BUS 680 WEEK 3 WORK

Six Traditional Training Methods

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the purposes, procedures, strengths, and limitations of the following training methods:

Lectures, lecture/discussions, and demonstrations;

Games and simulations; and

On-the-job training (OJT).

Describe the types of learning objectives for which each method is most suited.

Identify the various audiovisual (AV) options and their strengths and weaknesses.

6.1 Case: Insuring Training Success at Farmers (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_001)

Farmers Insurance has developed a strategic plan to support company growth, productivity and leadership. A cornerstone to this plan is intensive training. While the depth and scope of all the training programs is far too much to list here we can provide a summary of their approach to providing more immersive and extensive learning opportunities for their employees. The key seems to be blending a variety of methods and delivery systems that are aligned with the goals of the program (which are tied to the strategic plan), and the needs of the potential trainees.

Most of the programs blend instructor-led and online training modules, with coaching sessions. They can also include reading and self-study components. Instructor-led classroom activities contain the typical lectures and discussions, but are interspersed with hands on activities such as role-plays, role modeling, case analysis, and business games.

The use of technical innovation doesn’t stop with online systems. Farmers has a new 58,000-square-foot campus in Grand Rapids, MI, where they incorporate technology into the classroom experience. Multiple projection surfaces allowing a 360-degree view of the materials being presented combine with interactive whiteboards that allow trainers to move the “front of the room” to the center middle of the training space. Tablets (such as iPads) are used not only in remote locations, but also in the classroom. They are used to disseminate handouts, exercise instructions, and the like. Videos are also downloaded to the trainee for things like immediate feedback of skill practice sessions, as well as storage and replay of training videos.

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6.2 Overview of the Chapter This chapter provides a basic understanding of traditional training methods in terms of their strengths and limitations related to cost, suitable learning objectives, and other factors related to their effectiveness. In Chapter 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) , we will discuss the same issues as they relate to electronic training. Most of the methods discussed in this chapter would be delivered via the classroom. A recent survey of more than 400 companies across all major industries shows that instructor led, classroom training is the most frequent mode of delivery. When the instructor is either on-line or live, this accounts for about 70 percent of the training being delivered. About 60 percent of this (or 42 percent of the total) occurs with a live instructor. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_002)

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6.3 Matching Methods with Outcomes The material in this chapter and the next will provide the principle methods and delivery systems used in training. The designer of a training program needs to understand each of these to determine the best method for meeting the speci�ic training objectives (given the organizational constraints). Instructional methods differ in their ability to in�luence knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs), so the training designer must be able to evaluate a method’s strengths and weaknesses to make good decisions about its use. Before we move into that discussion, a brief review of the KSA de�initions might be helpful. Refer to the de�initions in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) for more detail. Knowledge (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_001) is an organized body of facts, principles, procedures, and information. Skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_002) are the capacities needed to perform a set of tasks. Attitudes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_003) are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behavior.

Think about the variety of methods that were used in the opening case. Like many training programs, there were learning objectives in more than one area. Most training requires a combination of methods because no single method can do everything well. For example, among the methods used in the opening case are lecture (oral and printed forms), role-modeling, and business games. Each method is used to accomplish different objectives, but it is the combination of methods that allows the full set of training objectives to be achieved.

Training methods can be divided into cognitive and behavioral approaches. The primary focus of these approaches differs, although cognitive methods contain behavioral elements, and behavioral methods have cognitive elements. Cognitive methods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_004) focus on knowledge and attitude development by providing information that demonstrates relationships among concepts or provides rules on how to do something. These methods stimulate learning through their effect on the trainee’s cognitive processes. Though these types of methods can in�luence skill development, it is not their focus. Conversely, behavioral methods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_005) focus on the trainee’s behavior in a real or simulated situation. They are best used for skill development and attitude change. Thus, both behavioral and cognitive learning methods can be used effectively to change attitudes, though they do so through different means. Prior to discussing each of the methods, Table 6-1 provides an overview of each of the methods and how effective they are at meeting KSA objectives.

Table 6-1 Training Method Effectiveness at Meeting KSA Objectives (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_004)

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Objectives of Training

Knowledge Skills

Training Methods Declarative Procedural Strategic Technical Interpersonal

Lecture

 Straighta (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06fnt01)

3 2 1 1 1

 Discussion 4 3 2 1 1

Demonstration 1 4 2 4 4

Simulations/

Games

 Equipment 1 3 2 5 1

 Case Studies 2 2 4 2 2

 Business Games 2 3 5 2 2b (http://content.thuzelearnin

 In-Basket 1 3 4 1 2c (http://content.thuzelearnin

 Role-Play 1 2 2 2 4

 Behavior Modeling 1 3 3 4 5

OJT

  JIT 3 5 4 4 2

 Apprentice 5 5 4 5 2

 Coaching 3 5 4 4 4

 Mentoring 2 4 5 1 4

Scale: 1 5 not effective, 2 5 mildly effective, 3 5 moderately effective, 4 5 effective, 5 5 very effective.

a (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#r__ch06fnt01) This rating is for lectures delivered orally; printed lectures would be one point higher in each knowledge category.

b (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#r__ch06fnt02) If the business game is designed for interpersonal skills, this rating would be a 4.

c (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#r__ch06fnt03) If multiple in-baskets were used, this rating would be 3.

d (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#r__ch06fnt04) This rating applies speci�ically to role reversal.

Now let’s examine in more detail, the methods in each of these approaches, their strengths and limitations, and when they are most appropriate.

6.4 Lectures and Demonstrations The lecture is one of the most frequently used and oldest forms of training. Nearly all training programs contain some lecture component, and a great many provide some type of demonstration. Although lectures and demonstrations have similar characteristics, they are appropriate for different objectives. We will discuss the lecture �irst.

The lecture can be in print or oral form. The oral lecture can be live or presented on video. In any form, the lecture is best used to present information. It is used to create understanding of a topic and to in�luence attitudes related to the topic. In its simplest form, the lecture is merely telling someone about something. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_003) It is dif�icult to imagine training that does not use the lecture format to some extent. When the trainer begins a training session by telling the trainees the objectives, the agenda, and the process that will be used in training, the trainer is using the lecture method.

Several variations in the lecture format allow it to be more or less formal or interactive. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_005) The clearest difference is the role that trainees are expected to play. The straight lecture does not include trainees interacting with the trainer. Adding discussion and a question-and-answer period invites the trainees to be more interactive in the learning process.

Straight Lecture/Lecturette The straight lecture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_006) is a presentation of information by the trainer. The trainee’s role is to try to absorb the information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_006) The lecture is typically thought of in terms of a lecturer speaking to a group (the trainees) about a topic. However, the lecture also might take the form of printed text, such as this book . The only differences between a straight lecture and the same material in print are the lecturer’s control of the speed at which material is presented, voice in�lections, body language used to emphasize points, and, of course, the visual image of the lecturer.

A good lecture is well organized and begins with an introduction that lays out the purpose of the lecture and the order in which topics will be covered. If it is an oral lecture, the introduction should cover any rules about interrupting the lecture for questions and any opportunity for clari�ication. The main body of the lecture—the topic content— follows the introduction. These parts of the topic area should be logically sequenced so that trainees are prepared for each topic by the content of the preceding topics. The lecture should conclude with a summary of the main learning points or conclusions.

Lectures require trainees to be fairly inactive, a state which, after 20 minutes or so, begins to reduce the amount being learned. A shorter version of a lecture, the lecturette (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_007) , is often used to counter this problem. It has the same characteristics as the lecture but usually lasts less than 20 minutes if done orally. In print, the lecturette would be a shorter amount of printed text to read (e.g., this section on lecture/discussion compared with the whole chapter).

During an oral lecture or lecturette, the trainee listens, observes, and takes notes. Even when done well, it is not an especially effective technique for learning. However, it is useful when a large number of people must be given a speci�ied amount of information. The oral lecture should not contain too many learning points unless printed text accompanies the lecture, as trainees tend to forget information provided orally. A major concern about the straight lecture method is the inability to identify and correct misunderstandings.

When the training objective is to acquire speci�ic factual information, increased learning can often be achieved at less cost by putting the information into text. This way, employees can read or view the material at their leisure, which minimizes lost productivity because of training. The added value provided by the oral lecture is the credibility the lecturer can give to the material by his or her personal presence and the attention commanded through presentation skills. Obviously, the oral presentation also presents the opportunity for discussion and questions, which are not possible in written form.

How to Use the Straight Lecture Effectively If an oral lecture is used, the trainer must be clear and articulate. He must be familiar with the use of a microphone if a large number of trainees will be present. Table 6-2 provides a number of common errors made by lecturers and ways to avoid them. Of course, these will also apply to the lecture/discussion method.

Table 6-2 Typical Lecture Presentation Errors and Ways to Avoid Them

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5

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Errors Ways to Avoid

Talking with back to trainees while writing on board or �lip chart Don’t talk and write at the same time.

Prepare �lip charts ahead of time.

If considerable board work is required, use a document camera to project what you are writing while facing the trainees.

Using highly technical words, unfamiliar jargon, or complex sentences If technical words or jargon must be used, provide de�initions.

Simplify the language and sentences.

Pilot test at least part of the lecture with an audience similar to the trainees.

Providing examples or asides without much relevance to the trainees Do not provide all the examples. Ask trainees for some.

Get examples from trainee’s supervisors.

Reading rather than lecturing Use projected slides as your outline of points to be covered and don’t read them.

Be very familiar with each point on the slides so you can talk about it without referencing notes.

Speaking in a monotone Listen to TV and radio commentators, for how they change the tone and pitch of their voice.

Practice �luctuating the tone and pitch of your voice on tape and in conversations.

Use pauses in your lecture so you can think about how you want to say something.

Making distracting gestures Observe your lectures on videotape. If you �ind them distracting or irritating, trainees likely feel the same.

Don’t stand stiff as a board. Some gestures are useful and can be practiced.

Leaving projector on with no image or an irrelevant image Glance at the projected image as you are talking about it.

When not using projections for a while turn the projector off or blacken the screen.

Losing your place in the lecture Likely haven’t become familiar enough with your content.

Refer back to your slide.

Lecture/Discussion Method The lecture/discussion method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_008) uses a lecturette to provide trainees with information that is supported, reinforced, and expanded on through interactions among the trainees and between the trainees and the trainer. This added communication has much greater power than the lecture. Trainers can achieve more complex learning objectives—such as problem solving—through the use of logically sequenced lecturettes followed by immediate discussion and questioning.

The lecture/discussion method provides a two-way �low of communication. Knowledge is communicated from trainer to trainees, and communication from trainees back to the trainer conveys understanding. Verbal and nonverbal feedback from trainees enables the trainer to determine whether the material is understood. If not, the trainer might need to spend more time on this area or present the information again in a different manner.

Both the trainees and the trainer can ask questions. When the trainees volunteer questions, they demonstrate their thinking about the content of the lecture. A trainer who asks questions stimulates thinking about the key areas that are important to know. Questioning (by trainees or the trainer) and discussions are bene�icial because they enhance understanding and keep trainees focused on the material. Furthermore, discussions allow the trainee to be actively engaged in the content of the lecture, an activity that improves recall and future use.

How to Use the Lecture/Discussion Effectively Training that requires trainees to understand and integrate material before moving forward also requires two-way communication. Two-way communication, including questioning, is accomplished through the lecture/discussion method.

Questioning Questioning is a powerful tool for starting discussions. It can help trainees discover for themselves the answers to questions asked. Questions also help the trainer determine whether trainees understand the information correctly, and help create a common understanding. Trainers should be familiar with a number of question types. First, let us

examine closed-versus open-ended questions.

The closed-ended question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_009) asks for a speci�ic answer. “What are the �ive strategies for dealing with con�lict?” “What is the next step in the procedure?” This type of question is useful to assess learning or review previous material.

The open-ended question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_010) requires no speci�ic response. In this case, no answer is incorrect—you are seeking an opinion. “What do you think about this method of problem solving?” “How would you approach this issue?” “What did you learn from that exercise?” These types of questions are useful for obtaining trainee involvement, generating discussion, and demonstrating the trainer’s willingness to listen to the trainees’ point of view.

Both types are useful. Closed-ended questions are useful to regain control of the discussion or to assess understanding of speci�ic points. Open-ended questions are useful to relax the trainees or explore their beliefs and opinions about issues.

Two additional types are overhead questions and direct questions. Overhead questions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_011) are either open- or closed-ended and are directed at the whole group rather than at one person in particular. They are nonthreatening because they do not require any particular person to respond. This type of question is useful when trainees are highly involved and respond readily. If no one responds, tension can mount. Increased tension, however, is not always negative. Some trainers become anxious if their overhead question is not answered within 10 to 15 seconds. To relieve their tension, trainers answer the question themselves. Effective trainers understand that unanswered questions create tension in the trainees, which is a good thing because it helps focus trainee attention on the material being presented. This topic is discussed further in the “Encouraging Trainees to Respond” section. When only a few trainees are answering the questions, and it is the same trainees over and over, it is wise to revert to the direct question.

The direct question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_012) is asked of a particular trainee. It is used to draw out nonparticipators and to obtain differing points of view. As any trainer knows, a few trainees will often willingly answer any and all questions. If the same few trainees prevail over and over, many other trainees will tire of hearing from them and will withdraw. Keeping everyone involved in a discussion is an important skill required of an effective trainer. Most trainees begin responding to questions once they see that answering a question is a safe and rewarding experience.

Sometimes when asked a question by one of the participants, the trainer will want to hear how the rest of the participants would answer it. As the trainer in such a situation, you would need to repeat the question so everyone can hear it and then ask the trainee group to answer it. This is the relay question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_013) technique. For example, a trainee might ask, “How would this concept work in a unionized shop?” As the trainer, you might respond by repeating the question and following up with a statement such as, “An interesting issue. Does anyone have any ideas?” Redirecting questions to the trainee group allows you to hear the trainees’ views and then reinforce appropriate responses. It can lead to interesting discussions about the issue that otherwise might not arise.

The reverse question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_014) is similar, except that the person asking the question is asked to answer it. Again, as the trainer responding to the same question, you might say, “Interesting question, Bill. Your area is unionized; how do you think it would work there?” Use this approach when you believe that the questioner really wants to provide an answer but is hesitant. This technique is also helpful to get a feeling for how deeply the trainee wants to delve into the question. Be careful in redirecting a question back to the questioner, however. If overused, it could inhibit trainees from asking a question for fear of having to answer it themselves.

Encouraging Trainees to Respond Asking questions is only half of the equation in an effective discussion. Trainees must also respond. Here are some tips on how to encourage responses: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_007)

Do not rush to �ill the silence. Trainers tend to show less tolerance for silence than do trainees. Sometimes waiting them out will work. Remember, the trainees are just learning the material, and it may take them a bit of time to process through the material mentally to arrive at an answer with which they feel comfortable.

Ask them to write out an answer. Say, “Pick up your pens and write down a few reasons why workers are not motivated.” Then allow them time for this task. Trainees are much more willing to read what they write than answer off the top of their heads. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_008) This method also allows the trainer to ask speci�ic trainees to respond, as the pressure of the “unknown” question is alleviated. A variation is to ask trainees to share their responses with one or two other trainees and come up with a common answer. This technique further diffuses the accountability problem.

Use the guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_015) method when faced with no response to a question. As the trainer, you would not answer the question but would ask a new question that addresses much more basic material that the trainees should already understand. When the correct answer is given, move to a slightly more complex question. Each question is designed to bring the trainees closer to “discovering” the answer to the question themselves. It encourages trainees to respond because the questions are easy at the beginning and also the answer to the last helps answer the next.

Demonstrations A demonstration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_016) is a visual display of how to do something or how something works. To be most effective, a demonstration should be integrated with the lecture/discussion method. Whether demonstrating how to do something or demonstrating how something works, the principles of an effective demonstration are the same. The demonstration is most useful when your training objectives are to increase knowledge and skills (technical or interpersonal).

The most effective demonstrations provide each trainee with the resources (equipment, materials, etc.) needed to actually do what is being demonstrated. Each trainee is then able to copy the demonstration process immediately after watching. As trainees are performing the demonstration, the trainer can move around the room giving feedback. Even having teams of four to �ive trainees sharing the demonstration resources provides opportunities for them to watch others and to do it at least once themselves. While one trainee is performing the demonstration, fellow trainees can recall the steps in the sequence and provide feedback. This approach also presents opportunities for questions, instructor clari�ication, and group discussion, all of which contribute to a common understanding of what should be done, the order in which it is done, and why it is done that way.

How to Use the Demonstration Effectively To conduct an effective demonstration, �irst prepare the lesson plan by breaking down the task to be performed into smaller, easily learned parts. Then sequentially organize the parts of the task and prepare an explanation for why each action is required. There are two main components to the demonstration—present and try out. The following steps are part of the “present” component. Complete each of the following steps for each part of the task:

Tell the trainees what you will be doing so they understand what you will be showing them. This focuses their attention on the critical aspects of the task.

Demonstrate the task, describing what you are doing while you are doing it.

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Explain why each part of the task should be performed in that way immediately after you demonstrate a part of the task.

Just as in the lecture, the level of involvement of the trainee can vary in a demonstration. As with the lecture, more trainee involvement leads to more learning. The following steps increase the value of the demonstration.

After the trainer completes the demonstration, it is time for the trainee to “try out” the demonstration by doing the following:

Ask the trainee to “talk through” the task before actually doing it.

Give the trainee an opportunity to do the task and to describe what he is doing and why.

Provide feedback, both positive and negative.

Let the learner practice.

The temptation is not to spend much time on this process, as it seems so easy and obvious. But remember that what is being demonstrated might be easy for someone who is familiar with it, but not so for a novice. The demonstration process is used in the job instruction technique (JIT) discussed later as part of on-the-job training.

Strengths and Limitations of Lectures and Demonstration In examining the strengths and limitations of the various methods, we focus on four major issues:

1. The cost of both �inancial and other resources required to achieve the training objective(s)

2. The amount of control the trainer has over the material that will be covered

3. The type(s) of learning objectives addressed

4. The ways in which the method activates different social learning theory processes

Costs The �inancial costs typically associated with developing and implementing lectures, lecture/discussions, and demonstrations include the following:

Development costs related to creating the content and organization of the training

Cost of ancillary materials to facilitate learning

Compensation of trainer and trainee time spent in training

Cost of the training facility for the program

Travel, lodging, and food for the trainer and trainees

In terms of development and delivery, printed lectures are the most time-ef�icient. Oral lectures followed by discussions and demonstrations require more time. Of course, the more questions, discussion, and participation allowed, the greater the amount of time required. If the training objective focuses on factual information, and interaction is not important, printed text, video lecture, or demonstration will be more ef�icient and equally effective. The advantage of the live lecture is that it guarantees that everyone is exposed to the information. Printed or video lectures rely on trainees following instructions.

Control of Material and Process Lectures, discussions, and demonstrations provide a high degree of trainer control over the training process and content. The material covered is predetermined by the trainer, as are the processes used to present the material. The trainees have little, if any, in�luence other than whatever involvement was allowed in the TNA and program design process. However, as the training becomes more interactive, trainees are able to exert more control. Trainee questions or answers to questions shape the content of what is covered. The group dynamics help shape the processes used by the trainer in presenting the information.

For example, in lecture/discussions, the order in which issues arise is determined partly by the lecture content, the types of questions raised, and the results of the discussion sessions. Discussions can move into tangential areas not speci�ically addressed in the lecture material but which are of interest to the trainees. These types of discussions can take the trainees’ attention away from the training at hand. Being able to address any trainee concerns early on in training and provide the appropriate information will help keep attention on the training material.

Learning Objectives (KSAs) The lecture is most useful to �ill gaps in trainee knowledge or address attitudes that con�lict with the training objectives. The printed or video lecture is effective because it can be studied in more depth and retained to refresh learning over time. The lecture/discussion method is more effective than the straight lecture for learning higher-level knowledge such as concepts and principles. The lecture/discussion method is also more effective than the straight lecture at producing attitude changes. Because attitudes consist of a person’s beliefs and feelings about an object or event, new learning can modify them. The lecture, especially combined with discussion, can change employee attitudes by providing new insights, facts, and understanding. Lectures and discussions do not provide opportunities for behavioral reproduction, so these should not be used for skill development objectives, except to provide the knowledge base for the skill.

If the training objective is skill improvement, the demonstration might be appropriate. When training objectives include both knowledge and skill development, more than just a demonstration is needed. For example, the training objective might be to improve managers’ ability to conduct effective meetings. First, the managers would need to know the components of effective meetings (facts) and when and how to use them (procedures). The lecture/discussion method might be appropriate to meet these objectives, but the skill development objectives should be addressed through methods that show trainees how to conduct meetings and allow them to practice these skills. The demonstration may also in�luence attitudes. For example, a new product demonstration is intended not only to show how the product works but also to generate enthusiasm in the sales force about the product.

Learning Process In describing the effects of the various methods on learning processes, we return to social learning theory. It will be helpful for you to review these learning processes (attention, retention, and behavioral reproduction) by returning to Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) and speci�ically Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) in Section 3.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03lev1sec4) .

Lectures, lecture/discussions, and demonstrations can be good at capturing trainee attention, at least in the short term. These are also relatively good methods for retention, especially discussions and demonstrations. Even though only demonstrations are good at facilitating behavioral reproduction, lectures and discussions can develop attitudes

that are supportive of the desired behavior.

Table 6-3 lists the basic components of the lecture/discussion, and, using social learning theory, indicates the learning process affected. Table 6-4 provides the same information for the demonstration.

Table 6-3 Basic Lecture/Discussion Components and Effects on Learning

Lecture/Discussion Components Learning Process Affected* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06fnt05)

1. Orientation

Presenting information so that trainees understand the direction the lecture is headed and how it is organized.

Attention

2. Enthusiasm

Presenting information in a manner that conveys the topic’s importance and inherent value.

Attention

3. Variety

Using voice, gestures, various components listed in this table, and audiovisual aids. For printed lectures, this component is minimized.

Attention

Retention

Symbolic coding

4. Logical organization

Presenting information in a logical order and providing logical transitions between topic areas

Retention

Cognitive organization

5. Explanations

Describing facts, concepts, and principles in a clear and easily understood manner.

Retention

Symbolic coding

Cognitive organization

6. Directions

Providing instructions in a manner that allows trainees to understand what they are to do and how to do it.

Retention

Cognitive organization

Symbolic rehearsal

7. Illustrations

Providing clear, interesting, and relevant examples of how information can or has been applied (both correctly and incorrectly).

Attention

Retention

All areas

8. Compare and contrast

Articulating the similarities and differences, advantages and disadvantages, and so on, of relevant topic areas.

Attention

Retention

All areas

9. Questions and discussion

Seeking information from the trainees regarding their comprehension, their content-related ideas, and stimulating the trainees’ thought processes (e.g., Socratic questioning). This component is not possible in printed lectures.

Attention

Retention

All areas

10. Summarize

Highlighting important concepts covered in a manner that links the topics/ideas together.

Retention

Cognitive organization

* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#r__ch06fnt05) The items under “Learning Process Affected” are from social learning theory, as illustrated in Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) .

Table 6-4 Basic Demonstration Components and Their Effects on Learning

Demonstration Components Areas of Learning Affected* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06fnt06)

Present

• Tell: Explain the process you will use and then give and overview and identify the key learning points.

Attention & Motivation

Retention: Symbolic Coding

• Demonstrate: Show the different parts, pieces equipment or other tangible objects that will be used, explaining their purpose. Then demonstrate how to do the task/activity. If there are many components do them one at a time and in the appropriate order.

Attention and motivation

Retention: Symbolic coding

Retention: Cognitive organization

• Explain: During each demonstration identify what you are doing as you are doing it and explain why you are doing it that way.

Retention: Symbolic coding

Retention: Cognitive organization

Try Out

• Trainees describe how to do the task step by step Retention: Symbolic rehearsal

• Trainees do task while describing what they are doing and why Behavioral reproduction

• Trainer provides appropriate feedback (positive and negative) Consequences of behavior

• Allow the trainee to practice. Behavioral reproduction

* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#r__ch06fnt06) The items under “Learning Process Affected” are from social learning theory, as illustrated in Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) .

Attention Done properly, lectures and demonstrations attract and maintain the attention of trainees. In fact, of the three learning processes (attention, retention, and behavioral reproduction), attracting attention is what the lecture does best. Demonstrations, when combined with lecturettes, are better at covering all the learning processes than either is alone. It is easy to gain the attention of the trainees at the start, but trainees’ attention wanders, especially in longer lectures and demonstrations. Thus, these methods have a limitation in this regard. Printed and video lectures offer the advantage that the trainee can put down the lecture when attention begins to wander and come back to it when in a more receptive mental state.

For live lectures, a good lecturer will speak at about a rate of 125 words per minute, but the average person processes information at a rate equivalent of 400 to 500 words a minute. Thus, a trainee’s attention can �luctuate dramatically during a one-hour lecture. Attention begins to decline after 15 to 20 minutes and begins to pick up again only near the end. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_009) This phenomenon is a primary reason for the use of lecturettes. Likewise, demonstrations should be short enough to maintain trainee attention while providing the necessary information about how to complete the task. Discussion, if properly managed by the trainer, acts to heighten attention and refocus thought processes.

Retention Retention involves the processes of symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and symbolic rehearsal. The lecture’s strongest link in the retention process is the �irst step of symbolic coding. A symbolic coding system is provided during the lecture while the trainer is describing, explaining, and illustrating the learning points. The trainer symbolically codes the material by using the appropriate words and images. Likewise, in the demonstration, the actions of the trainer are a form of symbolic coding. The learners translate the trainer’s words and actions into their individual symbolic coding schemes. The challenge for the trainer is to present the material in a way that ensures that the symbolic codes used by the trainer hold the same meaning for the learner. Discussions and questions help align the trainee’s symbolic coding with the training objectives. Putting the lecture into print or creating a video for a demonstration facilitates the trainee’s symbolic coding process by allowing the trainee more time to adjust her coding to that used by the text or video. This adjustment increases recall of the information at a later date (e.g., back on the job). Using visual aids, such as graphics in a text or projections in a live lecture, will facilitate the trainee’s coding process by providing additional cues. The more varied the stimuli used to present the same material, the more accurately the information is coded.

Organizing the coded information into already existing or new cognitive structures is what social learning theorists call cognitive organization. The organization of information determines the ease of recall and its appropriate use when recalled. When trainees become actively engaged in integrating concepts and principles into their cognitive structures, the cognitive organization process is facilitated. Thus, demonstrations allow more opportunity for cognitive organization than does the straight lecture. Discussion and questioning allow trainees to clarify their understanding of the lecture and organize it appropriately. Better cognitive organization occurs when the trainees are free to discuss various aspects of the new knowledge and its relationship to already existing knowledge, and to question the trainer about actual or hypothetical situations in which they might use the knowledge.

Demonstrations, by their very nature, stimulate symbolic rehearsal. By simply watching the trainer demonstrate the task, the learner is encouraged to think about doing it, especially if the learner knows that he will be asked to do the task when the trainer is �inished. Lectures present greater dif�iculty in this area. The lecturer can, and should, stimulate symbolic rehearsal by making suggestions about how the knowledge could be applied. However, these suggestions are not as powerful as the trainee herself seeing how the knowledge is applicable to her speci�ic situation.

Properly managed, a lecture/discussion session can facilitate this symbolic rehearsal. For example, as a trainer you might ask the trainees to think about ways in which the knowledge could be used in their work area and write their ideas on a �lip chart. Trainees could then be organized into small groups, and each individual encouraged to report

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her thoughts to the group. You might say to the group members, “As you listen to others describe how they could apply this knowledge, imagine you were applying it that way in your work area. When the person is �inished, discuss the application idea and how it would apply in your area.” This process would not only bring misunderstandings to the surface and possibly clarify them but also would assist in the cognitive organization of the information. The primary value, however, would be that each trainee was getting a chance to practice mentally (i.e., symbolic rehearsal) using the new knowledge in a variety of ways and situations.

Behavioral Reproduction The lecture/discussion approach does not provide for practicing actual behaviors, so it is not appropriate for skill development objectives. Conversely, the demonstration incorporates behavioral reproduction into the training through practice. Remember, however, that it is important for the trainer to monitor the learner’s performance, providing appropriate feedback to ensure that the correct behavior is learned.

Training Group Characteristic

The Trainees For any type of lecture to be effective, trainees should be at about the same general level of intellectual ability and possess about the same level of related content knowledge. If the trainee group is widely divergent in either of these areas, it is dif�icult to aim the lecture at the appropriate level of understanding. If the lecture is in other respects a satisfactory method, the best approach then is to train such groups separately.

Discussions allow more diversity in a training group because the discussion period provides an opportunity for more active learning. Trainees who learn better in a more active mode have the opportunity to do so. Trainees also have the opportunity to learn from their peers as they participate in the discussion and ask questions.

The training group can be fairly diverse for demonstrations. However, the trainer must be able to observe each trainee performing the task. As with lecture/discussion, the trainees in a demonstration learn not only by observing the trainer but also by observing other trainees performing the task and the type of feedback the instructor gives.

Size of Training Group Lectures or lecturettes can be given to groups ranging from just a few to hundreds of trainees. This is not true of the lecture/discussion method. In general, class size should be small enough to allow all trainees ample opportunity to participate in discussions and questioning. The appropriate size depends on the complexity of the material and the amount of time allocated. More complicated material requires more time for more questions, so fewer trainees can be accommodated in a given amount of time. The dynamics of large groups make it dif�icult or impossible for all to participate in a meaningful way. When trainees cannot participate meaningfully, they will inevitably become less involved and withdraw their attention. So when using lecture/discussions in training, make sure that groups are small enough to allow all to participate within the time constraints of the training.

As with lecture/discussion, many of the advantages of the demonstration are lost when the group is too large. To capture all the advantages of a demonstration, it should be limited to small groups. A way to allow for larger groups is to provide additional trainers to monitor trainee practice on the task and provide feedback. A good rule of thumb is to have no more than �ive trainees per trainer when the demonstration involves hands-on practice by the trainees.

6.5 Games and Simulations Training games and simulations are designed to reproduce or simulate processes, events, and circumstances that occur in the trainee’s job. Thus, trainees can experience these events in a controlled setting where they can develop their skills or discover concepts that will improve their performance. Equipment simulators, business games, in-basket exercises, case studies, role-plays, and behavior modeling are the primary examples of this method. We discuss each of these separately and then describe the strengths and limitations of simulations in general.

Equipment Simulators If technical skills in the operation or maintenance of equipment are the focus of training, then one of the best instructional methods is the equipment simulator. Equipment simulators (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_017) are mechanical devices that require trainees to use the same procedures, movements, and decision processes they would use with equipment back on the job. Simulators train airline pilots, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_010) air traf�ic controllers, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_011) military of�icers, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_012) taxi drivers, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_013) maintenance workers, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_014) telephone operators, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_015) ship navigators, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_016) and product development engineers. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_017)

It is important that the simulators be designed to replicate, as closely as possible, the physical aspects of the equipment and operating environment that trainees will �ind at their job site. This resemblance is referred to as the physical �idelity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_018) of the simulation. In addition, psychological conditions under which the equipment is operated (such as time pressures and con�licting demands) must also be closely matched to what the trainees experience on the job. This similarity is called psychological �idelity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_019) . Training in Action 6-1 describes what can happen when the match between simulation and work setting is less than adequate. The events described in this example were reported by one of the new sales clerk trainees.

6-1 Training in Action Sales Simulation Twenty-�ive retail sales clerk trainees were learning how to operate the company’s electronic sales register system. The trainees each stood in front of a sales register that was an older-model sales register re�itted to serve as a training device. On a screen facing each trainee, a video depicted a customer waiting to make a purchase. The items this customer wanted to purchase were automatically brought on a conveyor belt to the trainee. The trainee entered speci�ic keystrokes to activate the register for a new sale, picked up each item, and scanned it into the register. When all the items were entered, the trainee entered more keystrokes to total the sale. When the sale was totaled, the conveyor brought forward cash, a check, or a credit card, simulating the customer’s payment choice. The trainee entered different keystrokes denoting a check, credit, or cash sale. If cash was used, the cash drawer opened. The clerk was to deposit the customer’s payment and remove the correct amount of change, if any. Credit cards were scanned and automatically debited for the total of the purchase. Payment by credit card or check also required the customer’s identi�ication to be documented. Once payment was received, any change and the receipt were to be given to the customer. This was simulated by placing the change in a bin on the counter. The purchased items were then bagged and given to the customer (again simulated by placing in the bin).

This simulation might be fairly good. Unfortunately, when the trainees were placed at the real registers the next day, things were quite different from their training experiences. First, the registers they used were a newer model than those used in the training, so some of the keys were in different places. Second, people were standing in line impatiently. Some wanted to purchase items, and others needed help with merchandise or wanted to know the location of items in the store. The clerks couldn’t concentrate only on working the register; they also had to interact with the customers. The scanner wouldn’t read some customers’ credit cards. Some customers argued about the price of items, insisting that those items were on sale for a lower price whereas the scanner indicated a higher price. Some customers had their items totaled and then decided that they did not want one of the items or that they wanted additional items. Needless to say, the simulation training proved less than helpful, and many considered it to have lowered their capabilities. They felt that they made many keystroke errors because of the training. If they just were allowed to learn on the job, they would not now be unlearning portions of the previous day’s training.

The organizational development literature provides guidelines for the design or redesign of equipment. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_018) Human resource development (HRD) professionals engaged in the design of simulators and their pretesting should involve those who will be using the equipment, as well as their supervisors. Users’ input helps reduce potential resistance to the equipment and, more importantly, increases the degree of �idelity between the simulation and the work setting. In Training in Action 6-1, if trainers had brought in experienced sales clerks or their supervisors to pilot the simulation, they might have identi�ied the �idelity problems, which then could have been corrected.

How to Use an Equipment Simulation Effectively When a simulator is used, it often occupies the bulk of the training time. Tasks are attempted on the simulator, feedback is provided, and then more simulator time is taken. Learning by doing is the major focus. At the same time, the instructor is available to provide feedback.

In the development of a simulation, there might be a temptation to use out-of-date equipment to reduce costs. After all, why take a piece of equipment of�line to use for training when it could be in use and contributing to organizational productivity? This issue was part of the problem in Training in Action 6-1. When we reduce the �idelity of the simulation, we also reduce the likelihood that training will result in appropriate changes in job behavior (transfer of training). Productivity will be lost and training time and costs will be wasted if the required skills do not transfer back to the job.

Psychological �idelity is just as important as physical �idelity. Imagine a pilot learning how to �ly a simulator that did not have a wind factor built in. Suppose in landing a real plane, the pilot lines up with the runway and heads straight in, as taught, when suddenly a 35-mile-per-hour crosswind appears. This type of thing happened in Training in Action 6-1, when customers suddenly appeared with different requests, and events occurred that had not been part of the simulation.

The simulation should �irst be designed to allow the learning of the job skills without complications from other factors, such as wind in the case of the pilot and customers in the case of the clerks. Once the trainee acquires these basic skills, outside factors can be introduced into the training. Increasing levels of complication are added to the simulation until the trainee reaches the required levels of physical and psychological �idelity.

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Business Games Many decades ago, the University of Washington debuted a board game, Top Management Decision Game, as a way for business students to see the theories in their textbooks put into action. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_019) Today trainers have moved to computer-based simulations that use interactive multimedia and animation for the same purpose. Business games (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_020) are simulations that attempt to represent the way an industry, company, or unit of a company functions. Typically, they are based on a set of relationships, rules, and principles derived from theory or research. However, they can also re�lect the actual operations of a particular department in a speci�ic company. Trainees are provided with information describing a situation and are asked to make decisions about what to do. The system then provides feedback about the effect of their decisions, after which trainees are asked to make another decision. This process continues until some prede�ined state of the organization is reached, or a speci�ied number of trials are completed.

Games can also be used to review information presented in other forms. Often this uses a quiz show format such as the popular television (TV) show, Jeopardy. For example, recent titles of off-the-shelf games that can be customized with the information from your training session include Quiz Show, Game Show Presenter, Gameshow Pro, and My Quiz Show. Some of these types of games can handle up to 180 players at one time, making it useful for training with large groups.

Depending on the objectives, you will choose either an intercompany or an intracompany game. The intercompany games require trainees to compete in a marketplace. The more complex games require decisions about where to build factories, what product to advertise, what level of quality to be built into the product, how many salespeople to hire, how to pay them, and so on. Trainees are assigned to teams that compete against one another in the simulation game. As a result, the decisions made by each team affect the environment they all share.

These business games involve an element of competition, either against other players or against the game itself. Following is a list of some of the purposes for which business games have been developed and used: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_020)

Strengthen executive and upper-management skills

Improve decision-making skills at all levels

Demonstrate principles and concepts

Combine separate components of training into an integrated whole

Explore and solve complex problems in a safe, simulated setting

Develop leadership skills

Improve application of total quality principles

Develop skill in using quality tools

Games that simulate entire companies or industries provide a far better systems perspective than do other training methods. They allow trainees to see how their decisions and actions in�luence not only their immediate target but also related areas. Training in Action 6-2 describes how one company combined simulations, games, and lectures to improve performance.

6-2 Training in Action Kimberly-Clark’s Training for a Product Launch (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_021)

Kimberly-Clark (KC) is one of the world’s largest consumer-products companies. Launching new products is key to KC’s business success. KC felt it was important that employees understand the product launch process, but in the past many attempts at teaching employees about the process had failed. The senior executive group �inally mandated that an effective training program was needed immediately, that they didn’t want to spend a lot of additional money, and that it had to bring the approximately 15,000 employees up to speed on how the process worked.

The training program that was developed to meet this need combined a business game with various simulations and video presentations. The program began with a lengthy simulation that allowed trainees to understand KC’s supply chain. This was followed by small group discussions focused on key customers and other supply chain issues. Key points from these discussions were posted on a “discovery map.” Each member of a team then received a role in a �ictional company that was bringing a new product to market. The team then engaged in activities designed to launch the product. This simulation ended with their company being beaten to the market by a competitor. This allowed trainees to experience and get an understanding of the problems and issues with supply chain management as well as the disappointment of getting beaten to the market by a competitor. This experience was followed by more discussions that led to a second discovery map that showed how the KC supply chain of the future would work. The �inal phase of the program had presentations from the CEO down to the local leadership. The CEO provided the 10,000 foot picture while others provided progressively more speci�ic information about how to launch a product and how employees could make positive contributions.

The success of this training program is indicated in the $275 million in cost savings that was realized from employee suggestions on how to improve the process. Another measure of success (and perhaps one the director of Organizational Effectiveness, who was responsible for the program, held dearest to his heart) was that when the senior executive team had completed the training they were standing up cheering and giving high-�ives.

Intra company business games require teams or individuals to represent different functional areas in a single company. The process is similar to that of the intercompany game but without the competition. In fact, cooperation is usually required for success in the game.

If it is decided to use a business game, �irst �ind one that meets the training objectives. A wide variety of business games and simulations are available. They cover a wide range of topics such as marketing, accounting, �inance, and general management. A good source for exploring new games and learning how to develop your own games is the Association for Business Simulations and Experiential Learning. Its publication Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning describes new business games and simulations. The association also sponsors an annual conference where new exercises, games, and simulations are demonstrated and discussed.

How to Use the Business Game Effectively Business games should not be used as a stand-alone training method. A typical training program would alternate methods (such as readings, lecture, discussion) with trials on the simulation, continuing in this way to the end of the game, at which point a general discussion would take place. Initial interest needs to be created in the game. However, as the game progresses, trainees often become quite involved, spending a great deal of time determining their strategies and plotting moves.

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Business games can take between a few hours and several weeks to complete. Unless the training objectives are fairly simple, expect to need at least a few days for trainees to complete the game. Before beginning the game and at its conclusion, point out to the trainees what the learning objectives are and how the game relates to the objectives. These brie�ings will help keep trainees focused on the key learning points. Before beginning the game, trainees will need to read the instruction manual. Once trainees are familiar with the objectives of the game and its rules and procedures, they meet in teams to make decisions about strategy, roles, and such. Once the game begins, the team’s decisions are transferred to the trainer (game administrator) or computer. Results are tabulated and fed back to the teams. Teams examine the feedback and any new information in light of the previous decisions and then make another decision. This process continues over a number of decisions. Dr. Tony Faria, an expert in the �ield, suggests that a minimum of 12 decisions need to be made for trainees to bene�it from the exercise. The �irst four decisions provide trainees with a general understanding of the game and how the various factors interact; the second four provide a framework for competing; and the �inal four allow strategic decisions to be made with enough knowledge to be meaningful. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_022) After the �inal decisions are in and results tabulated, trainees meet to discuss the results and the logic and criteria they used to make their decisions. These discussions regarding how and why decisions were made, and their consequences, are a very important part of the training, as this is where a great deal of learning takes place.

In-Basket Technique The in-basket technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_021) provides trainees with a packet of written information and requests, such as memos, messages, and reports, that typically would be handled in a given position such as sales manager, staff administrator, or engineer. This popular quasi simulation focuses primarily on decision making and allows an opportunity for both assessing and developing decision-making KSAs. This technique is most often used when preparing employees for promotion or transfer to a new work environment.

Typically, the trainee’s decisions are simply written down rather than carried out. Thus, the technique is good at teaching trainees what decision to make but not at developing the skills needed to carry out the decision. A few in-basket exercises require the trainee to “call” someone and communicate the decision or request additional information. In these cases, interpersonal skills can also be developed.

In-baskets are not as readily available commercially as simulations. One reason is that they are relatively easy to develop. Simply examine current jobholders’ in-baskets for the material. Take papers from the in-basket, including �iller material that requires no action (�lyers, memos copied to the person) and follow the scenario from Training in Action 6-3. Use the trainee’s current position as the position in the scenario. To provide the stress of real-life management, the amount of information that needs attention should be more than can be expected to be completed in the allotted time. To determine the appropriate actions that should be taken, choose high performers from the job in question and ask them what they would do. The attraction of the in-basket is that it is developed from real information from the trainees’ organization.

6-3 Training in Action Typical Instructions for an In-Basket Exercise

Salesperson In-Basket Instructions Your name is Lee. You have been with Bennett Corporation for one and a half years as a salesperson in the business machines marketing force on the east coast. A position opened up in the Midwest region a few weeks ago when the salesman, John Quitt, left the company and his customers without notice. The other salespeople in your new of�ice were unable to cover the calls coming in from the accounts you are taking over, so you must do some catching up. Your transfer is still a week away, but the company �lies you out to the Midwest of�ice to go through your predecessor’s over�lowing in-basket. It is Sunday evening, April 13, and no one else is in the of�ice. In 75 minutes, you must leave to catch a plane to the training center, and you will not be available for the coming week.

Read through the items in the in-basket, and decide on a course of action for each. It is imperative that you respond immediately, because you will not be back for a week. All responses must be in writing so you can leave them for the other of�ice personnel. Responses may include writing letters, writing memos to others or yourself, scheduling meetings, making phone calls (outline what is to be discussed), and so on. You may write your responses on the same memo you received or on the memo pad provided. Writing paper is also provided if you wish to write a letter. Be sure to attach any memos or letters to the appropriate item. It is your �irst trip to the Midwest, and you have not yet met any of your new co-workers.

An organizational chart and a calendar are provided for your reference.

Remember, every action you take or plan to take must be in writing. If you don’t write it down, the assessor will have no way of assessing your performance.

It is advisable to read through the entire in-basket before taking any action.

Timetable

***Please do not proceed until told to do so.***

5 minutes Read instructions.

75 minutes Read and respond to in-basket items.

How to Use the In-Basket Effectively Typically, trainees are given a type of job to role-play. They receive a description of their role and general information about the context in which the role is being carried out. See Training in Action 6-3 for an example. Trainees are then given the packet of materials that make up the in-basket and asked to respond to the materials within a certain time period. After all the trainees complete the in-basket, a group discussion with the trainer follows in which the trainees describe the rationale for their decisions. For example, a trainer might ask about strategies the trainees used to prioritize the information, asking questions such as, “What criteria did you use to determine which person to contact �irst when you arrived on the job?” “How did you determine the order in which you addressed the issues?” The discussion will gradually become more speci�ic and address how trainees responded to speci�ic items, such as “What did you do about the complaint that was three weeks old?”

The group discussion highlights the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches to the exercise. This allows trainees to see different strategies and approaches to the same set of issues. During or immediately following the discussion, the trainer provides a summary of the alternative approaches to making the various types of decisions. The training concludes with a discussion of the lessons learned and how these can be applied on the job.

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The majority of the learning with the in-basket technique occurs during the discussion session. It can take a half-day or more to complete the in-basket and the discussion that follows. If the training objectives allow trainees to complete the in-basket materials before the start of the training session (perhaps the evening before), the actual time spent in training can be reduced. In such cases, the time constraint on the trainee to complete the in-basket is removed. If you can create the in-basket electronically, the time limit can be retained. The extra time you gain could be used to provide individual feedback on each trainee’s decisions before the discussion session. This will help focus the trainees’ attention on the areas most important to their individual development. It will also allow you to develop more targeted and effective questions to ask during the group discussion.

A variation on the technique is to run multiple, simultaneous in-baskets in which each trainee receives a different but interrelated set of information. The trainees must interact with one another to gather all the information necessary to make an appropriate decision. This activity allows development of communication and decision-making skills. It also includes elements of role-play and business games training.

Case Studies The case study (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_022) attempts to simulate decision-making situations that trainees might �ind on the job. The trainee is usually presented with a written (or videotaped) history, key elements, and the issues faced by a real or imaginary organization or organizational unit. The trainer should convey that no single solution is right or wrong and that many solutions are possible. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_023) The learning objective is to get trainees to apply known concepts and principles and discover new ones. The solutions are not as important as is trainees’ understanding of the advantages and disadvantages that go along with the solutions.

A written case study can range in length from a few pages to over 100. A series of questions usually appears at the end of the case. Longer ones provide a great deal of information to be examined and assessed for its relevance to the decisions being made. Others require the trainee to conduct the research themselves to acquire the appropriate information. The trainee must then analyze the situation, identify the key issues, and then identify ways to address the issues. Typically, the issues revolve around threats and opportunities to the organization in relation to its strengths and weaknesses. Smaller cases are often called scenarios and can only be a paragraph or two in length. The purpose of these smaller cases is to provide trainees with a very limited situation in which they are able to test out their new knowledge. These are typically used as exercises following a lecture/discussion segment of training.

Another variation of the case study is the incident process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_023) , in which trainees are given only a brief description of the problem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_024) and must gather additional information from the trainer (and perhaps others) by asking speci�ic questions. Because managers gather most of their information from questioning and interacting with others, this activity is meant to simulate a manager’s work more closely. In all case study methods, the information sorting and gathering process can be as much a learning focus as the nature of the problem being worked on. In such instances, the focus is on understanding the criteria that separate relevant from irrelevant information, and learning where and how to gather relevant information.

If the decision is to use a case, it is necessary to �ind or develop one that will achieve the objectives. Harvard University and the University of Western Ontario are good sources. Their cases are based on real organizations’ experiences. The advantage of “real” cases is that they can be enriched with up-to-date information from the organization and can describe “what the outcome of the case really was” and how it affected the company.

Writing a case requires a special skill, and if you can �ind a case that ful�ills your objectives, it is probably preferable to use it. However, there are inherent advantages to trainers who can write a case about their own company. The case can be written with the learning objectives in mind and therefore be truly focused on the company’s needs. Additionally, trainee interest and transfer of training will be high because it is about the trainees’ own organization. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_025) If you do decide to write a case, refer to guides such as the Handbook of Creative Learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_026)

How to Use the Case Study Effectively Cases re�lect the typical situation faced by most managers—incomplete information about many of the factors that in�luence how an organization should move forward. For most cases, the trainees are given time to digest the information provided individually. If time permits, they may be allowed to collect additional information and integrate it into their strategy and action plan. Once individuals complete their case write-up, they may meet in small groups to discuss the different analyses, issues, strategies, and action plans. Then the trainees meet with the trainer, who facilitates and directs further discussion.

The trainer guides the trainees in examining the possible alternatives and consequences without actually stating what they are. The guided discovery method is especially important in this situation. The trainer’s analysis of the case and action plan to address the issues are irrelevant to that process; in fact, they hinder it. The trainer must also direct the discussion of the case toward achieving the training objectives. Suppose problem analysis is the objective of the training. Here you allow the case to go in the direction the trainees wish it to go, as long as they are pursuing a problem and analyzing it.

The role of trainer also requires facilitation of group discussion, keeping the communication climate open while ensuring that the focus remains on important learning points. The trainer becomes the catalyst for discussion by calling on trainees for opinions and encouraging others to confront aspects of a position they do not support. In this role, the trainer must remember to de�lect requests from trainees to give her own “solution” to the case. Instead, use relay or reverse questioning techniques.

One major concern for trainers when using the case method is ensuring that participants read the case and prepare for the discussion. Using training time for case reading and preparation ensures that work will be done, but it cuts into discussion time. If several training days are to be used, especially if the training is offsite and trainees are staying at a hotel, structured assignments can be built into the evenings. This option reduces the downtime of the training day. Of course, with a one-day training period, you can always provide the case and ask that trainees read it and answer questions ahead of time. However, this technique is advisable only when you can be sure that everyone will in fact read it ahead of time. Trainees are more likely to read the case if they realize they will be required to meet in small groups to discuss it.

Role-play Role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_024) is an enactment (or simulation) of a scenario in which each participant is given a part to act out. Trainees are provided with a description of the context—usually a topic area, a general description of a situation, a description of their roles (e.g., their objectives, emotions, concerns), and the problem they each face. For example, the topic area could be managing con�lict, with the two parties in con�lict being the supervisor and subordinate, and the situation might revolve around scheduling vacation days. The problem could be that the subordinate wants to take a vacation during the �irst week of August, and the supervisor knows that a big project comes due that week. Once the participants read their role descriptions, they act out their roles by interacting with one another.

The degree to which a scenario is structured will depend on what the learning objectives are. Structured role-plays (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_025) provide trainees with more detail about the situation and more detailed descriptions of each character’s attitudes, needs, opinions, and so on. Sometimes, structured role-plays even include a scripted dialogue. This type of role-play is used primarily to develop interpersonal skills such as communication, con�lict resolution, and group decision making.

Spontaneous role-plays (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_026) are loosely constructed interactions in which one of the participants plays himself while the other(s) play people with whom the �irst trainee interacted in the past or will in the future. This type of role-play focuses on

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attitudes. It is typically used to develop insight into our own behavior and its effect on others rather than to develop speci�ic skills.

In a single role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_027) , one group of trainees role-plays for the rest, providing a visual demonstration of some learning points. Other trainees observe the role-play, analyzing the interactions and identifying learning points. Although this format provides a single focus for trainees and feedback from a skilled observer (the trainer), it does have some disadvantages. Those chosen to act as the characters might experience acute embarrassment at being the center of attention. They also do not have the advantage of watching others perform the roles. In addition, they might not clearly portray the behaviors that are the focus of training. Having people other than trainees act out the role-play eliminates these problems but adds some cost to the training.

A multiple role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_028) is the same as a single role-play except that all trainees are in groups, with each group acting out the role-play simultaneously. Following the role-play, each group analyzes the interactions and identi�ies learning points among themselves. Each group may report a summary of its analysis and learning to the others. This format allows a rich discussion of the issues because each group will play the roles somewhat differently. It also reduces the amount of time required to complete the process but also might reduce the quality of feedback. Trainees are generally reluctant to provide negative feedback to peers. Even if they are willing, they might not have the experience or expertise to provide constructive feedback. Videotaping the role- play is another option. The trainee uses the tape for self-evaluation, and the trainer can examine the tapes between sessions and provide individual feedback.

The role rotation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_029) method begins as a single role-play. After the characters interact for a period of time, the trainer will stop the role-play and discuss what happened so far and what can be learned from it. Then different trainees are asked to exchange places with some or all of the characters. These trainees then pick up where the others left off. This format allows a common focus for all trainees (except those in the role-play) and demonstrates several different ways to approach the roles. It keeps trainees more active than the single role-play and allows for feedback from a skilled observer. However, it requires the progress of the role-play to be interrupted frequently, creating additional arti�iciality. Again, trainees might be inhibited from critiquing the behavior of their fellow trainees publicly, and they might be embarrassed to play a role in front of everyone else.

How to Use the Role-play Effectively Role-plays are available in many textbooks and other sources, but they are also reasonably easy to write. The advantage of writing a role-play is that it can be tailored to the needs of the company and the trainee population. Role-plays can be strategically placed throughout the training to provide not only the skills practice but also a change of pace.

Feedback is an important component in the role-play. The manner in which feedback is given will depend on the amount of time available. Training is more effective when the trainer can provide individual feedback. However, time and �inancial constraints might limit the degree to which this is possible. When time is limited, trainees may be asked to provide feedback to other trainees. For example, if the role-play involves two people, you could put the trainees into groups of three: the two people acting out the role-play (initiator and responder), and the other providing feedback (observer). Ideally you would provide three sets of role-plays that are different but contain the same learning points. Also, provide sheets of “learning points to look for” regarding the three role-plays. Each of the trainees is given the opportunity to act out each position, but with a different role-play scenario. The advantage to this feedback approach is that it reduces the amount of time required to complete the process because the entire training group can be completed after just three role-plays. The disadvantage is in the quality of feedback provided by the trainees. Trainees are generally reluctant to provide negative feedback to peers. Even if they are willing, trainees are not experts, so feedback might not be accurate. Nevertheless, if the role-play is set up with clear instructions and an understanding of the requirements, it can be an excellent learning tool. Each trainee is able to practice the skills, see how the skills work on them (when in the role of the initiator), and watch and provide feedback (as the observer). It might be useful to have the instructor and two volunteers run through exactly what is required (using a different role-play) before starting. Another option is to videotape the role-play. The trainee can use the tape for self-evaluation, peers in small groups can use it to evaluate each other, or the trainer can use it between sessions to provide individual feedback.

It is important to avoid the following problems when selecting or writing a role-play: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_027)

1. Reduced level of generalizability to the job, which results from problems addressed in the role-play that are not generally handled at the trainees’ level in the organization

2. Confusion that results from incomplete, excess, or misleading information

3. Confusion about how to behave in the role-play because the interrelationships are too complex

4. Con�licts left unresolved because the script creates more than can be resolved in the allotted time

5. Unrealistic or trivial scripts

Some concerns might arise about the trainees’ involvement in the role-play. For some trainees, the role-play can be considered “fun” but not real, which lessens the generalizability to the job. Others �ind it stressful to act out a role with others watching. Table 6-5 provides tips on how to develop and present a role-play.

Table 6-5 Tips for Developing and Presenting Role-Plays

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Developing

Make a summary of the different skills that the role-play is intended to develop. Use these to guide the role play you create.

Make it real. Use situations, issues and concerns from the company whenever possible.

Set up your situation carefully so it creates the type of interaction that will illustrate your points and engender the type of behavior on which you are focusing. Create a situation in which one player’s behavior causes another player to either use the skills taught or to illustrate what happens when those skills are not used.

Create whole characters. Give your characters enough background and context to illustrate your key learning points.

Give your characters room to act. Unless you are teaching rote responses a full script is not needed. Providing the detailed background on habits, attitudes, goals, personalities, mood and so on, of your characters as well as the business concerns and restrictions that motivate or restrain the players should be enough.

A role-play should only focus on one key problem. Do not try for more than one issue; otherwise, you will diffuse the impact and distract the learners with too much information.

Presenting

Begin by letting the participants know the objective of the role-play. Then provide them with the background and context within which the role-play will be conducted. Sometimes you may want to demonstrate the role-play with volunteers or other trainers.

Don’t let the role-plays or the debrie�ings get off topic. To prevent your role-play from going in the wrong direction, make sure that participants understand what they are supposed to do. A simple way to do this is to give them written instructions. If the role-play gets off topic, stop the performance and ask, “What are the problems here? Why isn’t the conversation moving in the right direction?” Be assertive to ensure that the participants stay in character and on topic.

If possible you should plan to use observers to provide feedback. Provide them with an observation sheet that lists the key behaviors to look for and allows space to record key aspects of the performance.

Always debrief after the role-play. This is how learning takes place. Ask questions of each player, and observer. Allow the group to comment about what they learned from observing the players.

Encourage discussion. Challenge them with alternatives: “What would have happened if . . .?”

Depending on the method used in providing feedback, the time frame for completing a set of role-plays could be from one hour to one day. Considering that just the preparation of trainees for the role-play (along with a demonstration) could take 20 to 30 minutes, the complete session could take a whole day if everyone were to role-play in front of everyone else.

Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_030) uses the natural tendency of people to observe others to learn how to do something new. This technique is most frequently used in combination with some other technique. For example, the modeled behavior is typically videotaped and then watched by the trainees. We include it in the “Games and Simulation” section because once the trainees observe the model, they typically practice the behavior in some form of simulation or role-play. However, the behavioral modeling process itself is distinctly different from these methods. Only minor differences exist among the various descriptions of behavior modeling in the literature. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_028) The behavior modeling process can be summarized as follows:

1. De�ine the key skill de�iciencies.

2. Provide a brief overview of relevant theory.

3. Specify key learning points and critical behaviors to observe.

4. Use an expert to model the appropriate behaviors.

5. Encourage trainees to practice the appropriate behaviors in a structured role-play.

6. Provide opportunities for the trainer and other trainees to give reinforcement for appropriate imitation of the model’s behavior.

7. Ensure that the trainee’s supervisor reinforces appropriate demonstration of behavior on the job.

Develop a training module comprising all seven steps for each skill to be learned. An overview module should also be provided, as well as a separate workshop for those who supervise the trainees back on the job.

Behavior modeling differs from both role-play and simulation by �irst providing the trainee with an understanding of what the desired skill level looks like. This method is based on Bandura’s social learning theory and is focused on developing behavioral skills. However, steps 2 and 3 re�lect the cognitively oriented learning features of the technique, and steps 5 to 7 re�lect behaviorist/reinforcement theory features.

Behavior modeling is useful for almost any type of skill training. It can be used to provide interpersonal skills, sales skills, interviewee and interviewer skills, safety skills, and many other skills. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_029) One method of behavior modeling makes extensive use of video modeling and feedback. The trainee �irst observes the behavior being performed by a model and then attempts to reproduce the behavior (step 5) while being videotaped. Through split-screen devices, the model and the trainee can be shown side by side, and the trainee can see exactly where his performance does or does not match the model’s.

How to Use Behavior Modeling Effectively Although a live model can be used, a video is better for two reasons. First, it will be an accurate, standardized depiction of the required behavior. The action can be redone until it is exact. Using a live model leaves room for variations or inappropriate behaviors. Second, scripted learning points and steps being followed can be inserted into the video. These descriptions allow the trainee to see the behavior and the speci�ic point being highlighted at the same time. The best results are obtained when both positive and negative models are used. This allows trainees to see both what should be done and what should not. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_030)

One dif�iculty is �inding or developing a video for the desired behavior. Many videos are available covering various types of skills, but the quality varies considerably. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_031) It is important to preview them before purchase because the video must

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match the learning objectives. Videos developed for general sale typically do not model the behavior exactly the way the company would like. Developing a video is also a possibility, but cost, ability to make a professional product, and the time needed might rule out that option. Table 6-6 provides several suggestions if the decision is made to use behavior modeling.

Table 6-6 Things to Consider When Implementing Behavior Modeling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_032)

Use care in selecting the trainer/program administrator who will set up and conduct the sessions. This person must be skilled and experienced with this technique.

Consider carefully whether this technique will meet your needs within your constraints of time and money. You should probably not use this technique unless you can:

identify real skill de�iciencies in advance of training, and involve the potential trainees and their bosses in this process, which will gain the key people’s attention and their ownership of the objectives of the training sessions;

provide a model that is seen as credible and is able to correctly and consistently model the appropriate behavior (use of video clips is preferred for consistency);

provide time for each trainee to practice the behavior under the watchful eye of the trainer; and

arrange for the manager of each trainee to reinforce correct behavior back on the job.

Break the skills into small behaviors. Build a module around each small behavior, and progress one step at a time, starting with a simple behavioral element, to gain con�idence.

Do not emphasize more than seven learning points during any one training module.

Ask trainees to verbalize the behavioral cues demonstrated by the model and then to visualize their pending performance before they actually practice the desired behavior. Verbalization may help improve generalization and use of the behaviors in new situations.

Establish a supportive climate that encourages experimentation for the practice sessions. Emphasis on positive reinforcement rather than criticism increases self- con�idence and learning.

Provide a wallet-sized card that outlines the key learning points and critical steps, after each session, as some experts suggest. This reminder acts as a security blanket for the trainees to reassure them that they will know the crucial features as they attempt to apply the training back to their jobs.

Conduct a review session after the completion of several modules to reinforce the learning points and to demonstrate the progress attained by the trainees.

Manage the consequences of attempting the newly trained behaviors in the actual job situation. Work with the trainees’ manager to ensure that attainable goals are set for their subordinates, barriers that may prevent trainees from attempting the new behaviors are removed, and incentives for attempting the new behaviors are provided.

A behavior modeling training session starts with trainees watching the modeled behavior. Trainees would then perform the behavior and receive feedback on it. If the trainee is videotaped while performing, the trainee would watch the video and receive feedback while watching the video. If video recording of the trainee is used, the number of video cameras and VCRs available limits the number of concurrent sessions that can take place. This method is highly dependent on effective feedback; thus, a suf�icient number of trainers must be available to provide feedback.

Strengths and Limitations of Games and Simulations Even though games and simulations come in many different formats, they share a number of common strengths and limitations. When a speci�ic format differs from others in this regard, we discuss it separately; otherwise, our discussion of strengths and limitations applies to all formats.

Costs The development costs of games and simulations vary from format to format. In general, equipment simulators are the most expensive to develop, but cost will depend on the nature of the equipment that is simulated. For example, millions of dollars are spent on aircraft simulators used to train commercial and military �light of�icers. Conversely, retail clerks and bank tellers can be trained on the actual equipment they will use on the job. The equipment can be moved back and forth from training to the job site. Even if the development costs of equipment simulators are high, they are often the best alternative. For example, pilot trainees taking test �lights in an airplane will not be exposed to all the possible situations they might encounter in �lying thousands of hours a year, so the trainees would not learn as much from this method as they could from a simulator. Also, pilots will need to know how to respond in dangerous situations, which is best practiced in the safety of the simulator. In addition, the cost of “�lying” a simulator is a small fraction of the cost of �lying an actual aircraft. The total costs of using the simulation can be lower than alternative methods, even when the development cost is quite high.

At the low end of development costs are role-plays. A wide range of role-plays are already developed and published, including instructions and suggestions for their use. Many of these publications are free. However, a role-play tailored to the company’s needs can be created at little cost.

Business games are somewhat more complicated and thus usually more expensive than role-plays. Multimedia or computer-based games or simulations will be more expensive but have the advantage of being reusable, so the cost can be amortized across the number of trainees. Behavior modeling costs can range from moderately low to high, depending on the format used. Using an expert to model the desired behavior live (e.g., welding two plates together) simply involves the cost of the model. Since the model is typically an employee of the company, the cost is just the lost production while the expert is modeling. Using professional actors as models for interpersonal skills training, for example, will add to the cost, but could be worth it in terms of improved quality. The use of live models is more expensive than using videotaped models because the cost is incurred each time the model is used. Videotaping the model allows the videotape to be used again but adds the cost of creating it. Professionally developed videos can be fairly expensive. This will be discussed more fully in the audiovisual section of this chapter.

Two things to consider when examining the cost of a game or simulation are

the degree of �lexibility built into the simulation or game, and

the cost of making mistakes while in training.

Regarding �lexibility, a cockpit simulator that is programmable to re�lect the characteristics of many different aircrafts will be more cost-effective than one that can simulate only one type of aircraft. The same is true of business games and other types of simulations. A business game that is programmed to create different economic situations and business conditions will have a wider audience base and a longer useful life than one that is not.

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One of the primary strengths of games and simulations is that they allow trainees to develop and practice skills in a safe setting. Mistakes in business decisions can be �inancially disastrous. Mistakes in equipment operation can cause damage to the equipment and physical harm to the operator and others. Mistakes in interpersonal behavior can also result in �inancial losses to the company through lost customers, resentful employees, and misinterpreted instructions. Mistakes can result in psychological harm to the trainee, such as lowered self-esteem and con�idence or increased defensiveness. Simulations and games allow trainees the opportunity to develop their skills in a situation where the costs of making a mistake are low or nonexistent.

Control of Content and Process When games and simulations are used, both the trainer and the trainee in�luence the content of what is learned and the processes used in learning. The game or simulation provides a set of information that focuses on a particular content area. The Kimberly-Clark simulation and game (Training in Action 6-2), for example, focuses on integrating business decisions across functional areas to improve company pro�itability and growth. Games and simulations also provide instructions and guidelines that strongly in�luence the learning process. By selecting an existing game or simulation or developing a new one, the trainer exerts control over the learning content and process. Many games and simulations are structured so that situations occur in a predetermined order, providing the trainer with greater control over both content and process. This control is desirable if all trainees will be exposed to the same situations back on the job. Arrest procedures for police, or machine maintenance and troubleshooting for equipment operators, are examples of such jobs. Other games and simulations allow the situation to change according to how trainees respond, enabling the trainee to exercise greater in�luence on what is learned and how. These types of games and simulations are useful when trainees must learn how to deal with a wide range of situations and how to apply general principles in areas such as business and �inancial planning, decision making, and military battle tactics.

The format providing the least built-in structure is the unstructured role-play in which only a general set of guidelines is given to the participants beforehand. How the trainees interact while playing out their roles is under their own control. Although the trainer controls the choice of situation and roles, the trainees control how they are carried out. By asking the role-players to focus on certain steps in the learning process, such as saying “First try to identify the cause of the con�lict, and then try to generate win-win alternatives,” the trainer exerts more in�luence. In the case of role-plays, reduced structure allows the trainees to imagine the situation as it might occur on the job. The potential danger is that it might be so unstructured that they do not take their roles seriously, or they are unable to imagine how it could possibly apply to their job.

Cases provide more structure, particularly in setting the situation (i.e., characteristics of the organization). However, the trainees’ process of analyzing the case is largely internal or in�luenced by the interaction within the training group. Through the manner in which trainers facilitate discussion of the case, they can exert more or less control over what trainees learn and how.

Equipment simulators generally provide the most structure. They must replicate the physical and psychological characteristics of the equipment and the environment in which it is operated. The simulator itself controls the content and process of learning. To the extent that the simulation is programmable, the trainer can manipulate the content.

Learning Objectives (KSAs) Games and simulations provide opportunities to learn through concrete experiences that require both theory and application. Theory provides the general principles that guide action. Application provides the opportunity to test those principles and understand them at a behavioral level, not just as abstract intellectual knowledge. As the philosopher Confucius said, “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

Some types of knowledge enhancement and attitude change are achievable through games and simulations, but usually supplemental methods are required. Games and simulations generally require some background knowledge and provide a context in which this knowledge is applied. For example, a business game in which several teams of trainees compete for product market share makes some assumptions about the knowledge that trainees have about basic marketing strategies (e.g., product, pricing, promotions, and location). It allows them to apply their knowledge and see the consequences of that strategy.

For these and numerous other reasons, games and simulations do a good job of developing skills. First, they simulate the important conditions and situations that occur on the job. Second, they allow the trainees to practice the skill. Finally, they provide feedback about the appropriateness of the trainees’ actions. Each of the formats is most suited to particular types of skills, as follows:

Equipment simulators are best at teaching people how to work with equipment.

Business games are best for developing business decision-making skills (both day-to-day and more strategic) and for exploring and solving complex problems.

The in-basket technique is best suited to development of strategic knowledge used in making day-to-day decisions.

Case studies are best for developing analytic skills, higher-level principles, and complex problem-solving strategies. As trainees do not actually implement their decision/solution, their focus is more on the “what to do” (strategic knowledge) than on the “how to get it done” (skills).

Role-plays provide a good vehicle for developing interpersonal skills and personal insight, allowing trainees to practice interacting with others and receiving feedback.

Behavior modeling is a good technique for developing skills, especially when learning points are used as rules and when there is suf�icient time for practicing the behavior. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_033)

Role-playing is an especially effective technique for creating attitude change. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_034) It allows trainees to act out behavior that re�lects their attitudes and to experience others’ reactions and their own feelings about the behavior. The experience and feedback allow the trainee to make proper attitudinal adjustments. The role reversal is even more powerful, as it requires the trainee to take a position opposite to their attitude. It allows the trainee to better understand why others may hold differing attitudes. One such situation would be the supervisor with a negative attitude about union of�icials being asked to play the role of union steward defending an employee who had been treated unfairly. As an old role-playing saying goes: “Seeing is believing, but feeling is the truth.” Although trainees might see the logic of a principle through a lecture and see its application in a video, they can feel its personal value only when they use it themselves.

Learning Process Attention One of the strengths of games and simulations is their ability to gain the attention of the learner. The active learning process used by these training methods is generally more compelling to trainees than is sitting through a lecture or reading a text. In most games and many simulations, the aspect of competition against ourselves or others increases attention and enthusiasm. Many also use clever gimmicks that capture trainees’ interest, but these aspects can also distract trainees from the real learning objectives of the training. Sometimes trainees get so engrossed in the competition or “�iguring out” the gimmick that they fail to learn the principles or develop the skills the game/simulation was intended to produce. It is important for trainers to build modules into the training that prepare trainees to use the game or simulation by identifying the desired learning outcomes. Modules might also be planned for breaks during the simulation to capture learning that occurred and to refocus trainees on the learning objectives. In general, a debrie�ing module should always be included so that trainees can re�lect and elaborate on what they have learned.

Another important factor affecting trainee attention is the credibility of the game or simulation. When the game or simulation does not realistically represent the key characteristics of the trainees’ job, trainees will not take it seriously and will give it less attention. Consider a role-play or simulation designed to improve union-management

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problem solving. It asks trainees who are members of union-management committees to work on resolving certain issues. If these issues are, in reality, already contractually mandated in the company, both sides must pretend that part of the labor contract does not exist. When this happens, trainees are likely to consider the training irrelevant and not take it seriously.

Retention Games and simulations are best at developing trainees’ skills in applying or using knowledge. This approach assumes that the knowledge needed to play the game or use the simulation was already learned. This information exists as symbolic codes in the trainees’ cognitive structure. Games or simulations do not do a good job of teaching facts or procedures, but they are especially good at enhancing this knowledge through the repeated recall and use of the information during the training. Thus they serve to re�ine and reinforce symbolic coding. Games and simulations focus primarily on the cognitive organization and symbolic rehearsal processes. Because the trainee must use many different areas of knowledge to complete the game or simulation, the trainee can see the connections and relationships between the different areas. Learning these new connections and relationships allows trainees to solve problems and develop strategies for achieving goals. Most games and simulations require trainees to engage in symbolic rehearsal by having them plan their action steps and anticipate their consequences.

Behavioral Reproduction Of course, the real strength of games and simulations is their focus on learning by doing. Creating realistic situations in which trainees can apply their knowledge to goal- directed actions and receive fairly immediate feedback is critical for skill development. Behavioral reproduction is a signi�icant part of the learning process when games and simulations are used. For the desired learning to occur, the training design must include feedback to the trainees about their actions. This requirement follows from the principles of reinforcement and shaping discussed in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) .

Training Group Characteristics Only one person at a time can use an equipment simulator, so to some extent, differences in trainee readiness are addressed. As with all games and simulations, however, trainees must possess the prerequisite knowledge and skill to use the method effectively. Equipment simulators limit the number of trainees who can be trained, so this becomes a problem when a large number of trainees must be trained in a short period of time.

Business games and simulations, including behavior modeling, typically use small groups ranging in size from three to eight trainees. Differences in trainee characteristics can be both an advantage and a disadvantage, depending on the goals of the training. Differences in content knowledge or experience can be an advantage if one of the goals of training is to increase the awareness of how different people approach the situation. In a business game or simulation, for example, constructing a group of trainees from different functional areas of the business allows each trainee to learn how decisions in their area affect other areas. Thus, all trainees learn a more integrative framework for decision making. However, such groups generate more con�lict and require more time for discussion and decision making. Other differences in content knowledge can be more troublesome. When some trainees in the group are more knowledgeable in basic business concepts than are others, they can become irritated at having to educate the rest of the group. In general, it is best to make sure that groups are formed so that everyone shares relatively the same level of basic knowledge—unless, of course, the goal is to have more knowledgeable trainees educate those less knowledgeable. The trainer must take care to identify how trainee group composition matches the training objectives.

Exercises and Activities Most well-crafted training programs include exercises and activities that allow the participants to work with and explore the implications of the training content. These include paper-and-pencil self-assessment instruments, written assignments, and small-group activities. While some of these may �it into the methods we have discussed earlier, usually it is not a very good �it. For example, an activity commonly used in communication training is the Three Person Interview. In this activity, one person is the interviewer, one is the interviewee, and the other is an observer. The interviewer is given two minutes to learn as much as possible about some aspect of the person (her accomplishments, for example). After each two-minute interview, the roles rotate until everyone is done. When all the interviews are completed, each person then describes what they have learned to the rest of the training group. While there may be multiple objectives for this activity, one is to demonstrate the dif�iculty of effective listening. How would you categorize this activity in terms of the methods we have described? You might say it was an unstructured role-play, but that wouldn’t exactly �it. Another activity used in creativity training is to organize the trainees into small groups and have them list as many possible uses for a brick as they can think of. This doesn’t �it into any of the methods we have previously discussed. These types of activities often do not �it our de�initions of the training methods. We think of these as supplements to the training that allow the participants to engage with the material that was delivered through the method (lecturette, case study, simulation, etc.). There are literally thousands of these activities and exercises available. For example, 101 Great Games and Activities is over a decade old and contains many useful ideas. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_035) A recent Web search showed over 250,000 sites related to this topic.

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6.6 On-the-Job Training The most frequently used training method, especially in smaller businesses and among manufacturers, is on-the-job training (OJT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_031) . A recent study of the National Manufacturers Association found that 77 percent of the members used OJT as the primary form of training. OJT is the preferred method for training employees for new technology and increasing skills in the use of existing technology. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_036)

OJT uses more experienced and skilled employees, whether co-workers or supervisors, to train less-skilled or less-experienced employees. OJT takes many forms and can be supplemented with classroom training. However, many organizations do not follow a structured approach. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_037) Instruction by co-workers or supervisors at the job site often occurs on an informal basis and is characterized by the following:

It has not been carefully thought out or prepared.

It is done on an ad hoc basis with no predetermined content or process.

No objectives or goals have been developed or referred to during training.

Trainers are chosen on the basis of technical expertise, not training ability.

Trainers have no formal training in how to train.

Formal OJT programs are quite different. Those chosen to be the trainers for OJT are not necessarily the ones with the best technical knowledge and skills. These trainers need to have a solid understanding of the job and be able to use one-on-one instructional techniques effectively. One-on-one training is not a skill most people develop on their own, so organizations with formal OJT programs provide “train the trainer” training for these employees.

Formal OJT programs should follow a carefully developed sequence of learning events. Learning is usually achieved by using the following steps:

1. The trainee observes a more experienced and skilled employee (the trainer) performing job-related tasks.

2. The procedures and techniques used are discussed before, during, and after the trainer has demonstrated how the job tasks are performed.

3. The trainee begins performing the job tasks when the trainer determines that the trainee is ready.

4. The trainer provides continuing guidance and feedback.

5. The trainee is gradually given more and more of the job to perform until he can adequately perform the entire job on his own.

The generalized instructional process just described is formalized in more detail as the job instruction technique.

Job Instruction Technique (JIT) The job instruction technique (JIT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_032) uses a behavioral strategy with a focus on skill development. However, as with most jobs, some knowledge objectives are usually involved. JIT was developed during World War II and continues to be a standard in evaluating OJT programs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_038) JIT consists of four steps—prepare, present, try out, and follow-up—as shown in Table 6-7.

Table 6-7 JIT Instruction/Learning Sequence

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Basics of Instruction Areas of Learning Affected* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06fnt07)

Prepare

1. Break down the job into its components.

2. Prepare a training plan that presents the job components in the correct order and covers each of the presentation points in item three.

3. Put the learner at ease. Explain the purpose of the training and why it is needed. Provide reassurance that by the end the trainee will be able to perform the job.

Attention and motivation

Present Retention

1. Tell. Explain the process you will use and then give and overview and identify the key learning points.

Attention and motivation 

Symbolic coding

2. Show. This only applies when there are things to show. Show the different parts, pieces equipment or other tangible objects that will be used, explaining their purpose.

Attention and motivation 

Symbolic coding 

Cognitive organization

3. Demonstrate. Demonstrate how to do the job. If there are many components do them one at a time and in the appropriate order.

Attention and motivation 

Symbolic coding 

Cognitive organization

4. Explain. During each demonstration identify what you are doing as you are doing it and explain why you are doing it that way.

Attention and motivation 

Symbolic coding 

Cognitive organization

Try Out Retention

1. Have the trainee identify the different components of the job and what needs to be done to get the job done.

Symbolic rehearsal

2. Have the trainee give you instructions on how to do the job, as you do it. Symbolic rehearsal

3. Have the trainee do the job. Behavioral reproduction

4. Provide appropriate feedback, both positive and negative as the trainee moves through the job. If performance is too poor repeat steps 3 and 4.

Consequences of behavior

5. Allow the trainee to practice. Tell the trainee where and whom to go to for help.

Behavioral reproduction

Follow Up

1. Check progress frequently at �irst and provide constructive feedback. Behavioral reproduction 

Consequences of behavior

2. Gradually taper off progress checks.

* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#r__ch06fnt07) The items under “Areas of Learning Affected” are the social learning theory components as shown in Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) .

Prepare Preparation and follow-up are the two areas most often ignored in OJT programs. Preparation should include a written breakdown of the job. The person responsible for the OJT might believe that, because of a familiarity with the job, written documentation is unnecessary. To ignore this step, however, is to miss seeing the job through the eyes of the trainee. A trainer who knows the job well is likely to be able to do several things without thinking, and these tasks might be overlooked in training. A systematic analysis and documentation of the job tasks will ensure that all the points are covered in the training. The next step is to prepare an instructional plan. As a trainer, �irst determine what the trainee already knows. The person analysis portion of a needs assessment provides this information (see Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) ). Next, review any data available from a completed TNA. If no TNA is available, checking personnel records and interviewing the trainee are ways for you to �ind out what the trainee knows and what training should focus on.

Finally, putting the trainee at ease is just as important in OJT as it is in the classroom. Care must be taken to create a comfortable learning atmosphere. One way to create such an environment is to provide the trainee with an orientation to the OJT/JIT learning process. This orientation may or may not be provided by the JIT trainer. In this orientation, help trainees understand their role and the role of the trainer in the process. The importance of trainee listening and questioning should be emphasized. Familiarizing trainees with the steps in the JIT process will reduce their anxiety because they will know what to expect.

Present The four activities of this stage are tell, show, demonstrate, and explain. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_039) First, tell and show. As the trainer, provide an overview of the job while showing the trainee the different aspects of the job. You are not actually doing the job but pointing out where buttons are pushed, where materials are located, where to stand, and so on. When �inished, demonstrate how to do the job, and explain why it is done in that manner. If the job involves many components or is complex, cover only one segment at a time, in the same order in which segments occur when the job is performed. During the demonstration, indicate why the procedure is performed in that particular way, emphasizing key learning points and important safety instructions.

Try Out Before actually trying the behaviors, the trainee describes to the trainer how to do the job (symbolic rehearsal). This step provides a safe transition from watching and listening to doing. The trainee then attempts to perform the job, and the trainer is able to provide instant feedback. Any errors that take place are probably a function of the training and not the fault of the trainee. With this in mind, the focus will be on improving the method of instruction rather than on the inability of the trainee to comprehend. In any case, it is useful to allow the trainee to learn from mistakes, provided they are not too costly. Allowing the trainee to see the consequences of using an incorrect procedure (such as having to scrap the product) reinforces the use of the correct procedures. Such an occurrence becomes a form of negative reinforcement because using the correct procedures avoids the scrap. Questioning the trainee about her actions while she is performing the job and guiding her in identifying the correct procedures will help her organize and retain the processes.

Follow-Up There is a tendency for informal OJT programs to consider training completed after the previous step. That is not correct. The trainer must check the trainee’s work often enough to prevent incorrect or bad work habits from developing. It is also important that trainees feel comfortable asking for help during these initial solo efforts. Every opportunity should be taken to reinforce trainees in areas where they are performing well. As trainees demonstrate pro�iciency on the job, progress checks can taper off until they are eventually eliminated.

How to Use JIT Effectively Trainers are chosen from those already knowledgeable about the job, so they often see the �irst step, preparation, as unnecessary. Ignoring the preparation step can result in missing something important, because for the trainer, it is automatic. Refer to Table 6-8 for an example of the preparation step for the job of press feeder. If it looks similar to the operational analysis in the chapter on needs assessment, it is. If an operational analysis was previously completed, the majority of the work outlined in Table 6-8 is already done.

Table 6-8 Job Breakdown Sheet for OJT

Dept.: Construction and Maintenance Prepared by: J. Smith

Job: Pipe�itter Date: June 8

Main Steps Key Points Tools/Equipment & Material

Safety Factors

Part I (Sizing up the job for houses with a basement)

1. Examine position of furnace and gas meter to determine where piping should go.

Ask pipe�itter what issues to consider in deciding on the optimal path for the piping to take.

If piping must cross the ceiling the pipe�itter will need to look up while walking the possible paths for the pipe. Check for and if possible remove any barriers from possible paths and use caution when walking and looking up.

2. Measure the lengths of pipe you will require to connect the meter to the furnace. Measure drop required, count the number of elbows, tees, caps and shutoffs you will need.

In measuring be sure to consider the corrections for elbows, tees, shutoffs, and the threading of pipe. Make sure to follow the gas code.

Tape measure, goggles.

Measuring up in un�inished basements results in the potential for dust and debris to fall into the eyes and face.

Part II (Preparing the pipe)

1. Cut the pipes to required length.

Be sure cutter is perpendicular to the pipe before beginning. Only tighten cutter 1 to 1½ turns for each pass.

Gas piping, tape measure, marking chalk and pipe cutter, protective gloves and goggles.

Wear gloves as pipe ends can be sharp.

2. Thread the pipes according to code.

Check to assure length of threading is appropriate for pipe size. While threading pipe be sure to use suf�icient cutting oil. After threading, make sure to clean threads with wire brush and ream the inside of pipe

Cut pipe, threading machine, cutting oil, wire brush, reamer, protective gloves and goggles.

Always wear gloves when handling threading machine and pipe.

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The follow-up step may also be ignored because it is not considered important. This step, however, is critical to ensure that the trained skills continue as they were taught. During the try-out step, the trainee may demonstrate her capabilities in doing the job, but as with anything freshly learned, shortcuts, poor work habits, and incorrect procedures can creep into performance. Periodically dropping by to follow up can catch such performance gaps and correct them before they become habitual. Following up becomes less important as the trainee’s performance becomes consistently acceptable.

Structured OJT is effective when done properly and supported by the organization. HRD can ensure this support by following the six steps in Table 6-9.

Table 6-9 How HRD Can Support Effective OJT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_041)

1. Create effective OJT process document that does the following:

1. States the rationale for using OJT.

2. Links OJT to the overall strategy of HRD (how it �its with HRD’s general approach in the organization.

3. Identi�ies supervisory responsibilities with respect to OJT, such as what support will be provided to OJ Trainers, and how the OJ Trainer’s regular job is affected in terms of reducing responsibilities and/or workload. It should also provide for a process of including the OJ Trainer’s responsibilities in her performance appraisal.

2. Develop a job description and speci�ication for the job of OJ trainer to aid supervisors in the selection of appropriate candidates for the job.

3. Develop a training program for OJ trainers.

1. To the extent possible, this should be e-training to ensure the consistency of the information and provide convenience to those learning how to be an OJ trainer. This training will need to have a good evaluation component built in. Preferably, the assessment would consist of an OJT expert watching the trainee role-play the OJT process.

2. Make sure that a system is in place to keep track of how well those selected and trained in the OJT process are doing.

A. This should be part of the performance appraisal process, but special attention needs to be paid to this particular dimension so those not effective in providing OJT are helped to improve or are removed from that responsibility.

B. As jobs change over time, those responsible for providing OJT will need to update their OJT competencies with respect to those jobs.

3. Provide support for OJ trainers.

A. Create materials such as lesson plans, checklists, manuals, and so on, for those who are providing the OJT training. Periodically, hold focus groups of your OJ trainers to see what tools and materials would be of value. This keeps the HRD unit connected to the OJT process and enhances the perception of HRD as a partner.

4. Think large, but begin small.

A. Start implementing your OJT process in areas where supervisors are supportive. Build on your successes there to expand to other areas. Your goal is to have the entire organization using your structured OJT process, but this will be much easier after you are able to show how effective it is.

Focus on Small Business Although any of the training methods described in this chapter are appropriate, OJT is the training method of choice for the small business. Many small businesses use peer training because they lack a budget for any formal training. The value of following the procedures outlined in the JIT, whether the supervisor or a peer is to be the trainer, cannot be overemphasized. An up-front investment of time to train the OJT instructor and prepare the proper plan will ensure an optimal return on investment. Research suggests that structured OJT such as that described in JIT can get workers up to speed on their jobs in half the time regular training takes. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_040)

Apprenticeship Training Apprenticeship training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_033) , another form of OJT, is one of the oldest forms of training. Its roots date back to the Middle Ages, when skilled crafts- and trades people passed their knowledge on to others as a way of preserving the guilds (similar to unions). Many similarities characterize today’s North American apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeship programs are partnerships among labor unions, employers, schools, and government. Most apprenticeships are in skilled trade and professional unions such as boiler engineers, electrical workers, pipe �itters, and carpenters. In general, an apprenticeship program requires about two years of on-the-job experience and 180 hours of classroom instruction, though requirements vary from program to program. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_042) An apprentice cook, for example, might require a year of OJT and a week of classroom training, whereas a mold maker might require four years of OJT with three 8-week classroom sessions. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_043)

Journeymen provide the training on the job, and adult education centers and community colleges typically provide the classroom training. An apprentice must be able to demonstrate mastery of all required skills and knowledge before being allowed to graduate to journeyman status. These programs are regulated by governmental agencies, which also set standards and provide services.

How to Use Apprenticeship Training Effectively Although formal apprenticeship programs are strictly controlled by the Department of Labor, nothing would stop an organization from setting up its own informal apprenticeship programs. The journeyman rank provided to employees upon successful completion will not be transferable to other organizations, but it is possible to take advantage of the process nonetheless.

One way to do this is to �ind and examine a comparable job with an apprenticeship program and use it as a model. The classroom training could take place at a local community college, school of technology, or similar institution. Apprentices are usually off the job for their classroom training, but in designing a program it might be possible to arrange night-school classes, weekend classes, or some combination of the two. Correspondence-school training is sometimes substituted for classroom training.

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Before venturing out to develop an apprenticeship program, check with local government agencies regarding the programs available. Given that government is usually willing to help pay for the classroom training part of the apprenticeship program, it might be advantageous to make the program of�icial.

Coaching Coaching (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_034) as used here is the process of providing one-on-one guidance and instruction to improve knowledge, skills, attitudes, and ultimately work performance. The term coaching is also commonly used to refer to the use of an outside consultant to assist upper-level managers with speci�ic challenges such as public speaking, a particular type of business problem, and so on. This will be discussed in Chapter 11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i157#ch11) . Although some of the general concepts are the same, there are substantial differences in the coaching process for lower levels of management, which is the focus here.

Coaching can be used in a number of different situations, such as

providing feedback to the employee in order for them to hone their skills in order to be more productive,

assisting an employee master changing responsibilities in response to organizational change, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_044)

reducing role ambiguity, improving employee attitudes and increase motivation, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_045) and

providing support after training to facilitate transfer of new skills.

Although co-workers can be coaches, especially in team-based organizations, more typically the supervisor acts as coach. We would argue that coaching by supervisors should be ongoing with all employees, to assure that each employee is operating at her peak performance.

One analysis suggests that in the past, supervisors spent, on the average, only about 10 percent of their time coaching subordinates. In today’s organizations, supervisors typically spend more than 50 percent of their time in such activities. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_046) The following outline looks at the process from the coach’s perspective:

Understand the trainee’s job, the KSAs, the resources required to meet performance expectations, and the trainee’s current level of performance.

Through observation and discussions with the subordinate identify

any barriers the subordinate perceives inhibits her ability to perform,

any resources the subordinate feels she needs to perform at her best, and

any KSAs you or the subordinate identify as lacking

Deal with these barriers and resources to the extent possible.

Meet with the trainee, and mutually agree on the performance objectives to be achieved.

Arrive at a mutual plan and schedule for achieving the performance objectives.

Show the trainee how to achieve the objectives, observe the trainee perform, and provide feedback. This process is similar to JIT and is conducted at the work site.

Repeat step 4 until performance improves.

An important part of being a coach is to develop a positive relationship with the subordinate. As the supervisor, it is your job to see that the subordinate is comfortable coming to you for help and she knows that you will always do your best to meet her needs. Demonstrating your ability to provide the resources needed, and removing any barriers that inhibit effective performance will go a long way to accomplishing that relationship. In some cases you will not be able to deal with all these concerns but discussing this with the subordinate acknowledges you did your best, and any support you were unable to meet because of organizational constraints should be taken into consideration in the setting of objectives. Developing mutually agreed upon objectives that are clear and behaviorally based means listening to the employee and taking their suggestions seriously. It does not mean simply providing a list of objectives you feel are appropriate. The positive relationship you are building will be assisted by your willingness to listen and take into consideration the employees ideas on the objective setting process. The same goes for developing the action plan for meeting the objectives you have developed.

Although some of the earlier steps in the coaching process are formal meetings, the last two, observing the trainee and providing feedback, are ongoing. This is where the process often breaks down. Supervisors are often not good at providing feedback, especially when it is not positive, so they tend to put it off. When we are training supervisors in “Effective Supervision” we often use the phrase “Every day is performance appraisal day.” This means the supervisor should always be providing feedback to subordinates, often positive and when necessary identifying areas where they need to improve. This way the subordinate does not see the supervisor as someone always criticizing, but as someone who praises as well as helps the subordinate when appropriate. This once again helps to solidify a positive relationship between subordinate and supervisor.

Coaching involves more than simply helping the subordinate with the KSAs that are required to be effective. In fact an important part of coaching is providing the tools necessary to be able to do the job effectively as well as removing any barriers that would impede performance.

Recall we suggested that coaching can be for a number of different reasons. But in actuality, the coaching process should never be considered over. There are always ways of improving and the supervisor should be coaching subordinates in order to stretch their capabilities. Coaching can help subordinates come up with better ways of doing things, be creative in their problem solving, and to always be focused on objectives that improve the bottom line.

The advantages of a successful coaching relationship are numerous. The organization, supervisor and subordinate all bene�it from an effective coaching process. There is evidence that effective coaching is positively related to organizational commitment and intrinsic motivation. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_047) It also assists in aligning the goals of the subordinate to the strategic goals of the organization, as well as improving performance. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_048) Improved performance of subordinates is an advantage for the supervisor. As well, effective coaching results in no surprises when the annual performance review comes along making that process much less stressful for the supervisor. When the subordinate’s relationship with his supervisor is positive it makes it easier for him to approach the supervisor with questions or for assistance. Effective coaching also leads to higher job satisfaction and clearer understanding of job expectations. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_049)

The main difference between coaching and traditional OJT is that in coaching, the supervisor continues to analyze the subordinate’s performance, plans mutually acceptable action, creates a supportive climate, and motivates the subordinate to improve. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_050) Effective coaching requires a relationship between the coach (supervisor, peer) and player (employee) that motivates the employee to seek help from the coach to become a better performer.

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_051) Therefore, the role of the supervisor must change from controlling to collaborating with the trainee.

Even though coaching is clearly a skill-focused method, it can also be used for knowledge development, although other methods are better for transmitting knowledge. Like the OJT trainer, the coach must be skilled both in how to do the tasks and in how to train others to do them. HRD professionals typically do not perform the role of coach (unless they are coaching other HRD professionals). Rather, they train supervisors in the coaching process and develop the supervisors’ interpersonal skills to make them more effective.

Training for Coaches To be most effective coaching needs to become a major part of a supervisors job description. For this reason, we will go into detail regarding what that training should entail.

In training supervisors to be effective coaches, the organizational analysis is particularly important. One of the main reasons supervisors give for not interacting with their subordinates is they have too much work. Therefore, the organizational analysis can identify performance barriers in the system and recommend their removal if management wants the training to transfer to the workplace (see Training in Action 6-4).

6-4 Training in Action A large manufacturing �irm conducted a survey of their employees and one of the pieces of data they gathered was what subordinates felt about their supervisors. Management was surprised to learn that many of the supervisors were not perceived by their subordinates as being very supportive. Management wanted to provide these supervisors with this information as part of a feedback on their performance but were concerned about how the supervisors would handle this information and whether they would use it in a positive manner.

They asked outside consultants to develop a workshop that would help the supervisors understand the feedback information and deal with it in a positive way. They also wanted to provide any training they felt the supervisors would need to become more supportive.

In developing the one-day workshop, the consultants included an opportunity for supervisors to indicate barriers that prevented them from spending more time with subordinates (partial organizational analysis). They used easel sheets to document all the barriers. When this part of the workshop was completed, two of the four walls were covered with easel sheets identifying a multitude of things that were required of the supervisors, most of which prevented them from interacting with their subordinates on a regular basis. At the end of the session, top management was brought in to address these barriers with the idea of reducing a number of them so supervisors could have more meaningful time with their subordinates. Top management during this session agreed that there were likely a number of activities that could be curtailed or even stopped altogether, and they would set up a task force to deal with the issue.

Over a year later, the head of HR indicated that nothing had ever been done to reduce the workload. Furthermore, meetings supervisors were to have with their managers after the training session, to help them develop objectives and action plans on how to improve their relationship with subordinates never occurred.

A major complaint of supervisors is that they are swamped with busy work and too often do not have time to interact in a meaningful way with their subordinates. Unless this is addressed, any coaching efforts implemented are likely to fail. With all the good intentions top management showed in Training in Action 6-4, once the training sessions were over, commitments made were forgotten. This is why it is so important to identify concerns and change systems in the organization to facilitate new expected behaviors. What would you do in Training in Action 6-4 to assure follow through? First and foremost would be to be sure the task force met and came up with suggestions and those suggestions were implemented. That would reduce the workload. But what else? How about the performance appraisal process? There was nothing in the supervisor appraisals that mentioned coaching. Would it be wise to include something? What about promotions? At the time of the training promotions were based on maintaining productivity and there was no focus on how well a supervisor developed his subordinates. As Tim Brown, of Grant Thornton says:

The culture, starting at the top, must attach importance to developing people. Setting expectations through performance management processes and reinforcing them through rewards and recognition are critical for embedding these priorities in the culture, and managers need to be held accountable for supporting the development of their staff. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_052)

A partial list of the KSAs (from the operational analysis) required for a coach are as follows:

Have active listening skills

Skill at providing feedback in a positive way

Skill at developing behaviorally based objectives

Have a Theory Y orientation toward subordinates

Attitudes and Coaching In the person analysis you may �ind that some supervisors have some of the skills in the list as these are necessary to manage subordinates. However, something that is often not considered is attitude change. Clearly, to be an effective coach it would be good to have a Theory Y orientation. Supervisors with a Theory Y orientation believe that subordinates will exercise appropriate self-direction, feel positive about work, and respond positively to responsibility. On the other hand, the Theory X supervisor believes that subordinates dislike work and want to avoid it whenever possible. As you can see, supervisors with a Theory X orientation will supervise in a much more authoritarian manner and would be unlikely to be able to form a positive relationship with their subordinates. Theory Y supervisors, on the other hand, would supervise in a manner that helps subordinates achieve their goals.

Although we use theories X and Y (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_001) to explain an important attitude supervisors need to have, it is not necessary to use it. Simply put, a supervisor in the role of coach needs to feel that subordinates will work hard if given the support and tools necessary to do the job.

How to Use Coaching Effectively For coaching to be effective, a needs assessment related to the subordinates job should be conducted. Figure 6-1 outlines the basic questions that the supervisor should ask in terms of the subordinate’s job. Just as there were likely barriers in the supervisors job that got in the way of his interacting with subordinates, subordinates as well may have barriers that prevent them from performing at the appropriate level. Note the similarity of the items in Figure 6-1 to Figure 4-1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i53#ch04�ig01) (Section 4.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i53#ch04lev1sec3) ) in the discussion of needs analysis.

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Figure 6-1 Assessment of Coaching Needs

Once the supervisor is satis�ied that performance barriers have been removed, and resources necessary for effective performance are available, then the supervisor simply follows the steps laid out as bullet points on in the section on coaching above.

Mentoring Mentoring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_036) is considered to be a form of coaching in which an ongoing relationship is developed between a senior and a junior employee. Mentoring provides the more junior employee with guidance and a clear understanding of how the organization goes about its business and how the person being mentored can be effective. Whereas coaching focuses on the technical aspects of the job, mentoring focuses more on improving the employee’s �it within the organization. Thus, coaching emphasizes skill development, and mentoring focuses more on attitude development. Generally, mentoring is conducted only for management-level employees, though in some cases, it is applied at lower levels. In the past, mentoring was mostly informal, but more recently, some organizations have formalized the process. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_053) The concerns about untrained OJT trainers discussed earlier also apply to mentoring. The value of mentoring programs was made evident in a recent article in which a management “headhunter” observed that banking �irms without institutionalized mentoring programs were much more likely to experience dramatic defections of mid-level managers. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_054)

At the core of the mentoring process is individual responsibility for learning. The mentor provides insights and guidance, but the person being mentored must accept personal responsibility for setting objectives, developing strategies for learning, and evaluating outcomes. These are shared with the mentor and discussed. Ultimately, agreement in these areas forms the basis for the mentoring relationship.

How to Use Mentoring Effectively Several features characterize successful mentoring programs, all of which should be considered if mentoring is to be effective. These features include the following: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_055)

Top management support

Integration into the career development process

Voluntary involvement

Assignment of mentees to mentors

Relatively short phases to the program

An established orientation

Monitoring of the process

As in any organizational intervention, top management support is essential. Allowing mentoring activities to take place on company time is one way of sending the signal that these activities are important. Providing rewards to successful mentors is also a way of indicating that mentoring is a valued behavior.

Also, mentoring needs to be integrated into the overall career development process. It must be seen as an extension of the mentee’s development process. Internal access to training is needed, along with development programs and materials to supplement mentor–mentee activities. The mentor program must be voluntary. Forcing managers to take part in mentoring activities will do more harm than good. A reluctant mentor cannot provide the interest and motivation needed to assist someone in the organization.

It is helpful to assign mentors to mentees. Most formal mentor programs require a nominating procedure. Mentees are nominated by their supervisors and matched by the director of training to a mentor. It is a good idea to allow for switching, particularly if a match does not seem to be working.

Keeping each phase of the program short will help prevent potential mentors from being reluctant to take on mentoring responsibilities. Six-month cycles are enough time for a mentor to help a mentee in a signi�icant manner while not being tied to him inde�initely. Mentors who �ind the process successful will sign up for another stint.

Provide an orientation for mentors and mentees. This is a formal process by which they can meet and hear about what worked in the past and the role expectations for both parties in the mentoring relationship. The mentors should be allowed to work within their style and not be forced to follow a strict format. The orientation can feature successful past mentors who can describe how they took on and carried out the role. Presenting a few different approaches will reinforce the idea that it is not necessary to follow a speci�ic process.

Finally, it is important to monitor the mentoring process, as this is critical to its success. At speci�ic checkpoints, both parties can be surveyed about the progress of the mentee. This survey could take the form of a meeting to discuss what has happened, a request for mini reports on progress, or simply phone calls to ask how the process is working. Use this information to highlight successful mentoring relationships in company newsletters and other communications. This publicity will keep individuals motivated and the program visible. Plotting the career paths of mentees is another method of showing the success of the program.

Strengths and Limitations of OJT

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OJT is clearly a useful method for skill enhancement. Trainees learn their KSAs in the actual job situation; thus, transfer of training occurs naturally. An additional bene�it is that the OJT process will provide new employees with a rapid orientation to how the company operates. It also has the potential to develop a more positive relationship among older and newer employees and between supervisors and their subordinates.

A major concern in OJT is the competency of the trainer. The trainer must possess the technical competence, training competence, and motivation to train. Without all these characteristics, training is not likely to be successful. In addition, the organization must provide the trainer with enough time away from her regular job to do the training. This accommodation not only leads to better training but also demonstrates the organization’s commitment to its OJT program.

Cost OJT offers some clear cost advantages if it is done effectively. Both trainees and trainers are at the job site performing job activities. Although neither the trainee nor the trainer will be producing at full capacity, they are at least producing something. With other techniques, neither the trainer nor the trainee is engaged in producing the organization’s products or services while training is going on. Also, OJT does not require the purchase of expensive training materials such as simulators, games, or computer-based training modules. All the materials are part of the normal work equipment.

OJT also speeds up the learning process. No delay separates training from its application to the work situation. In addition, some evidence indicates that one-on-one training produces faster learning that is more resistant to forgetting. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_056) The more ef�icient the training, the less costly it is.

One cost concern in implementing OJT is the cost of training the trainers. Unlike other methods, for a start-up OJT system, most, if not all, of the trainers will need training. In addition, whereas other methods have one trainer for many trainees, this method uses one-on-one training. The drop in productivity from having the more skilled employees conducting training must be added into the cost. In addition, companies should expect some increased waste, breakage, and downtime because of inexperienced trainees operating the equipment. There is more about training trainers in Chapter 8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) .

Control of Content and Process The trainer primarily controls the content and process of learning in OJT during the “prepare” and “present” stages of training. As training progresses to the “try out” and “follow-up” stages, the trainee and trainer jointly control the content and process, because the trainee’s actions determine what the next learning module will be. The training moves as quickly or as slowly as necessary for the trainee to master the learning. Thus, if the trainee is in the “talk through” portion of trying it out and misses some steps, the trainer might again demonstrate how the job is done. If the trainee is able to “talk through” the steps correctly, the trainer might be ready to move to the “instruct the trainee” portion. However, if the trainee were to say, “You know, I was just guessing on some of those steps,” the trainer might repeat the “talk through” portion until the trainee feels con�ident of knowing all the steps.

Learning Objectives (KSAs) The primary focus of OJT is skill development, but OJT can also enhance the knowledge base of trainees and in�luence their attitudes. Through discussions with the trainer and through questioning and restating of techniques, the trainee can learn facts and procedures that are required on the job. However, classroom techniques and individual reading assignments are more ef�icient at this type of learning.

The attitudes that new employees hold about their jobs and their company come from observing and interacting with others. OJT provides a great opportunity to get employees off on the right foot by clarifying the norms, expectations, and culture of the work unit. Of course, accomplishing this task will depend on the ability of the OJT trainer to convey these properly to the trainee.

On a �inal note, if knowledge acquisition is required to perform the job, OJT techniques should be supplemented with other techniques—such as apprenticeship training— that are more suited to knowledge acquisition. For skilled trades, it is important to develop the skills of the trade; however, certain knowledge is a prerequisite for that skill development. For that reason, a signi�icant amount of classroom training is also required as a part of the training. Computer-based training, role-playing, reading of texts and manuals, and other techniques can all be combined successfully with OJT.

Learning Process Trainees are likely to be relatively more attentive and more motivated during OJT, because it is easier to see a direct relationship between the training and job performance. Verbal and visual stimuli direct attention to key learning points. Periods of active practice require the trainees to attend to what they are doing and what is being said, thus increasing the learning potential.

The visual, auditory, and tactile cues in OJT assist in the symbolic coding process, providing many relationships among objects and actions in the work environment. Through observation, practice, and discussion, the trainee cognitively organizes these relationships into easily recalled patterns of behavior.

By asking the trainee to describe the steps in the operation (before letting the trainee perform the operation), the trainer is facilitating the symbolic rehearsal process. The trainee must imagine himself going through the operations as he describes the procedures.

Behavioral reproduction, of course, is a strong point of this method. The trainee practices small portions of the operation until they are mastered. The trainee then moves on to larger portions until command over all the tasks that make up the job reaches the level needed to perform the job alone.

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6.7 Summary of Methods and When to Use Them While we have covered the different traditional methods in detail in the preceding sections, we thought it would be useful to provide a summary of the purpose of each of the methods and when it is appropriate to use them. Table 6-10 provides this summary.

Table 6-10 List of Methods, Purpose, and When to Use

Method Purpose When to Use

Lecturettes To convey knowledge To provide declarative or procedural knowledge

To provide instructions or other types of process information

Following a module or “chunk” of training to highlight the key learning points

Open Discussion To generate participation

To �ind out what participants think or have learned

To stimulate recall of relevant knowledge

After or during a lecturette

Following any experiential activity or small-group discussion

To facilitate participant symbolic coding and cognitive organization

Demonstrations To show how to do something or how something works

When a visual display and/or hands-on manipulation of objects is required

When both knowledge and skill are learning objectives

Small-Group Discussions To generate and/or provide a safer place to

test out ideas

To make use of collaborative learning related to the topic

To work through problems, issues, and concerns

To develop group cohesion

When participants need an opportunity to explore or test ideas

After a lecturette to assist participants with integrating and organizing the new material into their existing cognitive structure

After an experiential exercise to allow participants to explore lessons learned as they relate to the topic

To build relationships among the participants

Games and Simulations The methods below should be used in conjunction with the methods listed above and not as stand-alone methods.

 Equipment Simulators To provide the skills needed for the operation and/or maintenance of equipment

When using the actual equipment is not feasible (too expensive, dangerous, etc.)

 Business Games To enhance management skills

To improve decision-making skills

To explore and solve complex problems in a safe setting

To provide strategic knowledge

After required declarative and procedural knowledge has been acquired

When the complexity of the issues is relatively high

To motivate participants to learn

 Memory Games To provide participants with a review and/or refresher of key learning points

As an alternative fun way to review information

As a way to assess if the participants seem to be acquiring the knowledge

 In-Basket and Case Studies To develop decision-making skills that the

participant will need on the job When preparing employees for a new assignment (promotion or transfer)

When written information is suf�icient to convey the key aspects of the situation in which the decision must be made

 Role-Play To develop and provide practice with interpersonal skills appropriate to speci�ic situations

To experience what it feels like to be in a particular situation

After required declarative and procedural knowledge has been acquired

Only if quality feedback can be assured

If an opportunity to debrief the experience can be provided

Method Purpose When to Use

 Behavior Modeling To show participants what the appropriate and/or inappropriate behavior looks like

To allow participants to compare their behavior to that of the model.

To increase participants’ observational and critiquing skills

When skills are the object of the training

When a good model of the behavior is available or can be developed.

When there is ample opportunity for feedback

When feedback is of high quality

When there is ample opportunity to practice

 Task-Related Exercises or Activities To allow participants to work with the

material individually or in small groups

To enhance the likelihood of transfer to the job

At every opportunity. The key is to ensure the quality of the task/exercise and to provide an opportunity for debrie�ing when it is completed

On-the-Job Training Job Instruction Technique To provide a systematic process for teaching a

new employee how to perform the job Primarily used for skilled trades and clerical and technical jobs

Coaching To enhance managerial or executive competencies in speci�ic areas

When a manager needs individual assistance of a speci�ic nature

Mentoring To provide general advice to newly placed managers

When a manager needs periodic advice and someone to discuss issues with. Care needs to be taken in selection of the mentors.

6.8 Audiovisual Enhancements to Training Audiovisuals (AVs) can be useful enhancements for meeting all three types of training objectives (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) and are easily applied to any of the other methods discussed. Audiovisual aids (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_037) consist of any physical, mechanical, or electronic media used to provide or assist instruction. Typically, they are used as a supplement to other methods of training rather than as a stand-alone means of instruction, though some are effective training devices by themselves.

The range of AV alternatives is quite large, from simple chalkboard or whiteboard text and images to interactive multimedia presentations. They can be grouped under the headings of static or dynamic media. Static media (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_038) are presentations of �ixed (stationary) text or images such as printed matter, pictures/slides, and computer-generated projections. An AV is considered static if the material presented is stationary. Dynamic media (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_039) create sequentially moving stimuli, where the information is presented in a continuously moving progression from beginning to end, as with audiotapes and videotapes, computer-generated presentations, and moving �ilm.

Static Media Static media are generally not suitable for training as a stand-alone method. Rather, they are used to augment and enhance other methods—in particular the lecture method— but they also are adaptable to other training techniques.

Newsprint, Charts, and Posters Newsprint, charts, and posters display information through words or images. They range from handmade, with felt markers and newsprint, to professionally prepared glossy prints. An advantage of these presentations is that they can be posted on walls or other vertical surfaces so the information is visible to trainees while other training methods are in use (e.g., lecture, role-plays, video). For example, these media are frequently used to post an outline of the day’s training and to display procedural steps related to the training material. They allow trainees to place the material that is presented at any time into the context of the total program. Figure 6-2 shows a poster that could be used during con�lict resolution training. It might be left up during the entire training so that trainees are constantly reminded of the six steps the training focuses on. Posters and charts that the trainer knows will be used during training should be prepared before training and checked for accuracy. The credibility of the training and the trainer will suffer if errors exist.

Figure 6-2 Poster Example

Projected Text and Images Creating slides for projection requires text and images to be presented in a way that is visually pleasing while conveying the desired information. Computer-generated text and images, and those copied from published materials, can be pasted together to create attention-getting and informative projections.

Many popular of�ice software packages, such as those produced by Microsoft and Corel, contain presentation software components that create projections, discussion notes, and other training aids that can be integrated into the presentation. Once the projections are created and placed in proper order, they can be downloaded onto a portable storage device such as a USB drive or stored on a hard drive. During the training, the trainer will require a computer (typically a laptop or notebook) and a high-intensity digital projector. Most projectors will also project video images from a VCR, CD, or DVD player. The presenter can control the display of the projections with a mouse, clicking to move from one projection to the next, or time the presentation so that the image automatically advances to the next projection after a speci�ied period of time.

The purpose of static projections is to focus trainees’ attention on speci�ic content. In addition to displaying information, projections can aid the trainer in moving systematically through the components of the training. This feature is especially useful in training methods where the interaction between trainer and trainees might cause the trainer to stray from the training outline; the trainer can simply look to the displayed projection to get back on track.

Effective Use of Static Visuals Trainers tend to put too much information on slides. Guidelines for creating effective slides are as follows:

Present one idea or concept.

Print in large letters.

Limit to six or seven lines with six to eight words per line.

Use color for effect.

If using a pointing device, make sure to keep your focus on the trainees.

Make sure that the right image is being projected at the right time.

Make sure that everyone has a good line of sight to the screen.

Face the trainees, not the screen, when speaking. If necessary, turn to the visual aid to identify a point, and then turn back to the trainees to speak.

When using �lip charts or posters, you should keep the following in mind:

Remove or cover a visual aid when it is no longer being discussed.

When writing on newsprint, look at the trainees from time to time as you are writing; do not stand in front of the easel or face it.

For effective static visuals, the room setup must allow easy viewing by all trainees. Seating should be arranged to allow a clear sightlines, and the projector should not block the trainees’ view of the screen. Line of sight should also be clear for newsprint information. Here are some additional considerations:

1. Rehearse the presentation using the static visuals on the equipment in the room where training will occur. Doing so will reveal all the things forgotten about and the things not known (e.g., the circuit breaker for the outlet won’t handle the computer projection unit and the video equipment at the same time).

2. Bring extra equipment accessories such as extra projector bulbs, cables, extension cords, and easels to the training facility before training begins. Remember, Murphy’s Law applies to trainers, too. In fact, trainers face the following addendum: The more important the event, the more likely it is that things will go wrong. Extra precautions are always wise.

3. Arrive at the training site early, and check that all equipment is in working order. Make sure that visuals are ready to operate when training starts (overheads are in the correct order, right side up, computer-generated projections are ready, etc.).

4. Bring along an extra copy of your slide show for emergencies if using computer-generated projections.

Dynamic AV Methods Dynamic AVs include audiotapes, moving picture �ilm, videos, and computer-generated presentations. Dynamic visuals can also serve as aids to enhance other methods of training. However, unlike static visuals, these methods can be, and frequently are, used as the sole method of training.

Audiotapes Audiotape has the same characteristics as the straight lecture. The only differences are that the audiotape is exactly the same each time it is used and provides no accompanying visual stimulus. Even though advances in video and computer-generated presentations reduce the popularity of audiotapes as training tools, they have an advantage in some situations. They are effective when the content of the training is primarily auditory recognition or auditory response. Almost 50 percent of companies with more than 50 employees use audiocassettes in their training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_057) One obvious instance is if the material to be learned requires speci�ic responses to auditory cues. Telephone and radio operators of all types (e.g., 911 emergency operators, taxi dispatchers, and customer-service line operators) can receive bene�icial training through audiotape playback that closely simulates the work environment. Learning a foreign language is also a fairly common use of audiotapes.

Audiotapes are also useful when other forms of training are not available. For example, audiotape training can be a productive use of the long hours that sales representatives spend in their cars.

Advantages of the audiotape over the lecture are its portability and its ability to be reused both for training additional people and for easy review and clari�ication by trainees. Also, if it is important that all trainees receive exactly the same information, an audiotape will be better than a lecture.

Videos Videos are good ways of both showing and telling trainees how to do something. They can present conceptual or factual information by integrating narration with visual illustrations, graphics, and animated depictions. In more sophisticated applications, they can be used in an interactive fashion. This medium is relatively portable and generally can be made available to trainees at their convenience through wireless devices. The many advantages offered by videos make it clear why 96 percent of companies with 50 or more employees used video for training in some fashion, second only to classroom instruction. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_058)

Videos can be used as a stand-alone training technique or in combination with other more interactive techniques. Many �irms use videos to enhance training in ways similar to those described in Training in Action 6-5, featuring Home Depot and APC. In the APC case, the video is used to show engineers how to perform speci�ic tasks. In the Home Depot example, video is blended with other training methods, some of which allow the trainee to interact with video.

6-5 Training in Action Using Video for Training Following are two examples of how videos are used to train employees working in two vastly different work environments.

The Home Depot, Inc. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_059) Most retailers have to keep employees up-to-date on rapid product change, but The Home Depot has an added challenge: Frontline workers also are expected to provide customers with information on how products can be used to complete home improvement projects. Basic product and project information is provided through e-learning modules. With store employees ranging in age from 18 to 70, the e-learning modules come with both audio and text onscreen. The ability to listen to key lessons, rather than read them, is helpful to all the generations as well as the multiethnic groups the company employs. To provide the skills needed to interact effectively with customers, the coursework has to have components where trainees are able to apply what they’re learning. This hands-on approach allows workers to actually touch, feel, and do things with the products. The delivery of training is speeded up through what it calls “Rapid Web-Based Training.” It is video-based e-learning in which the screen is divided into three sections. One part of the screen features a video, the second a PowerPoint presentation, and the third a program options menu. Customer interaction is simulated with all the products. Each module takes about 15 minutes to complete, so it’s very convenient in the fast-paced retail world where learners can be scheduled to take that training before or after their shift.

American Power Conversion Corp. (APC) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_060) APC is a global provider of network-critical physical infrastructure solutions and is based in West Kingston, Rhode Island. Field-service engineers provide maintenance and implement procedural changes. In the past, a training team at APC would compose lengthy text-based technical information bulletins for the maintenance and procedural changes and communicate these to �ield-service engineers. Though these text-only bulletins met stringent criteria, the �ield- service engineers had a dif�icult time comprehending and visualizing the recommended solution. They would frequently call in to request additional

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information and clari�ication. To address this problem, APC implemented the Video Information Bulletin program in June 2006. In each bulletin, trainers would demonstrate the skills and tasks required to perform each procedure. The videos were then incorporated into Flash-based e-learning modules that are supplemented by more detailed, text-based bulletins—both of which can be accessed from the �ield via wireless-enabled laptops. In tying this program back to corporate goals, APC has seen return on value in three areas: customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, and pro�itability. The number of calls to the training team from those in the �ield asking for help and further explanation regarding how to perform new and/or complex procedures also decreased signi�icantly.

Computer-Generated Dynamic Presentations With the ability to project computer screen images onto a large screen and the increasing ability to digitize sound and images electronically, the computer is rapidly becoming a critical training tool. Multimedia software allows computers to store, modify, and recon�igure sound, images, and text, to create nearly any combination of audio and visual presentation. Developing a computer-generated dynamic presentation (CGDP) does require considerably more hardware and software knowledge than do the presentation software packages discussed earlier. The development process is similar to that of producing a video but also includes converting all the components into digital media. As with video productions, it is advisable to use professionals to ensure the quality of the presentation. This method is discussed in more depth in Chapter 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) under “Interactive Multimedia Training.”

Effective Use of Dynamic Media How close to the AV equipment should trainees sit to view the material adequately? A rule of thumb (whether static or dynamic visuals are used) is one foot of trainee distance from the screen for every inch of screen size. Thus for a 32-inch TV screen, the maximum distance that trainees should be from the screen is about 32 feet. Sound can be a problem if the room is not wired and the TV is not adaptable to external speakers. Adequate volume for those who are seven feet from the TV will be too low for those who are 32 feet away, and making the sound adequate for those who are furthest away can make it too loud for those in the front. One solution is to create a semicircle around the TV, although this arrangement limits the number of people who can be seated comfortably. Learning to operate the equipment is also more dif�icult than with the other methods. Little skill is required to operate an overhead or slide projector. Signi�icantly more skill is required to operate computer- or image-projection equipment.

As with anything mechanical, it is important to try the system before training begins. Arrive early to check out all the equipment. Be sure that remote controls for lights, video, and so on, are operating and that you understand how they work. Put the equipment through a trial run. Have a backup for any video or disk that will be used. Video machines do eat tapes, and disks do crash. Most training facilities have more than one VCR and computer, which can be critical if an important part of training requires their use. Find out where the extra VCR is kept, carry a portable computer as a spare, or arrange for backup overheads. Breakdowns do happen. When you are using dynamic visual aids, keep these points in mind:

Turn off or blank the screen of the TV, computer, or other visual aid when it is not in use.

Keep the line of sight to visual aids unblocked. If the group is large, use two TVs placed in strategic locations, connected to the single VCR.

Turn the lighting up when talking about or discussing an issue (even for a short time) between the visual presentations. Do not attempt to discuss issues in a darkened room.

Strengths and Limitations of AVs Static AVs are one-way communication techniques and should rarely, if ever, be used as stand-alone training tools. The only exception is printed material, such as books or pamphlets, which can be used alone if the material is simple and straightforward. This use typically occurs as self-study material and not as part of a formalized training program. Static media cannot demonstrate how to use the material, answer questions, or allow for interaction between the trainee and trainer, so their value is greatest as a supplement to other methods. As they are generally not useful as a stand-alone training method, we will compare static visuals with each other and with dynamic AV methods.

Cost

Static AVs An advantage of static AVs is their lower development costs. Costs range from low (�lip charts, and computer-generated projections) to moderate (photographic slides and professionally prepared posters). Implementation costs range from low (�lip charts) to high (computer-generated projections). The high implementation cost is entirely a result of the cost of equipment. Overhead projectors are relatively inexpensive (several hundred dollars), slide projectors are slightly more, and computer image projectors (requiring a relatively sophisticated system) can range from $1,500 to $10,000. Of course, all this equipment is amortized across the training sessions in which it is used, so even the most expensive projection devices might be only a minor factor in the total cost of training.

Static visuals are reusable, so a trainee who did not understand something the �irst time can look at it again and again. It is not necessary, however, for the trainee to use the original materials. For a minimal cost, computer-generated projections can be copied to paper and given as handouts; slides are more expensive to convert. Providing these handouts will help address any moderate-to-small differences in learning readiness among trainees.

Computer-generated projections provide a unique advantage because they are stored electronically. Any given display can be modi�ied easily by adding or removing text and images. This reduces the cost of program modi�ications or adaptations. Slides, on the other hand, would need to be completely redone. For example, assume that 30 photographic slides are produced for training human resource clerks in the proper procedure for processing a worker’s compensation claim. It is not likely that these slides would be much use in training supervisors about how to handle a workplace accident, even though worker’s compensation claims are closely related. If computer-generated projections had been used, the original projections could be easily modi�ied to delete irrelevant material and include the new material. Likewise, if six months later, the government rewrites the worker’s compensation laws, it will probably be necessary to replace most of the slides for the HR clerks rather than modifying the existing slides. Technological advances in computer imaging and projection make slides less and less viable as static visual aids.

Dynamic AVs Using a professional video production company is expensive. A completed video can cost from $700 to $1,200 per minute (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_061) or more, but it is often worth the cost because of the professional appearance of the video. Even developing in-house videos is fairly expensive, given the cost of labor, equipment, and so on. Developing an original CGDP can require even greater up-front costs than producing a video, because each component of the multimedia package must be developed, digitized, and then integrated into a coherent, logically �lowing package. The cost of development is reduced if the training components can be developed digitally in the �irst place.

Although the up-front cost is high, the per-person cost of producing a video can be low if the trainee population is large enough. Videos, �ilm, and CGDP are portable and reusable. Videos and CGDPs are easily and cheaply duplicated, enabling many trainees in different places to see them at any time, or one trainee to see them many times. This capability is valuable for refresher courses or for trainees who learn at a slower pace. Because of their reusability, the development cost can be spread over a large number of trainees, thus reducing the per-trainee costs.

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When they are used for stand-alone training, the biggest advantage of videos and CGDPs is that trainees can view or study at their convenience. This capability can have signi�icant cost and time savings because the trainees and trainers do not have to travel to the presentations. For example, ADC Communications estimated that it would cost about $150,000 to bring the company’s 60 salespeople to the Minneapolis headquarters for a week of sales training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_062) By using stand-alone video training, this cost was eliminated. Since most employees can use VCRs and TVs in their homes, the company is not required to buy much equipment. The company should, however, provide on-site equipment to those employees who do not own the equipment or whose home environment is not conducive to learning. CGDP does not offer this equipment cost advantage because the employees do not likely own the necessary hardware and software.

Finally, if employees view the tape at home or during free time at work, the productivity savings are substantial. If trainees must travel more than 200 miles to reach a centralized training location, they lose not only their productivity for the time at training but also one or two days of travel time.

One way to cut the cost of video training is to rent or buy a video from commercial producers. A large number of commercially available training videos cover a wide variety of topics. Also, some videos and �ilms produced primarily for entertainment can be used effectively in training. We used segments of the classic �ilm Twelve Angry Men (a �ilm about a jury’s deliberations during a criminal trial) to illustrate the problems and bene�its of consensus decision making. Small portions of the movie Falling Down can illustrate various risk factors and warning signs for workplace violence. TV broadcasts can be used in a similar fashion. For example, textbook publishers now provide, as accompaniments to their textbooks, videocassettes containing segments of news programs and TV specials that relate to the content of the text.

Equipment costs vary across the media used. A �ilm requires a projector and a screen for presentation, and a video requires a VCR and a TV. Videos can also be projected onto large screens with a video projector. The technology is rapidly improving, and state-of-the-art projectors (costing about $4,000) can display large-screen images. This capability overcomes one of the disadvantages of the TV video, which is that only a small group of trainees can easily see it at the same time.

Control of Material and Process

Static AVs Generally, computer-generated projections are more easily controlled by the trainer than are other static visuals. The sequence of projections can be structured so that material is displayed only when the presenter begins to discuss it. Text can be programmed to fade into and out of the projection with a click of the mouse. The mouse can also be used to point to or highlight particular parts of the projection. Finally, worry about slides or overheads getting out of order, being upside down, and the like is eliminated. The whole visual presentation is contained on a single �loppy disk, so it is more easily transportable than slides or overheads.

Although computer-generated projection offers many advantages, it also comes with a major disadvantage—it suffers all the potential problems of computer technology. Hard drives crash at inopportune times, �loppy disks are not readable by the operating system, viruses abound, and software and disk-formatting compatibility issues must be solved. To avoid most of these problems, take a portable computer to the training site, but make sure that a compatible backup is available. Of course, carrying a laptop reduces the convenience of having to carry only a single �loppy disk.

Dynamic AVs The disadvantage of acquiring a commercially made video is that the information might not be speci�ic to the company or the training content, but rather must appeal to the largest audience. Such videos will likely need to be augmented with additional training relevant to the trainees. You can control the content and process of learning by selecting the appropriate video and creating the supplemental materials yourself.

The portability of dynamic AVs means that trainees can take them off the shelf and use them when convenient. To this extent, the trainee controls the learning process. However, many distractions may disrupt watching a training video or multimedia presentation at home. Here the training process is completely in the hands of the trainee, who can stop the presentation at any point and do something else. The desired level of learning might not be attained.

When video and CGDP are used as stand-alone techniques, the content and presentation format are controlled, but not the manner in which the trainee goes through the material. Especially with video, trainees may fast-forward over parts they do not understand or �ind boring, making evaluating learning particularly important when this training technique is used.

Learning Objectives (KSAs) Appropriately prepared and displayed AVs will enhance almost any training and are especially effective for techniques in which the trainee is less active, such as lecture/discussion and some types of computer-based training. However, the nature of the learning objective will determine which type of AV is best.

Knowledge Both static and dynamic AVs facilitate the trainee’s knowledge development through their ability to activate or enhance learning processes. AVs focus trainee attention and provide visual stimuli that aid symbolic coding and cognitive organization. They are also useful for highlighting cues that will stimulate appropriate recall. AVs are most effective at enhancing declarative knowledge but can also be useful in developing procedural knowledge. Dynamic AVs are more suited than are static AVs for developing procedural knowledge because they can model the steps required to perform the task and display several different situations in which the task is appropriate.

Skills Static presentation of information is not especially useful for skill building because it does not lend itself to facilitating development or practice of skills. Dynamic presentations, however, can be useful in skill development and practice, and foreign language audiotapes use this approach. Dynamic AVs can also make it easier to simulate the work environment. Police departments might use a �ilm or video to place the trainee in the position of searching a building for an armed and dangerous suspect. The trainee must make decisions about what to do in several different situations, such as the sudden appearance of objects and people or entering a room that has a closed door.

Another AV technique increasingly being used is videotaping the trainee’s performance during practice and using the video as feedback for skill improvement. Even though dynamic AVs can provide good models and instructions for skill development, they usually are not capable of providing feedback, so they should not be used as stand-alone methods. Interactive videos and CGDP provide the exceptions to this rule.

Attitudes Static and dynamic AVs, used in conjunction with other techniques, can facilitate attitude change by visually clarifying the relationships among objects and events that are the basis of trainee opinions and evaluations. For example, the Domtar plant in southern California used static visuals to display the consequences of not following correct safety procedures. This manufacturer of construction products used graphic displays of eye injuries in a safety training program to develop positive attitudes about wearing safety goggles. It also used pictures of employees working on various equipment. Some pictures showed employees wearing goggles, and some showed employees not wearing safety goggles. Trainees were asked to identify the potential hazards to the individual in each picture. The process allowed the trainees to make the proper links between wearing the goggles and protecting themselves from injury. It is interesting to note that this plant won many safety awards from both the company and the state. The ability to provide visual documentation of the relationship between objects and events is a powerful source of learning and attitude change. Beliefs such as “Wearing goggles is uncomfortable and unnecessary” are often reinforced by cognitive distortions and rationalization. Statements such as “If you’re careful, you don’t need goggles” and “I’m too experienced to

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get an eye injury” are examples of the kind of rationalizations heard at the Domtar plant before training. The trainer’s words alone might not be suf�icient to change attitudes. Visual displays allow the trainees to see that their distortions and rationalizations are inaccurate, making a change in attitudes easier to accomplish. Dynamic AVs can produce even more powerful images because the connection among objects, actions, and consequences can be made even more explicit.

Learning Process

Attention The saying, “A picture is worth a thousand words,” re�lects the importance of visual representation in the learning process. Static visuals provide the trainee with a visually based message, even if the image is simply enlarged text. Visual stimuli focus the trainee’s attention when they represent a change in the environment. No matter how professional a trainer’s voice and image are, they can become familiar to the trainees after a period of time. When familiarity occurs, it becomes easier for the trainee’s attention to wander. The periodic presentation of new visual stimuli activates the attention process. If the visuals are consistently similar in format (e.g., all text, black print, same font size), they too will lose their ability to attract attention. Combining graphic images, charts, and text, and varying color to highlight key learning points, will add zest to the training and maintain trainee attention. With dynamic AVs, the dynamic nature of the presentation itself attracts attention because it is constantly changing.

The trainer should be careful that all AVs are integrated with the content of the training. When they show little relationship to the content, they become distracting and can actually reduce learning. This distraction can also occur if the trainer fails to manage the presentation of the visuals properly, such as incorrectly moving to the next slide, standing in front of the screen, or otherwise interfering with the normal viewing of the visual. Trainees often begin to pay attention to the trainer’s management of the presentation rather than to the content of the presentation, thus reducing learning.

Retention Because different trainees learn more or less effectively through different media, the use of AVs provides additional modalities for learning. When several media are used to convey the same message, the message is more easily coded for storage and contributes more reference points. In general, visual communications are absorbed more quickly and retained for a longer time than are auditory messages. Visual images are also more readily coded symbolically and recalled in their original form. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_063)

The symbolic coding process is enhanced when pictures or graphic images provide visual cues that supplement or complement auditory or written cues. Combining cues from different senses results in more accurate symbolic coding and thus better retention. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch06biblio_064) Showing several different images, all pertaining to the same issue, presents trainees with a wider base of common cues to use in storing the information. AVs are also extremely good for demonstrating events and effects not usually observable or noticed. For example, enlarged images of tiny or microscopic objects are useful in many training settings. In the safety training example discussed earlier, trainees could see the effects of not wearing goggles. Eye injuries are often not easily observable, but the visual projections used in the training allowed the trainees to see what actually happened to the eye and what damage tiny bits of material can do. By making objects and effects visible, symbolic encoding becomes much easier.

Cognitive organization can be facilitated by graphic images that demonstrate how the training relates to familiar concepts. Pictorially representing these relationships makes integrating the new with the old easier than using verbal descriptions alone does. Integration is likely to be easier and faster if the trainer is able to represent visually both the old cognitive organization and the new, showing the changes required. To the degree that the trainees’ cognitive structures are different from one another, creating visual representations of them all is dif�icult. However, it can be accomplished by asking trainees to develop pictorial representations of their cognitive organization on �lip charts. They can then compare these representations with the new organization being presented. For example, suppose that jobs in a work group were redesigned because of a change in how the product is produced. During training, trainees could map out how the old job was performed. Then, after presenting the new work procedures, the trainer could compare the old with the new and identify the areas for which the new KSAs provided by the training will be needed.

Using AVs in training provides a common reference for all trainees. When you ask the trainees to “picture this” or “imagine you are. . . ,” each trainee might hold a different image, but when you provide the image, they all receive the same sensory cues. When the trainees later recall the image, the frame of reference will be similar for all. Though a differential loss of information and detail is likely to occur across trainees, the basis of the recalled information is the initial image that is provided.

AVs can be somewhat useful in aiding symbolic rehearsal. They provide visual cues that trainees can use to practice hypothetical applications of the training material. This process works in much the same manner as behavioral reproduction (described next). The difference is that in symbolic rehearsal, the trainees are only imagining themselves applying the new learning. The AVs can help create the context in which the symbolic rehearsal takes place, and it provides cues to assist in the symbolic rehearsal (as in guided discovery).

Behavioral Reproduction AVs can be used to enhance the learning of a new behavior. By illustrating what to do, AVs can provide a model of how to perform. This modeling is usually accomplished best with dynamic AVs. Static or dynamic AVs can also be used to provide the appropriate cues for when to perform. For example, sometimes cue cards are given to trainees when they are practicing new behaviors. These aids need to be present and visible when the new behavior is �irst being practiced. In the training facility, supplying these cues shouldn’t pose a problem. However, to allow opportunities for reproduction outside the training environment, the visual images must be easily portable. Many training programs provide pocket- or wallet-sized cards (static visual aid) to help trainees practice the new material back on the job. As we mentioned earlier, videos and CGDPs are portable but require equipment that might not be compatible with the trainee’s workstation (particularly line employees). AVs cannot observe the trainee’s performance and provide appropriate feedback. Thus, although AVs can enhance behavioral reproduction, they are limited as stand-alone tools for this type of learning.

The big advantage of CGDPs is that each component of the training can provide the AV format best suited for meeting the objectives of that component. Some of these multimedia packages are now interactive, allowing the trainee to respond to and even pose questions, thereby partially eliminating the one-way communication limitation of standard videos and static AVs. With interactivity comes two-way communication, though the limitations discussed earlier about the quality and type of interaction should be kept in mind.

Limitations for Learning The principal limitation of static visuals is that they are typically not stand-alone learning tools. They are best used as enhancements to other methods. Because they are static, they cannot capture the full range of material that is dynamic. Even though it is possible to capture the essence of some types of dynamic material, such as the “steps in con�lict resolution” or “tips for providing constructive feedback,” dynamic AV media generally will perform this task more easily and with higher quality. Except for the most sophisticated dynamic AVs (i.e., interactive CGDP), they cannot adapt to differing characteristics of the trainees or the situation. It is a “one-size-�its-all” technique. If trainees do not have the KSAs to learn from the AVs, they will not learn no matter how many times they reuse it.

Trainee Characteristics Obviously, the trainees must be able to understand the AVs. This point may sound fairly trivial, but it is often overlooked. For example, the poster in Figure 6-2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i93#ch06�ig02) assumes that the trainees can read. If the trainees are managers, it is a pretty safe assumption. However, if they are line employees in an assembly plant, problems may arise. Not only must trainees be able to read, but they must also be able to understand the terms. Even all managers might not know what the trainer means by “actively listen,” “be assertive,” or “reconsider the problem.” Displaying this poster without de�ining all the terms might create confusion for the trainees. The issue of understandability applies to all AVs, both static and dynamic.

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When wide differences in trainee readiness levels are present, AVs aimed at the highest level of KSAs might not be understandable to those at the lower level. If they are aimed at the lowest level, they will seem unnecessary and boring to those at higher levels. If a dynamic AV is being used as a stand-alone program, it is probably best to provide separate training AVs customized to the readiness level of each group.

Summary This chapter focused on nonelectronic training methods. We described the process of using the method effectively and the method’s ability to meet KSAs learning objectives. These methods are included in a summary (Table 6-1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06table01) ) at the beginning of this chapter. Please note that this table represents a general guide. More speci�ic information is provided in the relevant sections of this chapter.

Learning objectives are a critical factor in designing a training program, but other factors such as cost, control of training content, and learning processes also need to be taken into account. This chapter discussed the non-computer-based training methods in terms of their advantages and disadvantages as they relate to the above factors. In most cases, organizations need to make trade-offs between effectiveness at meeting the learning objectives and the cost of the method or the time required to develop it into a usable training program.

Key Terms Apprenticeship training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term01)

Attitudes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06term02)

Audiovisual aids (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i93#ch06term03)

Behavior modeling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term04)

Behavioral methods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06term05)

Business games (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term06)

Case study (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term07)

Closed-ended question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term08)

Coaching (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term09)

Cognitive methods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06term10)

Demonstration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term11)

Direct question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term12)

Dynamic media (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i93#ch06term13)

Equipment simulators (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term14)

Guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term15)

In-basket technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term16)

Incident process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term17)

Job instruction technique (JIT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term18)

Knowledge (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06term19)

Lecture/discussion method (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term20)

Lecturette (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term21)

Mentoring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term22)

Multiple role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term23)

On-the-job training (OJT) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term24)

Open-ended question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term25)

Overhead question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term26)

Physical �idelity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term27)

Psychological �idelity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term28)

Relay question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term29)

Reverse question (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term30)

Role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term31)

Role rotation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term32)

Single role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term33)

Skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i88#ch06term34)

Spontaneous role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term35)

Static media (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i93#ch06term36)

Straight lecture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i89#ch06term37)

Structured role-play (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i90#ch06term38)

Theories X and Y (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06term39)

Questions for Review 1. Supervisors often resist taking on the role of coach. What can organizations do to encourage supervisors to be effective coaches?

2. Go through the different instructional methods and sort them into those that you think would be most useful in training someone on the technical aspects of the job and those that would be most useful in the more social aspects of the job. Provide the rationale for your decisions.

3. Why are classroom-based training programs (lecture/discussion, role-play, games, etc.) used so much more than individualized approaches to training? Do you think this choice is appropriate?

Exercises 1. Your instructor will assign you (or your group) to one of the methods from the chapter. Contact the HRD department of a local business. Indicate that you are learning

about training and would like to know whether the department uses the method in its training programs. If so, ask if you can schedule a time to observe the method being used. If the method isn’t used or if you are unable to observe it, try other companies until you are successful. While observing the method, take careful notes on how it is used. On a date speci�ied by your instructor, the class members will report their observations.

2. In small groups, develop a role-play. First, determine the objective of the role-play (a limited one that can be achieved in 15 to 20 minutes). Then develop all aspects of a role-play that will achieve your objective.

3. Take 10 minutes to think about your best classroom-based learning experience, and list the things that made it such a good experience. When the 10 minutes are up, use 10 additional minutes to think of your worst classroom-based learning experience, and list the factors that made it such a bad experience. At the end of this time, the instructor will ask you to share your experiences.

Web Research Do an Internet search to identify the types of games and business simulations that are available. From your research, select four that list different learning content objectives. Prepare a one- to two-paragraph description for each.

Case Analysis: Training for Customer Service Specialists As a part of the president’s initiative to remove “barriers to learning” at a regional midwestern university, an analysis of student services operations was conducted. The analysis revealed that the barriers deemed most important by students were those that would delay or prevent them from registering for classes. These barriers fell into three areas:

1. Resolving issues relating to �ines accrued over the previous terms (e.g., library, parking, late fees)

2. Completing forms accurately and meeting processing deadlines for �inancial aid in time to enroll in classes

3. Acquiring appropriate advice so that they enrolled in the right classes (avoiding the problems associated with drops and adds)

As a result of this analysis, the university decided to create a new position called customer service specialist (CSS). The job description is presented here.

Classi�ication Speci�ication Supersedes: New Classi�ication Title: Customer Service Specialist Grade: PT08

General Summary Supervise, support, monitor, and assist with the continuous improvement of the work unit’s customer service functions and related operational activities. Ensure quality customer service, both in person and over the telephone. These activities require a working knowledge of the work unit’s program policies, procedures, and regulations and an understanding of other departments and systems that interface with the work unit’s activities.

Essential Duties Personally provide and ensure that customer support staff provide positive customer service practices throughout the work unit, including greeting departmental customers in person or over the telephone, identifying their needs, obtaining necessary and appropriate information, and processing customer requests in a manner that will best meet the needs of the customer.

Monitor staff and ensure that customers perceive customer service support staff as treating them with courtesy, respect, tact, and a sincere desire to meet their needs.

Provide mediation and resolution to customer complaints and requests within delegated authority limits and consistent with departmental policies.

Communicate to customers the departmental policies and procedures related to their needs, and provide customers with the appropriate forms and instructions.

Design and implement systems to ensure that forms turned in by customers are the correct forms for their service request and that they are complete and as accurate as possible.

Work with the appropriate departmental administrator to identify the training needs of designated support staff in the work unit who provide direct customer service. Where called for, provide on-the-job training and coaching. Work with the designated department administrator to identify suitable training experiences for customer service support staff.

Recruit, interview, and make recommendations in the hiring of customer support staff.

Identify processes and procedures in the department that are causing problems for groups of customers (not individuals), and work with department management toward their improvement. Where authorized, implement improvements in systems, processes, and procedures that will increase the customer satisfaction capability of the department.

Develop and maintain a network of contacts with other university departments that commonly interface with the work unit.

Interact with other university departments to resolve a customer’s problem, or meet the customer’s needs.

Interpret and reconcile account records related to area of assignment.

Receive, read, and interpret correspondence, and determine proper handling.

Perform other related duties as assigned.

Supervision Received Supervision is received from the designated departmental administrator.

Supervision Exercised Supervision may be exercised, as determined by the appropriate departmental administrator, over customer service representatives, clerical support staff, and student support staff in the work unit who provide direct customer service.

Quali�ications Ability to read, write, interpret instructions, perform basic arithmetic, and communicate orally and in writing at a level typically acquired through the completion of a college degree is necessary.

Personal computing skills suf�icient to use word processing and spreadsheet applications and to perform �ile management and data input/retrieval functions are necessary. Knowledge of speci�ic software applications and university information systems utilized in the work unit assigned is desirable.

Supervisory skills needed to provide direction to subordinates, monitor and manage subordinate performance, and to plan, organize, and coordinate the customer service activities are required, and supervisory experience is desirable.

Preference is given to those who master basic customer service and problem-solving skills as listed:

The ability to communicate accurately and pleasantly with customers (across a wide diversity of cultural backgrounds) is necessary to identify customer needs and solve customer problems.

The ability to communicate moderately to highly complex policies, procedures, and regulations and to ensure understanding of these while working under pressure (e.g., handling several requests at the same time) is required.

Effective problem-solving abilities are required to (1) identify and prioritize customer service problems, (2) conduct a root cause analysis to determine the cause(s) of a problem, (3) develop a range of alternatives that will remove the cause(s) of a problem, (4) identify the alternatives that are most effective, and (5) develop an implementation plan for carrying out the alternative selected.

Effective con�lict management skills are required (e.g., defuse emotionally charged situations, clearly identify issues, and clearly communicate procedures for resolving the issue, and working with the customer to develop a resolution acceptable to the customer and the work unit).

Knowledge and understanding of university, state, and federal policies, systems, procedures, and regulations as they pertain to the work unit’s ability to meet customer needs and to areas of the university that interface with the work unit in meeting those needs.

Those hired without the preceding competencies will undergo training before assuming job responsibilities. During the training period, these individuals will be considered temporary employees. Upon successful completion of the training, the classi�ication will be changed to permanent. Failure to complete training successfully will result in termination of employment or reassignment to another position, at the discretion of the university.

Working Conditions Work is performed in a typical of�ice environment.

After the position was posted and advertised, 25 applicants were selected. Unfortunately, only seven applicants were assessed as demonstrating the desired level of problem-solving and customer service knowledge and skills.

Case Questions You are assigned the challenge of designing the training program for the temporary CSS employees, who must complete training before they become permanent CSS employees.

1. What are the training objectives for the CSS training program? Indicate how these objectives are tied to the KSA requirements. Assume that all trainees have college degrees but need KSAs in all other areas listed in the Quali�ications section.

2. On the basis of the training objectives, provide a training agenda and indicate the time allocated and order of modules in your program.

3. For each module, describe the goals of the module and the training methods you will use to accomplish it. Provide your rationale.

4. How will you evaluate whether each person in your training program has mastered the knowledge and skill levels needed to perform as a CSS? Describe the types of questions you would ask of those supervising the CSS employees graduating from your program.