark office,

such as the Patent and Trademark Office in the US. A registered

trademark has the circle-R (®) placed next to the trademark.

While most any word, phrase, logo, shape, or sound can be

trademarked, there are a few limitations. A trademark will not hold

up legally if it meets one or more of the following conditions:

• The trademark is likely to cause confusion with a mark in a

registration or prior application.

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 279

• The trademark is merely descriptive for the goods/services.

For example, trying to register the trademark “blue” for a blue

product you are selling will not pass muster.

• The trademark is a geographic term.

• The trademark is a surname. You will not be allowed to

trademark “Smith’s Bookstore.”

• The trademark is ornamental as applied to the goods. For

example, a repeating flower pattern that is a design on a plate

cannot be trademarked.

As long as an organization uses its trademark and defends it

against infringement, the protection afforded by it does not expire.

Because of this, many organizations defend their trademark against

other companies whose branding even only slightly copies their

trademark. For example, Chick-fil-A has trademarked the phrase

“Eat Mor Chikin” and has vigorously defended it against a small

business using the slogan “Eat More Kale.” Coca-Cola has

trademarked the contour shape of its bottle and will bring legal

action against any company using a bottle design similar to

theirs. Examples of trademarks that have been diluted and have

now lost their protection in the US include: “aspirin” (originally

trademarked by Bayer), “escalator” (originally trademarked by Otis),

and “yo-yo” (originally trademarked by Duncan).

Information Systems and Intellectual Property

The rise of information systems has resulted in rethinking how

to deal with intellectual property. From the increase in patent

applications swamping the government’s patent office to the new

laws that must be put in place to enforce copyright protection,

digital technologies have impacted our behavior.

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Privacy

The term privacy has many definitions, but for purposes here,

privacy will mean the ability to control information about oneself.

The ability to maintain our privacy has eroded substantially in the

past decades, due to information systems.

Personally Identifiable Information

Information about a person that can be used to uniquely establish

that person’s identify is called personally identifiable information, or

PII. This is a broad category that includes information such as:

• Name;

• Social Security Number;

• Date of birth;

• Place of birth;

• Mother‘s maiden name;

• Biometric records (fingerprint, face, etc.);

• Medical records;

• Educational records;

• Financial information; and

• Employment information.

Organizations that collect PII are responsible to protect it. The

Department of Commerce recommends that “organizations

minimize the use, collection, and retention of PII to what is strictly

necessary to accomplish their business purpose and mission.” They

go on to state that “the likelihood of harm caused by a breach

involving PII is greatly reduced if an organization minimizes the

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 281

amount of PII it uses, collects, and stores.” 10

Organizations that do

not protect PII can face penalties, lawsuits, and loss of business. In

the US, most states now have laws in place requiring organizations

that have had security breaches related to PII to notify potential

victims, as does the European Union.

Just because companies are required to protect your information

does not mean they are restricted from sharing it. In the US,

companies can share your information without your explicit

consent (see the following sidebar), though not all do so. Companies

that collect PII are urged by the FTC to create a privacy policy and

post it on their website. The State of California requires a privacy

policy for any website that does business with a resident of the state

(see http://www.privacy.ca.gov/lawenforcement/laws.htm).

While the privacy laws in the US seek to balance consumer

protection with promoting commerce, privacy in the European

Union is considered a fundamental right that outweighs the

interests of commerce. This has led to much stricter privacy

protection in the EU, but also makes commerce more difficult

between the US and the EU.

Non-Obvious Relationship Awareness

Digital technologies have given people many new capabilities that

simplify and expedite the collection of personal information. Every

time a person comes into contact with digital technologies,

information about that person is being made available. From

location to web-surfing habits, your criminal record to your credit

report, you are constantly being monitored. This information can

then be aggregated to create profiles of each person. While much

of the information collected was available in the past, collecting it

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282 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

Non-obvious relationship awareness (NORA)

and combining it took time and effort. Today, detailed information

about a person is available for purchase from different companies.

Even information not categorized as PII can be aggregated in such a

way that an individual can be identified.

This process of collecting large quantities of a variety of

information and then combining it to create profiles of individuals

is known as Non-Obvious Relationship Awareness, or NORA. First

commercialized by big casinos looking to find cheaters, NORA is

used by both government agencies and private organizations, and it

is big business.

In some settings NORA can bring many benefits such as in law

enforcement. By being able to identify potential criminals more

quickly, crimes can be solved sooner or even prevented before they

happen. But these advantages come at a price, namely, our privacy.

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 283

Restrictions on Data Collecting

In the United State the government has strict guidelines on how

much information can be collected about its citizens. Certain

classes of information have been restricted by laws over time and

the advent of digital tools has made these restrictions more

important than ever.

Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act

Websites that collect information from children under the age of

thirteen are required to comply with the Children’s Online Privacy

Protection Act (COPPA), which is enforced by the Federal Trade

Commission (FTC). To comply with COPPA, organizations must

make a good-faith effort to determine the age of those accessing

their websites and, if users are under thirteen years old, must obtain

parental consent before collecting any information.

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) is a US law

that protects the privacy of student education records. In brief, this

law specifies that parents have a right to their child’s educational

information until the child reaches either the age of eighteen or

begins attending school beyond the high school level. At that point

control of the information is given to the child. While this law is

not specifically about the digital collection of information on the

Internet, the educational institutions that are collecting student

information are at a higher risk for disclosing it improperly because

of digital technologies.

284 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

GDPR Logo

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996

(HIPAA) singles out records related to health care as a special class

of personally identifiable information. This law gives patients

specific rights to control their medical records, requires health care

providers and others who maintain this information to get specific

permission in order to share it, and imposes penalties on the

institutions that breach this trust. Since much of this information is

now shared via electronic medical records, the protection of those

systems becomes paramount.

General Data Protection Regulation

The European Union, in an effort to

help people take control over their

personal data, passed the General Data

Protection Regulation (GDPR) in May

2016. While this protection applies to

the countries in the EU, it is having an

impact of U.S. companies using the

Internet as well. The regulation went

into effect May 25, 2018.

EU and non-EU countries have

different approaches to protecting the data of individuals. The focus

in the U.S. has been on protecting data privacy so that it does not

impact commercial interests.

In the EU the individual’s data privacy rights supercede those

of business. Under GDPR data cannot be transferred to countries

that do not have adequate data protection for individuals. Currently,

those countries include, but are not limited to, the United States,

Korea, and Japan. While the GDPR applies to countries in the EU,

it is having an impact around the world as businesses in other

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 285

countries seek to comply with this regulation.IEEE Spectrum.

Retrieved from https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/internet/your-

guide-to-the-gdpr.” 11

One week prior to the effective date of May 25, 2018, only 60%

of companies surveyed reported they would be ready by the

deadline.Information Management. Retrieved from

https://www.information-management.com/opinion/playing-

catch-up-with-the-general-data-protection-regulation.” 12

Clearly, the message of GDPR has gone out around the world. It is

likely that greater data protection regulations will forthcoming from

the U.S. Congress as well.

Sidebar: Do Not Track

When it comes to getting permission to share personal information,

the US and the EU have different approaches. In the US, the “opt-

out” model is prevalent. In this model the default agreement states

that you have agreed to share your information with the

organization and must explicitly tell them that you do not want your

information shared. There are no laws prohibiting the sharing of

your data, beyond some specific categories of data such as medical

records. In the European Union the “opt-in” model is required to

be the default. In this case you must give your explicit permission

before an organization can share your information.

11. [11]

12. [12]

286 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

To combat this sharing of information, the Do Not Track initiative

was created. As its creators explain 13

:

Do Not Track is a technology and policy proposal that

enables users to opt out of tracking by websites they do

not visit, including analytics services, advertising networks,

and social platforms. At present few of these third parties

offer a reliable tracking opt out and tools for blocking them

are neither user-friendly nor comprehensive. Much like the

popular Do Not Call registry, Do Not Track provides users

with a single, simple, persistent choice to opt out of third-

party web tracking.

Summary

The rapid changes in information technology in the past few

decades have brought a broad array of new capabilities and powers

to governments, organizations, and individuals alike. These new

capabilities have required thoughtful analysis and the creation of

new norms, regulations, and laws. This chapter has covered the

areas of intellectual property and privacy regarding how these

domains have been affected by new information systems

capabilities and how the regulatory environment has been changed

to address them.

13. [13]

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 287

Study Questions

1. What does the term information systems ethics mean?

2. What is a code of ethics? What is one advantage and one

disadvantage of a code of ethics?

3. What does the term intellectual property mean? Give an

example.

4. What protections are provided by a copyright? How do you

obtain one?

5. What is fair use?

6. What protections are provided by a patent? How do you obtain

one?

7. What does a trademark protect? How do you obtain one?

8. What does the term personally identifiable information mean?

9. What protections are provided by HIPAA, COPPA, and FERPA?

10. How would you explain the concept of NORA?

11. What is GDPR and what was the motivation behind this

regulation?

Exercises

1. Provide one example of how information technology has

created an ethical dilemma that would not have existed before

the advent of I.T.

2. Find an example of a code of ethics or acceptable use policy

related to information technology and highlight five points

that you think are important.

3. Do some original research on the effort to combat patent

trolls. Write a two-page paper that discusses this legislation.

4. Give an example of how NORA could be used to identify an

individual.

5. How are intellectual property protections different across the

288 | Information Systems for Business and Beyond (2019)

world? Pick two countries and do some original research, then

compare the patent and copyright protections offered in those

countries to those in the US. Write a two- to three-page paper

describing the differences.

6. Knowing that GDPR had a deadline of May 25, 2018, provide an

update on the status of compliance by firms in non-European

countries.

Labs

1. Contact someone who has created a mobile device app,

composed music, written a book, or created some other type

of intellectual property. Ask them about the amount of effort

required to produce their work and how they feel about being

able to protect that work. Write a one or two page paper on

your findings.

2. Research the intellectual property portion of the End User

License Agreement (EULA) on a favorite computer program of

yours. Explain what the EULA is saying about protection of this

work.

1. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Ethics. Retrieved from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethics↵

2. Grigonis, H. (2018, April 5). Nine Things to Know About

Facebook and Cambridge Analytica. Digital Trends. Retrieved

from https://www.digitaltrends.com/social-media/what-

facebook-users-should-know-about-cambridge-analytica-

and-privacy/

3. Association for Computing Machinery (1992, October 16) ACM

Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.↵

Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information Systems | 289

4. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Intellectual Property.

Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/

dictionary/intellectual%20property↵

5. United States Department of Justice. (n.d.). Copyright

Infringement – First Sale Doctrine. Retrieved from

http://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/

usam/title9/crm01854.htm↵

6. United States Copyright Office. (n.d.). Fair Use Index. Retrieved

from http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl102.html↵

7. United States Patent and Trademark Office (n.d.). What Is A

Patent? Retrieved from http://www.uspto.gov/patents/↵

8. United States Patent and Trademark Office (n.d.). Visualization

Center. Retrieved from http://www.uspto.gov/patents/↵

9. Bachmann, S. (2016, December 22). America’s Big 5 Tech

companies increase patent filings, Microsoft holds lead in AI

technologies. IP Watchdog. Retrieved from

http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2016/12/22/big-tech-

companies-increase-patent/id=76019/↵

10. McAllister, E., Grance, T., and Scarfone, K. (2010, April). Guide

to Protecting the Confidentiality of Personally Identifiable

Information (PII). National Institute of Standards and

Technology. Retrieved from http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/

nistpubs/800-122/sp800-122.pdf↵

11. Sanz, R. M. G. (2018, April 30). Your Guide to the GDPR. IEEE

Spectrum. Retrieved from

https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/internet/your-guide-to-

the-gdpr↵

12. Zafrin, W. (2018, May 25). Playing Catch-up with the General

Data Protection Regulation. Information Management.

Retrieved from

https://www.information-management.com/opinion/playing-

catch-up-with-the-general-data-protection-regulation↵

13. Electronic Frontier Foundation. (n.d.). Do Not Track. Retrieved

from http://donottrack.us/↵

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