Bus 680 wEEK 6 FINAL WORK

Five Training Design

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify three constraints a human resources department (HRD) might face in the design of training, and what might be done to deal with each.

Describe the purpose of learning objectives, the criteria for evaluating such objectives, and the advantages of developing these objectives.

List the reasons that learning objectives are a bene�it to the trainee, training designer, trainer, and training evaluator.

Use expectancy theory to explain how to motivate a trainee to attend training.

Describe social learning theory and how it helps in the design of training.

Identify what to include in training to facilitate transfer of training to the workplace.

Identify the help that supervisors, peers, and trainers can provide back on the job to assist in the transfer of training.

Explain the relationship between the Gagné–Briggs theory of instruction and social learning theory.

Use elaboration theory and the Gagné–Briggs theory of instructional design to design a training session.

Describe the advantages a small business has to facilitate the transfer of training.

5.1 Case: The Real World of Training . . . What Is Wrong Here?

Case 1 Mechanics from dealerships across the country attended a three day training session put on by the manufacturer. The cost of the training, including travel and lodging was split between the manufacturer and the dealerships. The focus of the training was on the electrical systems in three lines of automobiles. Given the number of trainees, it would have been too expensive to provide three automobiles for each mechanic to work on and it would be nearly impossible to �ind a facility large enough to do so. So the training was designed for the instructor to give instruction on the various systems and then to pose various problems that might occur. The trainees would then try to identify the symptoms that would result. For example, the problem might be given as “The car has a burned-out capacitor.” The trainees would then try to identify the symptoms that would appear (e.g., High current surge demands on the vehicle’s electrical systems can damage the electrical system, including the battery, alternator and voltage regulator.). The training covered a wide range of electrical problems and the mechanics rated the program highly as they left. When doing a follow-up evaluation, the training director was disappointed to learn that the dealerships reported that their mechanics showed no improvement in trouble shooting electrical problems.

Case 2 You are the training director for a training program designed to prepare people to become certi�ied as program managers. The training is divided into �ive sections. Each section consists of two days of training for each of four weeks. Each section has a different trainer who is an expert in the content of that section. At the end of each week, the trainees take a test to measure what they have learned. You’ve just reviewed the results of the last four cohorts to have completed the training. You are surprised to notice that the trainees did poorly on the �irst exam but then did considerably better on the second and third exams. Then the trainees did poorly on the fourth, but improved on the �ifth and sixth. This trend continued throughout the 20 weeks, even for the brightest trainees. You wonder “What is going on here?

5.2 Introduction to the Design of Training The design phase of training is a process of identifying the set of speci�ications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules. It creates the guidelines that need to be followed when creating the content, delivery process and materials to be used for the training. In the simplest terms, the design phase answers the following questions:

Why is training needed?

Who will be trained?

What are the training objectives, and what methods will be used?

When and where will training take place?

What are the overarching guidelines that need to be followed to facilitate the learning of the material and its transfer to the job?

The model of the design phase at the start of the chapter provides an overview of the process and guides our discussion in this chapter. The training needs analysis (TNA) results, along with organizational constraints and learning theories, are the inputs into the design phase. These inputs are used to determine the learning objectives (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_001) —the process part of the model. The �irst of the three outputs for this phase is to determine the factors that facilitate learning and transfer of training, which is discussed in this chapter. Learning theory is used for identifying how to best facilitate learning and transfer. The other two outputs that come from the design phase are discussed in separate chapters. Identifying the most appropriate method of instruction is discussed in Chapters 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) and 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) . Determining the methods for evaluating the training is discussed brie�ly here, and in much more detail in Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) .

In summary, training needs, and an understanding of the constraints placed on the training process are the inputs into the �irst step of the design phase—developing objectives. The objectives you develop are then used to drive the rest of this phase and subsequent phases (development, implementation, and evaluation). Decisions we make about how best to facilitate learning and transfer integrate what we know about how people learn (learning theory) with what they need to learn (training objectives). From there, we move on to the next phase and develop the appropriate training, taking into consideration the constraints (money, time, facilities, etc.) we face. Suppose that an HRD department completed a TNA that identi�ied that supervisors need training in effective communication skills. Objectives for the training would be developed on the basis of speci�ic KSAs that were required for effective performance. These objectives would identify what the training is to achieve. But, before developing the objectives, the organizational constraints need to be addressed (you need to know the constraints in order to develop realistic objectives). So, we must address the following types of issues:

Time allotted for the training

Number of trainees to be trained at the same time

Timing of the training—regular hours or overtime

Voluntary or mandatory training

Location of the training

Identi�ication of training program personnel

Financial resources needed

Organizational constraints will in�luence many of these decisions. For example, if the HRD department does not have the resources to develop the program, or if supervisors cannot be off the job for more than a half-day, then these factors will help shape what the training will look like and how it will be offered.

Organizational Constraints In a perfect world, it would be possible to develop the perfect training program for every training need identi�ied. For supervisors who need effective communication training, you could develop a two-week intensive training package using the most effective methods with plenty of practice built in. Reality prevails, however, and you must consider the constraints on training design. Many of these constraints in�luence the type of training that can be offered. Table 5-1 provides a list of some of these constraints and various ways to approach training design on the basis of these constraints. This list is not exhaustive and serves only as an example of the ways in which organizational constraints affect the methods and approaches used to meet the

Table 5-1 Some Organizational Constraints and Ways of Dealing with Them

Constraint Suggestion for How to Handle

Need high level of simulationa (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05fnt01) because:

 Law (�ire drills)

 Task is critical to the job (police �iring a gun) Incorporate longer lead times to prepare simulations/ role-plays.

 Mistakes are costly (airline pilot) Purchase simulators.

Differences among trainees

 Trainees vary in amount of experience Consider modularization.

 Trainees have large differences in ability levels Use programmed instruction—Have high level of trainer–trainee interaction.

 Mix of employees and new hires trained on a new procedure Consider different training programs because of possible negative transfer for employees but not for new hires.

Long lag between end of training and use of skill on the job Distribute practice through the lag. Provide refresher material or models for the employees to follow.

Short lead time Use external consultant or packaged training.

Bias against a type of training (e.g., role-play) Develop proof of effectiveness into the training package. Use another method.

Few trainees available at any one time Use electronic-based training.b (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05fnt

Small organization with limited funds Hire consultant or purchase training—Join consortium.

a (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#r__ch05fnt01) This constraint results when you are forced to provide a more costly training program involving simulators or costly practice sessions, and so forth.

b (�ilech05.xhtml#r__cch05fnt02) There are a variety of e-learning approaches discussed in Chapter 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) that provide self-paced learning.

training needs. We discuss two major categories of constraints: organizational/environmental and trainee population. Each affects the issue of whether to train and the type of training that can be offered.

Organizational Priorities Budgets generally are limited, so choices must be made about who gets trained and what type of training they receive. One way of making these decisions is to use the strategic direction of the organization to set priorities. The strategic plan provides a rationale for determining who gets how much of what kind of training. Recall the Domtar case presented in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) . The “Domtar difference” was “tapping the intelligence of the experts, our employees.” The tactic for doing this was the introduction of Kaizen. Clearly, then, training dollars will be marked for such training given that it is a primary operating principle. The next decision is to determine whether Domtar plans to use internal resources for the training or hire outside consultants. Here, they decided to hire someone with the expertise and bring them in-house to oversee a major undertaking—the training of all employees in the Kaizen method. This is again based on an organizational constraint since the required expertise was not present in Domtar.

Even if the organization does not have a clear strategic plan in place, the top managers in human resources (HR) can establish priorities by meeting with senior executives. Such meetings help de�ine HR and HRD priorities and determine how to put resources in line with the direction of the company. A side bene�it is that the process might stimulate top management to engage in strategic planning.

The technological sophistication of the organization affects the type of training that can be offered. If, as in the Domtar case, there are many locations, and each location has access to computer networks or videoconferencing, the type of training you can offer will be different from that offered by an organization without these capabilities.

Decisions about training priorities also must follow the law. As discussed in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) , some training is mandated by law. For example, a 2010 study noted that 90 percent of organizations surveyed provided mandatory or compliance type training and 13 percent expected the amount they provide to go up. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_001) A little over 60 percent of this training is provided on line.

Budgeting for Training The budgeting process presented here is from the perspective of the HRD department that charges its customers (departments in the organization) for the services that HRD provides. Charging for services is occurring more frequently in organizations because HRD departments are being asked to justify their existence just like other departments. In fact, in some cases, they are expected to market their training outside and inside the organization. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_002) This budgeting process is, for the most part, similar to that used by an outside consultant bidding on a project. So, when providing estimates, understand that departments are competing for resources and that the estimate must be as accurate as possible. Otherwise, the department could lose the training to an outside consultant or have the training cancelled due to cost.

1

2

In creating a budget for a particular training program, estimates of training cost can be dif�icult to determine accurately. Because the budget estimate is often expected before a needs assessment is completed (or even begun), providing budgets for several scenarios is helpful to decision makers. Before a TNA, there is not really a clear idea of what, or how much, training is required. So how to start? Begin with the triggering event, as explained in Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . Provide budget estimates for different training scenarios or deal with this issue the way it was done in the Fabrics, Inc., example presented at the end of Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . In the Fabrics case the consultant offered to do a TNA at a given cost, providing the company with a clearer idea of what would be required. To avoid any ethical issues the consultant offered to bid on any training that might result from the TNA in competition with any other consultants Fabrics might consider. The resulting bids would be more accurate because the issues were identi�ied and the type of training required would be clearer.

Once the objectives of training are determined, it is necessary to estimate the amount of time it will take to design and develop the training for delivery. The more accurate this estimate is, the more accurate the costing will be, and the more credibility the department will have with clients. The length of the training program (how long it takes to actually deliver the training) is often used for estimating the length of time to prepare. However, the ratio of preparation time to training time varies a great deal. It can range from 10:1, if much of the material is in some form of readiness, to 300:1, if it is computer-based, multimedia training with little already prepared. In many cases, when training is requested, the client wants a proposed training solution and its associated costs quickly.

We have provided a relatively easy and quick way to estimate the time required in developing a training program. This guide is shown in Table 5-2. To make a rough calculation of the length of time it will take to develop the training, begin by estimating the number of days of training that will be required. Typically this will be based on the amount of material that needs to be covered. However, sometimes a company will place a limit on the number of days or hours of training. Multiply that number by 2 as a starting point for the time it will take for designing and developing (D/D) the training. Then you need to factor in how skilled the person is who will be doing the D/D and how well they understand the subject matter. Circle the number in the right-hand column of rows 2 and 3 that is your best estimate of these characteristics. Then multiply the numbers in rows 1–3 together to get the minimum D/D estimate and enter that number in row M. Then go through items 4–10 and write down the number; this is your best estimate for that factor. Now, add up the numbers you have written down for rows 4–10, and put that number in the space next to Additional (A) Design/development Days Required. Add this number to the number you calculated for M. That is the approximate number of days it will take. Obviously, this is just an estimate, and the actual time required will depend on the accuracy of your estimates as well as other issues not addressed here. But it should give you a good general idea of the amount of design and development time you’ll need in order to deliver the program.

Table 5-2 Estimating the Time Required to Design and Develop Training

For lines 2-11, circle the number in the right hand box that re�lects the level of the factor for the training you are developing.

Factors to be considered Level of Time Required (smaller numbers 5 less time)

1. Number of Days of Training

Determine the amount of material that must be covered and convert that into the estimated days of training needed.

Typically you should �igure on 2 days of design/development (D/D) work for every day of delivered training.

Enter D/D days here _______

2. Designer/Developer’s Skill in Training Design/Development 1 = high 1.5 = medium 2 = low

3. Designer/Developer’s Understanding of Subject Matter 1 = high 1.5 = medium 2 = low

M Multiply the numbers for items 1, 2 and 3 and enter the result in the box to the right. This will give you an estimate of the number of days required.

Minimum (M) days

M 5______

4. Size of Largest Group to be Trained

(Little to no additional design/development time is needed when delivering the same training to multiple groups)

0 = small (less than 10)

1.5 = medium (10-25)

2 = large (26 or more)

5. Group’s Diversity of KSA in Topic Area 0 = very homogenous

1 = moderately diverse

2 = very diverse

6. Diversity of Learning Styles in Group 0 = very homogenous

1 = moderately diverse

2 = very diverse

7. Amount of Participation Needing to be Designed & Developed 0 = none 1 = some

2 = a moderate amount

3 = a great deal

8. Complexity of Training Material 0 = not at all complex

1 = moderately complex

2 = complex

3 = highly complex

9. Requirements for handouts and other AV material. Determine the number appropriate for your training, with “0” being the lowest and “3” the highest.

0 = simple Xerox sheets and basic AV material

3 = many professionally developed high grade manuals handouts and AV presentations

For lines 2-11, circle the number in the right hand box that re�lects the level of the factor for the training you are developing.

10. Degree of Client Collaboration and Input 0 = none

1 = minimal

2 = approval of each module

4 = multiple levels of approval needed.

11. Now Add items 4 through 10 and place total in the box to the right next to A This will give you the additional days necessary to complete the design and development of training.

Additional (A) Design/development Days Required

= _______

Total required time to design and develop the training is: M + A = _________

Note: Total D/D days required are arrived at by adding M (items 1,2, and 3 multiplied together) to A (total sum of lines 4–11).

Imagine calculating the bid on a one-day workshop on effective communication and the training designer is relatively inexperienced. Using Table 5-2, you check “low” for rows two and three. Your DD score will be 2 3 1 5 2, and your M score will then be 8 (2 3 2 3 2). Now let’s move down to box 4, the largest group you will train is 16 people (5 1.5). For box 5, you know the trainees are moderately diverse in their communication KSAs (5 1.5), and for box 6, you believe there are a very diverse range of learning styles (5 2). To improve skills you are going to have to have design/develop numerous ways of generating active practice as well as trainee participation in discussions. So, for box 7, your number will be three. For box 8, the training will be moderately complex (1). Your A/V materials (box 9) are going to be basic (slides, training manual, and handouts) so you would circle a 1 in this box. You will need to get approval (box 10) from the client on each module of the training (5 2). So, adding these together you have 12 additional days. Add this to the minimum you estimated at 8 days and you have 20 days of design and development work to produce a single day of training. As you can see it can take quite a bit of time to design and develop an effective day of training from scratch. However, your estimates will depend on the experience and resources available to your D/D person. A seasoned training design specialist has the advantage of her past efforts and a considerable amount of D/D time can be reduced by drawing on and using past efforts, or the efforts of other training designers within the organization. For example, the training might require a lot of participation and activities, but the seasoned designer wouldn’t have to design and develop these because she has already done this for previous training programs. All she will need to do is make some minor modi�ications to adapt them for this speci�ic training. The point here is that judgment will need to be exercised in assigning the numbers to the boxes.

A simple calculation on overall cost could be done on the basis of this information, but it might seem high to those not knowing what is involved in the development of training. So it is useful to have some sort of breakdown, as depicted in Table 5-3. With such estimates, it is a good idea to build in a contingency fund of about 10 percent, to help cover unforeseen costs. This portion is indicated under “miscellaneous.” The “rate” should include both the trainer’s fee and overhead costs. In the example depicted in Table 5-3, if the training were presented only once, the cost of designing and developing the training package would be $3,400. Remember that this is only part of the cost for the training. However, this is a one-time cost. If it is to be offered 10 times, then the total cost of the development can be amortized over the 10 sessions, making its cost per session or per employee much less. The cost in the table is based on using an internal design/development specialist making about $50,000/year. If an external consultant is used the cost would likely be �ive to ten times higher.

Table 5-3 Proposal for Developing a One-Day Workshop on Effective Communication

Action Time (Days)

Rate ($)

Total Amount ($)

Interview relevant employees to determine issues and context to develop training (or review needs analysis and follow up where necessary).

1 200 200

Develop objectives and guidelines for developing training, including identifying appropriate strategies to facilitate learning and transfer; also develop evaluation objectives.

3 200 600

Create content, organize module sequencing, organize content within modules, and so on. 3 200 600

Develop training materials on the basis of objectives. Develop exercises and activities to engage trainees and reinforce learning. 7 200 1,400

Develop basic training manual, handouts and so on. 1 200 200

Collaboration and miscellaneous expenses 2 200 400

Total cost for design and development 17 3,400

So far, we have dealt only with the developmental costs associated with training. Direct costs associated with delivering the training (trainer compensation, travel, facilities, food and beverages, and so forth), indirect costs, overhead costs, participant compensation, and evaluation costs must also be included to determine the total cost. For an example of a more inclusive estimate of the total costs associated with delivering a training program, see Table 5-4.

Table 5-4 Training Costs for Grievance-Reduction Training

Developmental Costs

1. 20 days of director’s time at $50,000 per year $ 4,000

2. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600

3. Materials $ 1,000

Direct Costs

1. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600

2. Training facility rental for 5 days at $150 per day $ 750

3. Materials and equipment $ 2,000

4. Coffee, juice, and muf�ins $ 600

Indirect Costs

1. 1 day of trainer preparation at $30,000 per year $ 120

2. 3 days of administrative preparation at $20,000 per year $ 240

Participant Compensation

1. 30 supervisors attending 5-day workshop (average $35,000/year) $ 21,000

Evaluation Costs

1. 6 days of evaluator’s time at $30,000 per year $ 720

2. Materials $ 800

Total Training Costs $ 32,430

Note: Calculations for the personnel costs are based on a 250-day work year.

Trainee Population What if the TNA identi�ies two or more subgroups with the same learning objectives but different levels of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs)? It is dif�icult to develop a single training program to meet all their needs. Going back to our supervisors who need the communication training, what if the TNA indicated that half of them previously received training in active listening and were reasonably pro�icient in it? The effective communication model we plan to use in the training of supervisors involves �ive steps, the �irst of which is active listening. The training could be designed in a modular manner to provide only the relevant modules to each subgroup. In our supervisor example, the �irst module would be skill building in the active listening process, and only those not already pro�icient would need to attend. Then all of the supervisors would receive the effective communication training, with the understanding that all were pro�icient in the active listening portion of the model.

Sometimes the needs analysis identi�ies a wide variability in the KSAs of the target population. In this case, the training design could provide individualized instruction, accomplished through computer-based or video instruction, although both take a long time to develop. Another alternative would be to allow for small classes and a high level of interaction between the instructor and each trainee.

Often your trainee population will have a wide variety of learning styles. This is an organizational constraint that we will discuss in more depth later in this chapter. You will have to take this into account as you design your training. Likewise, in some instances you may �ind that trainees hold negative feelings about a particular training technique. One way of dealing with this constraint is to use a different technique that trainees feel more positively about. Alternatively, if the technique is the best approach to achieving the desired learning, the design could build in attitude-change modules at the beginning. We found, for example, that many managers do not want to role-play in training. We often hear arguments such as “This is silly,” or “These never work.” One way to handle this resistance is simply to call it something different. The term play, for some, suggests that it is not serious learning. Sometimes when we present the technique, we suggest it is time for some “behavioral practice.” This simple change in terms causes the exercise to be received more positively. The point here is that if, through the needs analysis, it is discovered that a particular method of training is disliked because of past experience or word of mouth, the training design should include a way of changing the perception or another method should be used.

While organizational constraints in�luence most aspects of the training process, they can have a real impact on the development of the training objectives. As stated earlier, it would be wonderful if we could always deliver the perfect training to satisfy the training needs. Unfortunately, we face constraints on what we are able to do, thus the objectives we set for training must realistically re�lect what is achievable. The organizational priorities, the budget available, the nature of the employees needing training, and so on, will place limits on what can be achieved. Once you have general idea of how the organizational constraints will be accommodated and have a general understanding of what can be achieved, you will need to re�ine that into clear objective statements and a set of speci�ic guidelines for how the training program is to be developed. The next section focuses on the development of objectives.

Developing Objectives The term training objectives refers to all the objectives that are developed for the training program. There are generally four types of training objectives: reaction, learning, transfer of training, and organizational outcome (see Table 5-5). Reaction objectives refer to the objectives set for how trainees should feel about the training and their learning environment. Learning objectives describe the KSAs that trainees are expected to acquire throughout the training program and the ways that learning will be demonstrated. Transfer of training objectives describes the changes in job behavior that are expected to occur as a result of transferring the KSAs gained in training to the trainee’s job. Organizational outcome objectives describe the outcomes that the organization can expect from the changes in the trainees’ job behavior as a result of the learning. Ideally, a training program would develop objectives in all four areas.

Table 5-5 Types of Training Objectives

Trainee Reaction Objectives

Describes the desired attitudinal and subjective evaluations of training by the trainee

Learning Objectives Describes the type of behavior that will demonstrate the learning, the conditions under which the behavior must occur, and the criteria that will signify that a suf�icient level of learning has occurred

Transfer of Training Objectives

Describes the job behaviors that will be affected by training, the conditions under which those behaviors must occur, and the criteria that will signify that a suf�icient transfer of learning from training to the job has occurred

Organizational Outcome Objectives

Describes the organizational outcomes that will be affected by the transfer of learning to the job and the criteria that will signify that organizational outcome objectives were achieved

Creating Objectives The TNA is a critical part of determining what the objectives of training should be. As part of the TNA you have integrated the results of the organization, operation, and person analyses to identify the relevant performance gaps that should be addressed by training and the KSAs causing those gaps.

From this information, we set the learning objectives, transfer of training objectives, and organizational outcome objectives. Trainee reaction objectives can be linked to the person analysis but also to the key aspects of your training design and development such as satisfaction with the value and relevance of the training. We will discuss what should be included in the reaction objectives following our discussion of the learning objectives.

Although the content of the various types of objectives differs, the structure and process of developing good objective statements is the same. Objectives are statements about what is expected to be accomplished. A good objective has three components: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_003)

1. Desired outcome: What should be expected to occur?

2. Conditions: Under what conditions is the outcome expected to occur?

3. Standards: What criteria signify that the outcome is acceptable?

It is dif�icult to write good objectives. You must take care to ensure that the three components are speci�ied in unambiguous terms and that the full range of expectations is addressed.

Writing a Good Learning Objective We focus attention on learning objectives for two reasons:

1. Learning objectives are often the most dif�icult to write.

2. Learning is training’s �irst priority. Unless trainees learn what they are supposed to learn, the performance gaps will not be reduced or eliminated.

Clearly articulated learning objectives are a critical �irst step in developing an effective training program. Learning can be observed only through its in�luence on behavior. Thus, when writing a learning objective, think not only about what will be learned but also about how the learning will be demonstrated.

Desired Outcome: Behavior The desired behavior must be worded clearly and unambiguously. Anyone reading the objective should be able to understand what the learner will be required to do to demonstrate that she learned the KSA. A learning objective that states, “After completing the training, the trainees will understand how to splice electrical wire” is ambiguous. It fails to specify what trainee behavior will indicate that the trainee “understands.” Recall that just a few sentences ago we said—think not only about what will be learned but also about how the learning will be demonstrated. A clearer learning objective would be: “will be able to splice electrical wires of any gauge.” This statement indicates what the learner should be able to do at the end of training. Consider another example: “The trainee will be able to differentiate (by sorting into two piles) between computer chips that are within speci�ication and those that are outside of speci�ication.” Here the behavior is clear, but not how the trainee is expected to differentiate between the computer chips. Will the trainees have gauges to work with? Will they have to be able to tell the difference by simply looking at the chips? The conditions under which the person will sort the chips are not stated.

Conditions Explaining the conditions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_002) under which the behavior must occur further clari�ies exactly what is required. In the preceding example, it is not clear what, if any, aids will be available to the trainee to determine whether the computer chips are within

3

speci�ications. Providing the conditions makes the objective even clearer: “Using an ohmmeter and a chart, the trainee will be able to differentiate (by sorting into two piles) between computer chips that are within speci�ication and those that are outside of speci�ication.”

A description of the conditions (assistance or barriers) under which the desired behavior will be performed should be provided when creating objectives. For example, the statement “Using an ohmmeter and a chart” indicates the help that is provided. If the objective began with the phrase “Without the use of reference material,” it is clear that the trainee must discriminate between the chips without using any aids.

Writing in conditions is necessary in some cases but not in others. In the following example, it is critical to know that the pie charts must be developed using a speci�ic software package: “Present the results of an accounting problem in pie chart form, using the Harvard Graphics software.” Objectives often begin with the phrase, “After completing the training, the trainee will. . . .” This is a condition, as it states when the behavior will occur. However, for transfer of training and organizational objectives, the point at which the objectives are achieved and measured typically doesn’t occur until sometime after training has ended, so this should be included in these objectives. For example, a transfer of training objective might read as follows: “Six weeks after the completion of training, the rate of incorrectly sorted computer chips will drop from the pretraining rate of 3 percent to less than 0.01 percent.” Conditions should be included only if they help clarify what is required.

Standards Standards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_003) are the criteria for success. Three potential standards are accuracy, quality, and speed. For example, a learning objective might de�ine accuracy as “being able to take a reading off an altimeter with an error of no more than three meters.” A quality standard might be indicated by the statement “is within engineering speci�ications 99.9 percent of the time.” Or, if speed is a critical concern, “will be completed in 15 minutes or less.”

Here are a few examples of learning objectives for a telephone repairperson. The desired behavior is bolded, the conditions are italicized, and the standards are underlined.

Using a drop wire, bushing, and connector, but without the use of a manual, the trainee will splice a drop wire meeting the standards set out in the manual.

Using a standard climbing harness and spikes, the trainee will climb a standard telephone pole within �ive minutes, following all safety procedures.

The trainee will splice, according to code, six sets of wires in ten minutes while at the top of a telephone pole wearing all standard safety gear.

The Formula for Writing the Objective The outcome speci�ies the type of behavior; the conditions state where, when, and what tools will be used; and standards describe the criteria for judging the adequacy of the behavior. Remember that a learning objective should state clearly what the result of the training will be. Here are the steps to follow:

1. Write out the “desired behavior.” Here, the verb needs to describe clearly what will be done: A “doing” verb is used to indicate some action. Do not use the word understand. Always make sure that the verb describes an action. Examples of “doing” verbs are provided in Table 5-6.

2. Now add the conditions under which the behavior must be performed. This description encompasses the use or nonuse of aids. So “using an ohmmeter,” “using reference material provided,” “using a standard climbing harness and spikes,” “while at the top of a telephone pole,” “without the use of a manual,” “without the use of a calculator” are all examples of conditions that would be expected in certain situations.

3. Finally, it needs to be clear what standards for success will be used. How will the trainee know that he successfully completed the training? What level of accuracy is required? Is quality or speed an important part of success? “According to code,” “following all safety procedures,” “within �ive minutes,” “according to the manual” “within 15 minutes,” “with no more than three errors,” and “obtaining a score of 80 percent” are all possible standards.

Table 5-6 Types of Doing Verbs

Knowledge Analyze, cite, compare, de�ine, describe, distinguish, explain, identify, list, provide, name, quote, reproduce

Skills Assemble, compute, construct, count, design, demonstrate, eliminate, install, list, measure, operate, place, recite, replace, solve, sort

Attitudes Align, belong, choose, commit, criticize, decide, praise

Now, to test whether the learning objective is effective, ask someone to read it and explain exactly what she believes a trainee needs to do, under what conditions, and how the trainee will know if she is successful. If the person can articulate these factors, the learning objective is a good one.

Table 5-7 provides some examples of poorly written learning objectives followed by an improved version. For some practice in writing a good learning objective, cover the right column of Table 5-7 and read the poorly written learning objective on the left side of the table. Improve this objective using the formula. Now check the right side for an example of how the objective can be improved. How did you do? Now do the remaining objectives, as this will provide good practice for writing effective learning objectives.

Table 5-7 Learning Objectives Improved

Before After

Upon completion of training, the trainee

Upon completion of training, the trainee

Will be able to apply theories of motivation to different situations.

Will be able, after reading a scenario of an unmotivated trainee, to identify orally what she would do to motivate the trainee, and explain which theory she used and why. The explanation must identify at least three motivators and tie them to correct theory. The trainee must do the above on four of �ive scenarios, without the use of any outside material.

Will be able to recognize and identify different personalities, and know how to motivate them.

Will be able to watch a fellow trainee role-play a situation and correctly explain in writing what type of personality is being exhibited and what to do to motivate the trainee. Trainee must be 100% correct on the personality and identify at least two motivators.

Will understand what is necessary to have an effective team.

Will be able to correctly list �ive things that are required for an effective team and explain why they are necessary.

Will have knowledge of three types of active listening, and will be able to use the appropriate one in a particular situation.

Will be able to correctly identify in writing, three of the active listening techniques that were identi�ied in training and match them with the appropriate situation.

In a role-play, will be able to respond verbally to an angry comment using one of the appropriate active listening types, and orally explain which was used and why.

Will be able to say no to boss and peers when asked to do extra work.

After reading a scenario in which the trainee is asked to do extra work which is not possible to complete, will be able to correctly use an appropriate way of saying “no” and explain which technique was used and why, with 100% accuracy.

Will be able to give an 5-minute oral presentation on a topic provided by the instructor using all the skills taught

After being given a topic by the trainer and 15 minutes to prepare a presentation, will give an oral presentation on the topic. The trainee will cover all the major points, use no more than three 3 3 5 cue cards; have fewer than �ive dys�luencies, maintain eye contact with the audience for a minimum of 4 minutes 30 seconds, and follow the guidelines for an effective presentation with an opening, body, and closing.

The other three types of objectives listed in Table 5-5 require similar components. For example, a transfer of training objective might read as follows:

After completing training, participants, at their regular job station and using an ohmmeter and a chart, will be able to separate acceptable (within speci�ications) from unacceptable (outside speci�ications) computer chips with an accuracy of 99.99 percent while sorting a minimum of 10 chips per minute.

Attitudes Sometimes attitudes, in addition to knowledge and skills, are the focus of training. How do you write a learning objective for an attitude? When the goal of training is attitude change, the focus of training activities is to provide the trainees with information that contradicts inappropriate attitudes and supports more appropriate attitudes. Thus, training does not focus on changing attitudes speci�ically, but rather on providing new knowledge. This new knowledge might consist of alternative views and information related to attitudes. Therefore, learning objectives for attitude change should focus on acquisition of the relevant information rather than on the resulting attitude change.

Consider training that is attempting to improve attitudes toward teamwork in a group of trainees who all scored below the midpoint on a TNA teamwork awareness survey. In this case, the learning objective might read as follows: At the end of training, trainees will demonstrate an increased awareness of the positive aspects of teamwork (new knowledge) as demonstrated by a 50 percent improvement on the team awareness survey.

Recall that the reason we want to affect an attitude is to in�luence behavior. In this example, we want trainees to have positive attitudes so that once they are back in the workplace, they will participate fully in team meetings and provide input. The transfer of training objective in this case might be “Eight weeks after completing training, the participants will have attended all team meetings and, using the skills taught, provide ideas and suggestions in those meetings.” Another might be “Eight weeks after completing training, the participants’ performance rating in team meetings (as rated by other team members) will average one point higher than before training.”

Purpose Statements At times you will need to communicate only a short statement of what the training is intended to accomplish. This is called a purpose statement. The purpose statement is used to synthesize the individual training objectives into one clear statement regarding what the training will be all about. This can be useful when �irst communicating with trainees or others about an upcoming training program (invitations, announcements, and the like). In these initial communications, you want to convey the overall purpose of the training without getting into the detail of the individual objectives. So, the purpose statement should describe what the trainee will be able to do as a result of the training but should not contain all of the detail in the formal objectives. For example, if the previous section of this chapter were to be converted into a training workshop, some of the formal training objectives might be those described next.

Given a set of training needs, organizational priorities, and constraints, the trainees, at the end of training, using notes and materials from the training, will be able to

1. Identify all the training needs that should be met by the training

2. Write effective learning objectives for each of the needs that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., behavior, standards, and conditions)

3. Write effective transfer of training objectives for the needs that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., behavior, standards, and conditions)

4. Write effective organizational objectives for the training that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., observable changes in outcomes, standards, and conditions)

The purpose statement might read as follows: “The purpose of the Writing Training Objectives workshop is to provide participants with the ability to construct training objectives that effectively facilitate the design, development, and evaluation of training.” This conveys the essential purpose of the training in a simple and straightforward manner. However, as we indicate in the following section, there are signi�icant advantages to communicating the speci�ic objectives to various audiences.

5.3 Why Use Training Objectives? Developing good learning objectives takes time, effort, and careful thought. Why not spend that time constructively developing the actual training? In fact, some HRD specialists seriously question the value of speci�ic learning objectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_004) Some concerns about the use of objectives include the following:

Waste of valuable time

Inhibited �lexibility

Focus moved from other areas

Unrealistic for management training and other soft areas of training

Not practical in today’s workplace

We respectfully disagree with those HRD specialists regarding the �irst concern; the argument is that resources are often scarce and the time taken to develop the objectives takes away from more important endeavors. On the face of it, this generalization might be true, but the objectives guide the development of training. They might even result in less time to develop the training because of the clear guidelines objectives provide. Go back and look at the objectives in Table 5-7. Note in the “After” column how much clearer the focus is regarding “what will be trained” as compared with the “Before” column.

Some suggest that objectives inhibit the trainer’s �lexibility to respond to trainee needs. The counterargument here is that a comprehensive TNA is designed to determine trainees’ needs and that the objectives focus speci�ically on those needs. They do, perhaps, inhibit the trainer’s �lexibility to go off on tangents that she might like to pursue, but adhering to a focused direction is a positive thing. Moving the focus from other areas is again the point of having objectives. The idea is to keep the focus on the topics identi�ied in the TNA.

Some argue that concrete objectives are not possible in management training or areas such as time management or interpersonal skills. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_005) We note that whatever the training, the goal is to achieve certain outcomes, and those outcomes need to be translated into objectives. With time management, for example, you want trainees to gain some cognitive knowledge about strategies for time management. The purpose is for them to develop skills to use in the workplace. Trainees must know the skills before they can transfer them into the workplace. So articulating an objective that states, “At the end of training, trainees will demonstrate time management skills by completing an in-basket exercise within 45 minutes and be able to provide an appropriate time management rationale for each decision” makes perfect sense.

Finally, some say that objectives have outlived their usefulness, and they are too speci�ic for today’s complex jobs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_006) They say that we need to �ind methods that are better at determining what is required for effective performance. Although this reasoning might be true at a more macro level, the purpose of objectives as a guide for training development is still valid. The complexities of the job will surface during a TNA, but it is still necessary in any job to have competence in speci�ic KSAs to be an effective performer.

The majority of HRD specialists agree with us that training objectives are important from the following stakeholders’ perspectives:

Trainee

Designer of training

Trainer

Evaluator of training

The Trainee Training objectives bene�it trainees because they

reduce anxiety related to the unknown,

focus attention, and

increase the likelihood that the trainees will be successful in training.

High levels of anxiety can negatively affect learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_007) Not knowing what to expect in a situation creates anxiety. Training objectives provide a clear understanding of what will be taking place over the training period. This reduces the anxiety felt from not knowing what to expect. The objectives also focus attention on relevant topics to be trained, which, recalling social learning theory in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , is the important �irst step to learning. Thus, from a learning theory perspective, it is important to let the trainee know what the performance expectations are and be able to refer to them throughout the training. Also, as was indicated in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , this information will assist the learner in both focusing attention and cognitively organizing the new information. A key here is to make sure that your objectives are easily understood. Recall the formula for writing good objectives: You should check to make sure the objectives are clear and understandable. Finally, learning objectives increase relevant learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_008) and the likelihood that trainees will be successful in training. This makes sense according to goal-setting research, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_009) which indicates that when speci�ic and challenging goals are set, the probability is higher that these will be achieved than when no goal is set or an instruction to “do the best you can” is given. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_010) A goal is what a learning objective is.

The Training Designer The learning objectives guide the designer of the training or the purchaser of a training package. The objectives directly translate the training needs into training outcomes. With clear objectives, training methods and content can be checked against the objectives to ensure that they are consistent. Furthermore, evidence shows that following learning objectives results in the development of better lesson plans. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_011)

Suppose the designer is told to “design training to provide salespeople with skills in customer service.” Does the designer design a course in interpersonal skills so that salespeople learn how to be friendly and upbeat? Does the designer design a course in product knowledge so that the salesperson can provide information about the various products and their features to customers? Does the designer design a course in technical expertise so that salespeople can assist customers in getting the product to work effectively? Consider the learning objective that reads, “After completing training, participants will, using paraphrasing or decoding and feedback (desired outcome), respond to an angry customer (conditions), suggesting two alternative remedies judged by the customer to be appropriate for resolving the problem (standard).” This learning objective

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

provides a clear, unambiguous goal for the designer. The designer can then design a course in active listening (paraphrasing, decoding, and feedback), with the focus on dealing with angry customers. Without that guidance, the training might not be designed appropriately.

The Trainer With clear learning objectives, the trainer can facilitate the learning process more effectively. Clear, speci�ic objectives allow the trainer to more readily determine how well the trainees are progressing and thus make the appropriate adjustments. In addition, the trainer can highlight the relationship of particular segments of the training to the objectives. Some trainers might see objectives as infringing on their freedom to train the way they want to. It is probably for those trainers that objectives do the most good, keeping the trainer on the right track.

The Evaluator Evaluating training is much easier when objectives are used, because these objectives de�ine the behaviors expected at the end of training. With no clear indication of what training is supposed to accomplish, an evaluator has no way to assess whether the training was effective. It is analogous to the army sergeant who tells the private, “Dig a hole here.” The private starts to dig and the sergeant walks away. After digging for a few minutes, the private begins to worry because he knows he’s in trouble. He doesn’t know how deep the hole should be, how long, wide, or anything else. When the private sees the platoon leader walk by, he asks him, “How am I doing on this hole, sir?” The platoon leader, of course, says, “How should I know?” When good objectives are developed, the evaluator simply needs to assess whether the stated outcomes and standards are met.

5.4 Facilitation of Learning: Focus on the Trainee Recall from Figure 3-1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03�ig01) the formula for factors in�luencing performance (P 5 M 3 KSA 3 E). Many issues exist within each of these factors that will make it easier or more dif�icult for the trainee to achieve the learning objectives.

Individual Differences in KSAs The TNA supplies information not only on the need for training but also on the trainees’ readiness for such training. Let’s take the example of employees recently hired or promoted. They were selected for their new job because of their KSAs, but they need some initial training to get them ready to perform in their new job (processes, procedures, and the like). Perfect selection techniques would ensure that these people have the requisite KSAs to be successful in training, but few selection techniques are perfect. Even the best selection practices result in a certain number of individuals who are selected but subsequently are not successful. If these false positives—those who are predicted to be successful but are not—can somehow be identi�ied in the TNA, the design of training might be able to address the issues that would prevent them from being successful.

For example, some who are identi�ied as in need of training might not have the requisite KSAs to make use of the training methods and materials that would be effective for 90 percent of the other potential trainees. Providing a preliminary training module for this group prior to the regular training might increase the likelihood of them successfully completing training.

The selection process sets minimum criteria (based on a job analysis) that individuals must meet to be selected. Even here, however, if all met those criteria, some individual differences in abilities would be evident. Some will show higher levels of the KSA in question, and others might not possess the minimum skills (e.g., false positive). Needs assessment data that show large differences among the potential trainees indicate that the training design must be adjusted to address the differences, which relates back to organizational constraints (Table 5-1). If the variance in KSAs is large, you need to consider a design that allows those with lower levels of the KSAs to “catch up.” Otherwise, the training reduces motivation for many by being too boring for some and too complex for others.

By not accounting for trainee differences, companies can be the losers. For example, there was an insurance company that hired a number of older workers for its call center. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_012) The company believed that an older voice could relate to older customers better. The older workers were sent through the company computer-training program. Many of them quit before completing training, and those who did stay were substandard performers. The company decided that it was simply a bad idea to hire older workers, as they were not capable of learning the new technology. After discussions with a consultant, the company decided to try again. This time, the training was extended. Trainers were able to work more closely with the older trainees. As a result, performance on the job after training was on par with that of the younger employees.

Just how important is the individual difference issue? Consider the following:

Increased ethnic diversity—Hispanics will become the largest minority group in the U.S. workforce by 2016. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_013)

A very large portion of the workforce is made up of older workers. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_014)

Women will continue to increase as a percentage of the workforce. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_015)

New technology and government legislation in North America is making it easier for people with disabilities to enter the workforce.

These facts suggest an increasingly diverse workforce in North America. With this increase in diversity comes individual differences in ways of viewing the workplace and its norms and values. Care in the needs assessment to understand these differences will help tremendously in designing a successful training program.

Differences in Learning Styles Individual differences also exist in how people learn. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_016) There are a number of different learning style models to choose from. A recent Google search turned up over 80 different inventories. Although each has a slightly different perspective based on the particular research premises of the authors, they do have much in common. We chose the Felder–Silverman model to use as an example of how different trainee learning styles can in�luence the effectiveness of the training. We chose this model because it is consistent with many other models and the scale has reasonable reliability and validity. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_017) In this model, there are four different dimensions of learner preference. Within each dimension, the learners will differ in their preference for how they like to learn. The different learning styles are described next.

Sensing versus Intuitive Learners Your preference for one style or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.

Sensing learners don’t like training that doesn’t connect closely to practical application, tend to like learning facts, and prefer solving problems by well-established methods. They dislike complications and surprises. They are good at memorizing and are patient with details. They like hands-on learning opportunities. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in training.

Intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships, like innovation, and dislike repetition. They seem to be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations. Intuitors don’t like “plug-and-chug” courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.

How Can Trainers Help Sensors? Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are training in an area where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have dif�iculty. You can be helpful by providing speci�ic examples of concepts and procedures and how they apply in practice.

How Can Trainers Help Intuitors? If your training requires primarily memorization and plugging in formulas, you may have trouble with these trainees. Provide interpretations or theories that link the facts, or ask these trainees to �ind the connections. You should also create incentives for memorizing details and correct solutions (reinforcing the trainee for checking her completed solutions). Some type of competition (either among a group or individual improvement) might work well when the content of the training doesn’t match the intuitor’s preferred approach.

Visual versus Verbal Learners

12

13

14

15

16

17

Visual learners remember best what they see—pictures, diagrams, �lowcharts, time lines, �ilms, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words—written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

How Can Trainers Help Visual Learners? The simple answer is to �ind diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, �low charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly visual. Even showing a short video of someone else presenting the material will help the visual learner. Prepare a concept map showing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections.

How Can Trainers Help Verbal Learners? Have trainees write summaries or outlines of course material in their own words. Put trainees into groups where they can gain understanding of material by hearing others explain the concepts. The most learning will occur when the trainee does the explaining.

Sequential versus Global Learners

Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. They are able to absorb and use material even though they do not understand the big picture, but the material has to be presented in a logical order.

Global learners are not able to absorb the details until they understand the big picture. Even then, they may not be great with the details. They tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly “getting it.” They tend to be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have dif�iculty explaining how they did it.

How Can Trainers Help Sequential Learners? One useful technique here is to provide trainees with a copy of the lecture material with blank spaces in place of key terms and de�initions. Ask trainees to �ill in the blanks as the training progresses. At the end of the module, as a review, go through the blank spaces and ask the trainees to tell you what should be in the space. You can help strengthen the trainees’ global thinking skills by asking them to relate each new topic to things they already know.

How Can Trainers Help Global Learners? Before beginning each module, indicate how that module �its into the overall purpose of the training. Follow this up with how the module �its into the world of the trainees. As indicated earlier, one way to do this is to get the trainees to make the connection between the new topic and things they already know. This helps the global learner to put the new topic into a familiar context and see the connections. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly.

Active versus Re�lective Learners

Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it—discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. These trainees want to try it out and see how it works because that’s how they most effectively process the new information (e.g., symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and symbolic rehearsal). Because they process information externally, these trainees like working in groups.

Re�lective learners prefer to think about the new information before applying it. They are more comfortable processing the new information internally, before using it externally. These trainees prefer working alone so that they can complete their internal processing of the information.

Sitting through lectures without any activity except taking notes is hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.

How Can Trainers Help Active Learners? Create time for group discussion or problem-solving activities as part of the training. If training requires work outside the classroom, have the trainees work in teams.

How Can Trainers Help Re�lective Learners? Before moving to group activities, have the trainees engage in individual thinking. At the end of each module, ask trainees questions about the content. Also, ask them to think of possible applications. It will also help this type of learner if you allow some time at the end of the module for them to write down a summary of the material in their own words.

What’s a Trainer to Do? Typically, a training class is �illed with trainees that have a mix of preferred learning styles. If the training is of short duration, this will not matter too much. As noted earlier, everyone has the ability to learn material presented in their non-preferred style. However, if the training is more extensive, this becomes a problem as learners will “turn off ” and stop learning because the cognitive load becomes too great (too much stress on the trainee’s cognitive processes). The most effective approach in this instance is to design the training to tap into the whole brain. That is, design in components to each module that cater to each of the learning styles. For example, your lecture covering the content of each module should be accompanied by lots of diagrams, graphs, charts, and such. Organize the lecture so that you start out with the big picture and then begin covering the details in a sequential manner. Create sets of exercises that ask the trainees to use memorized facts and details and other sets of exercises that ask them to identify relationships and possibilities. Some of these exercises should have the trainees actually using the material, and other exercises should have them thinking and re�lecting on the material. As you can see, our advice here is to design the training to accommodate all styles of learning unless you have the luxury of limiting the trainees to a certain learning preference.

The individual difference issue is complex, and interactions are not easy to generalize to different situations. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_018) Note in Figure 5-1 that training design A produces better results for those at all levels of the particular trait, suggesting that training design A is the method of choice. In Figure 5-2, however, design A provides positive results for those high in the trait but not for those low in the trait. In contrast, training design B provides positive results for those low in the trait but not for those high in the trait. Ideally, those low in the trait should receive training design B, whereas those high in the trait should receive training design A. When you are not able to create separate programs for differences in traits, we are suggesting that you will want to design the training to accommodate the different traits as much as possible. This method offers the advantage of covering the same learning point in different ways, thus facilitating the learning process for everyone. Disadvantages include increased time to complete training and higher costs to design and develop the training than would be the case when simply providing one mode of instruction. However, this expense must be weighed against the cost of putting people through training who cannot learn the required KSAs.

Figure 5-1 No Interaction Between Training Design and Individual Trait.

18

Figure 5-2 Individual Trait and Training Design Interaction.

An alternative is to create separate training programs designed around the traits of each group. Here, the training is tailored to the individual trait(s), but multiple training programs need to be designed, developed, and implemented. Time for each individual group to complete training is minimized, but the time for everyone to complete the training is higher and cost of development is high because the training is different for each group.

Motivation of Trainee As the performance formula (P 5 M 3 KSA 3 E) indicates, if motivation is lacking, no learning is likely to occur. Thus, training should be designed not only to provide KSAs but also to motivate trainees to learn those KSAs and apply them to their jobs.

Self-Ef�icacy Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , self-ef�icacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_023) (as it relates to training) is the feeling we have about our ability to successfully complete training. Those with high self-ef�icacy are not only more motivated to learn, but also more likely transfer the learning to the job. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_019) An individual’s self-ef�icacy is based on several factors. Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that these factors are a person’s prior experiences, feedback from others, behavior models, and emotional arousal. Three of these can be in�luenced prior to training; the fourth (prior experience) can be in�luenced during training, and will be discussed under “Elaboration Theory.”

So, how do we in�luence an employee’s self-ef�icacy prior to training? Let’s �irst look at feedback from others. Both supervisors and peers can play an important role here. They need to provide positive feedback regarding the employees skills, and indicate con�idence in the employee’s ability to complete the training successfully. This will enhance an employee’s self-ef�icacy. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_020) How about behavioral models? We know self- ef�icacy can be improved through vicarious learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_021) So what we need to do is have the employee observe peers that are similar and who have successfully completed the training and transferred the learning to the job. Finally, we need to reduce anxiety (emotional arousal). Recall that one of the reasons for developing clear behavioral objectives is to reduce the anxiety of trainees. Getting these objectives to trainees early on (before actual training) would help to reduce anxiety, and improve an employee’s self-ef�icacy. Additionally, pre-training communications should be designed to put the trainees at ease about their ability to learn the material. So, an important part of any TNA should be to determine the trainees’ self-ef�icacy. For those who have low self– ef�icacy, consider using the methods above help raise it before training.

Suppose one of your older supervisors has poor relations with her subordinates. Sending her to training to provide her with better interpersonal skills is fruitless unless she believes she can master the skills being taught. The person analysis of the TNA indicates she has low self-ef�icacy. Being older, and set in her ways, she actually is quite sure that learning new interpersonal skills is hopeless. How can we help? First, have supervisors and peers tell her they are quite con�ident she can master the skills taught. They can point out other new approaches they have seen her learn. Second, provide her with the opportunity to observe and talk with some older supervisors who have completed the training and are successfully using the skills. Third, provide her with clear objectives for training ahead of time so she will not be anxious about the unknown. These three interventions can help to improve her self-ef�icacy (and resulting motivation) to succeed in the training.

Expectancy Theory Implications Let’s return to the intervention mentioned earlier. We have a trainee who believes she cannot master the skills. The intervention before training provides her with information that shows that she can succeed in the training (increasing her self-ef�icacy regarding the training). In expectancy theory terms, we are in�luencing Expectancy 1 (E1, the belief that effort will lead to desired performance). Also, by clarifying the positive outcomes of training, we make trainees aware of what can be achieved by being successful in training. Finally, by showing that training increases the positive outcomes, we in�luence Expectancy 2 (E2, the belief that desired performance will lead to desired outcomes). Increasing the expectancies (1 and 2) and also the number of positive outcomes will have the net effect increasing motivation to be successful in training.

19

20

21

No one consciously goes systematically through all the steps suggested in expectancy theory to make a decision, but unconsciously, such a process does occur. Understanding the process helps focus on an important process that in�luences motivation. An example will illustrate the point. A TNA in the area that Bill supervises found productivity to be lower than expected. It was also found that Bill’s subordinates were afraid to talk to him about problems they experienced doing their work. An interview with Bill revealed that he believed that the best way to supervise was to be tough. “If they are afraid of what I might do to them if they screw up, they will work harder,” he said. Bill seemed to like the idea that subordinates were afraid of him. On the basis of this information, Bill was encouraged to attend a training workshop. The workshop covers active listening, effective feedback, and other skills designed to teach supervisors how to interact better with subordinates, peers, and superiors. Will he be motivated to learn these skills? Let’s look inside Bill’s head, as represented in Training in Action 5-1.

5-1 Training in Action Analysis of Bill’s Motivation What are the outcomes Bill sees and their attractiveness (valence) to him (on a scale of 1 to 10) if he is successful in training versus if he is unsuccessful?

Outcomes If Successful Valence Outcomes If Not Successful Valence

Promotion 7 Does not have to change behavior 10

Better at job 8 Employees still afraid of him 8

Less tension between Bill and subordinates 6 Not ridiculed by coworkers for being a nice guy 9

Less feeling of stress 4

Better relationship with union 7

Fewer grievances 9

How likely is it that if Bill is successful or unsuccessful, these outcomes will actually occur (Expectancy 2)? These expectancies are based on Bill’s belief that they will occur and range from 0.0 (not at all likely to occur) to 1.0 (guaranteed to occur).

Outcomes If Successful Expectancy 2 Valence Outcomes If Not Successful Expectancy 2 Valence

Promotion 0.2 7 Does not have to change behavior 1.0 10

Better at job 0.6 8 Employees still afraid of him 1.0 8

Less tension between Bill and subordinates 0.7 6 Not ridiculed by coworkers for being a nice guy 1.0 9

Less feeling of stress 0.8 4

Better relationship with union 0.4 7

Fewer grievances 0.6 9

Finally, how likely does Bill think it is that he could learn the new skills if he really tried (Expectancy 1)? This likelihood is also expressed as a probability (0 to 1.0).

In this case, Bill believes that the skills will be dif�icult for him to learn, and he also believes that “leopards cannot change their spots.” Therefore, Bill believes that if he really tries, there is only a 0.5 chance that he will be successful. On the other hand, if he does not try, he de�initely (1.0) will not learn or change his behavior.

To answer the question of whether Bill will be motivated to learn, we need to examine the factors in expectancy theory. What does Bill consider to be possible outcomes of successful training, and what is the attractiveness (valence) of each of the outcomes? An examination of Training in Action 5-1 indicates that he sees promotion as one outcome, and it is a fairly attractive outcome (7 on a 10-point scale). Less stress is another outcome, but one not especially attractive (4 on a 10-point scale). Altogether Bill identi�ied six outcomes that might occur if he is successful at training. If he is unsuccessful, he identi�ies three outcomes, and all three are attractive; the lowest is an 8 on a 10- point scale. Notice that Bill does not perceive that his training can have any effect on the productivity of his workgroup.

Now examine the likelihood that Bill believes that the outcomes he identi�ied will actually occur (E2) if he is successful or unsuccessful in training. If successful in training (improves his interpersonal skills), the likelihood of his being promoted is low (0.2, or a 20 percent probability). The likelihood he will feel less stress is quite high at 0.8. All others are somewhere in between. If he is unsuccessful (does not learn the new skills), the probability that he will not have to change his behavior (he will behave in the same manner as before) is 1.0, or absolutely guaranteed. If he is not successful in training, no one would expect him to change his behavior. Similarly, because he has not changed his behavior, employees will still be afraid of him (probability of 1.0); he will be the same old Bill, and his peers will not ridicule him. As for Bill’s belief about his ability to complete training successfully, he believes that if he really tries, it (E1) is 0.5. If he does not try, he believes that the likelihood of being unsuccessful is 1.0, or guaranteed to happen. Let’s determine whether he is likely to try in training through the following calculations:

Formula

where V is the valence or attractiveness of the outcome.

Will try in training

Will not try in training

On the basis of these calculations, it is clear that Bill will not be motivated to learn in the training. The motivation to not try is substantially higher than the motivation to try. What can be done to in�luence Bill to learn? A number of approaches can be taken. First, recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that expectancies are beliefs about the way things are. They can be in�luenced in many ways (e.g., past experience, communication from others). If Bill heard from other supervisors that the training was not dif�icult, he might change his belief about how dif�icult it would be to complete the training successfully (Expectancy 1). If Bill learned that supervisors who were successful in training were promoted more often than others, this information would in�luence Bill’s belief that if he completed training, he would get promoted (Expectancy 2). If those who go to training generally receive higher pay raises and Bill is not aware of this fact, make him aware of the relationship between training and the raise (Expectancy 2). This relationship will add an additional positive outcome to Bill’s calculations, with a high probability of occurring.

It is also possible that Bill did not consider some potentially positive outcomes such as “Improved productivity in his area,” “Respect from upper management,” “Better relationship with family and friends” (because he also will be able to use the skills in his personal life), and “Better able to persuade others of his point of view.” Once made aware of these outcomes, depending on their attractiveness, the motivation may be altered to try rather than not. For example, “Respect of upper management” might be a given (E2 5 1.0) for all those who successfully complete the training. If this outcome were highly attractive to Bill, it would go a long way toward changing the decision to “try.”

Other ways to in�luence Bill’s motivation to learn can focus on enhancing Expectancies 1 and 2 and clarifying the types of outcomes that will result from successful training. As Bill’s supervisor, you could do the following: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_022)

Discuss Bill’s job performance and job-related goals and reach agreement that he needs to improve some set of KSAs to achieve those goals. Providing focus on goals presents speci�ic outcomes that the trainee might not have considered.

Agree that this particular training program is the best alternative available for achieving the desired improvement (Expectancy 1).

Agree that demonstrated improvement in the identi�ied KSA area will result in desirable outcomes for him (Expectancy 2).

These steps should result in Bill’s realizing the advantages of successful training and should make his attitude more positive. In the design of training, therefore, it is important to include such pretraining interventions. An integral part of a training design might be working with the supervisors to ensure that the suggested discussions take place. In large organizations with well-organized HR functions, the trainee–supervisor discussions might take place in the formal performance review. A portion of any thorough review is the developmental aspect, which is useful for the supervisor to use with subordinates in determining training needs and increasing the motivation to learn.

As noted earlier, it is not likely that anyone consciously goes through the expectancy model process because many of the factors are not known. But the model is still useful. It provides evidence of the complexity of the motivational process and what factors to consider when meeting with a subordinate to discuss their development and motivate them to improve. Discussion regarding his desired outcomes, his belief in achieving them, and his beliefs about successfully completing training can assist in helping change the person’s perceptions and improve motivation, without resorting to the complex analysis mentioned earlier.

Implications from Conditioning and Reinforcement (The Environment)

Classical Conditioning Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that classical conditioning takes place without awareness. We salivate when we smell something we like cooking because of prior learning. Emotional responses can be conditioned in a similar manner. A trainee who had bad experiences in school might feel anxious and even sick on entering a training room set up like a school classroom. Trainees who experience high stress in their jobs become conditioned to feel stressed when they arrive at work. Eventually, just seeing the building begins to create the stress because the two events are so often paired. Having someone in such an emotional state does not facilitate effective training, which might be a good reason to hold the training off-site for employees of this type. The point here is that some situations are associated with unpleasant emotional conditioned responses. Pleasant emotional responses are conditioned to other situations. When designing training, in most circumstances, you want to create situations that are pleasant. When the trainees are comfortable both physically and emotionally, they are better able to focus their attention on training. For these reasons, it is useful to know in advance as much about the trainee as possible.

Operant Conditioning Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that if a particular behavior is immediately followed by a reward, the behavior is likely to be repeated. Also, punishment that immediately follows a particular behavior will decrease the likelihood of that behavior continuing. The following are important points to consider in the design of effective training:

Know the things your trainees will see as rewarding and those that will be seen as punishing.

Plan to reward at lower levels for effort and at higher levels for success using successive approximations.

Use both tangible and intangible rewards. Do not underestimate the power of trainees learning how to self-reward. Sometimes trainers will give coupons to trainees as a recognition and reward for participating in training exercises. These coupons are then redeemed at the end of the day for prizes such as books and/or other mementos related to the training.

Do not forget that feedback is a reinforcer and key element in learning. Design feedback to show what the trainee did well and what needs improvement.

The following example illustrates these points.

Some trainees are reluctant to role-play. However, the role-play is an effective method for achieving behavior change. If role-plays are incorporated into the training design, it is important to ensure that positive reinforcement, rather than punishment, follows. For example, the two trainers might �irst act out a simple role-play to demonstrate how it is done. After it is over, the trainers thank each other and point out some positive things that each did during the role-play. They might then indicate that they would like someone to volunteer to do another simple role-play; when the trainee is �inished, the trainer and the other trainees applaud the efforts. Of course, this approach is successful only if the applause is seen as both real and reinforcing. You might then give the trainee feedback, highlighting the positive things done, and present the trainee with a “participation ticket” that can be exchanged later for a training memento.

Goal Setting Goal-setting research consistently demonstrates that speci�ic, challenging goals result in higher motivation levels than do no goals or the goal of “do the best you can.” Speci�ic goals direct the individual’s energy and attention toward meeting the goal. Several conditions related to goal setting affect performance: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_023)

22

23

Individuals who are given a speci�ic, hard, or challenging goal perform better than those given speci�ic easy goals, “do the best you can” goals, or no goals.

Goals appear to result in more predictable effects when they are given in speci�ic terms rather than as vague intentions.

Goals must be matched to the ability of the individual so the person is likely to achieve it. Being able to achieve the goal is important for an individual’s self-ef�icacy, for that is how individuals judge their ability to perform well on the tasks. For this reason, the analyst will need to design intermediate goals that re�lect progress.

Feedback concerning the degree to which the goal is being achieved is necessary for goal setting to have the desired effect.

For goal setting to be effective, the individual needs to accept the goal that is set.

What is the application of this goal-setting research to training? Well, what better way to capture the interest and attention of trainees than to provide them with individual goals? Learning objectives, discussed earlier, are a form of goal setting and could provide challenging, speci�ic goals. These goals provide the measuring stick against which trainees can evaluate their progress and from which they derive self-satisfaction as they progress.

Goal Orientation Goal orientation, although studied in children for years, has only recently been researched in an organizational context. It is the degree to which an individual is predisposed toward a learning goal orientation versus a performance goal orientation. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_024) Those with a learning goal orientation focus on the learning process. They seek challenging tasks to increase their competence, see negative feedback as important information to help them master the task, and see failure as a learning experience. One result from this learning goal orientation is persistence when having problems doing a complex task. Research shows that a learning goal orientation is associated with increases learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_025)

Those with a performance goal orientation differ because they focus on the end result. They wish to be seen as competent and, therefore, desire favorable feedback. They prefer easier tasks where they are able to demonstrate their competence rather than learning something new. A result of having this performance goal orientation is avoidance of complex tasks for fear of failure, limited persistence, and a tendency to be easily distracted. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_026)

In an organizational setting, those with a performance goal orientation have a strong desire to impress others and focus on the outcome of their performance. Those with a learning goal orientation focus on mastery of the task to develop their competence, acquire new skills, and learn from their experience. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_027) The research using goal orientation in an organizational/training setting has only been going on for a few years, but much of it concludes that it is better to have a learning goal orientation than a performance goal orientation in a training setting. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_028) In other words, the focus should be on the process of learning new things rather than on some end-product performance goal.

Although there is evidence that goal orientation is a trait, the trait can be in�luenced by the situation. In fact, it seems that as long as there are situational cues suggesting a focus on learning rather than performance, the situational cues will override the goal orientation trait. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_029) Furthermore, these �indings tend to be supported when the task is complex and requires new knowledge and strategies. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_030)

What has this to do with design of training? First, it provides support for designing the training of complex tasks with the simple examples before moving to the more complex. You will see how to do this later in the chapter, when we discuss elaboration theory (ET), a macro theory of training design. The use of simple tasks at the beginning will help negate the in�luence of goal orientation. Also, getting trainees to experience success early in training will lessen the effect of goal orientation. The use of practice and feedback will be useful in this regard. In active listening, for example, using the easiest situation possible for beginning to practice a new skill, providing positive feedback, and suggesting alternative methods of response keep the focus on learning. In summary, goal orientation seems to be a personal trait that is in�luenced by cues in the training environment. A training design that starts with the simplest examples and provides positive feedback should negate the negative effect of a performance goal orientation.

So far, we have discussed getting and keeping trainees interested in the training. Now let us examine how to facilitate the learning process. In this regard, a number of important factors need to be addressed when you are designing a training program. These factors will be presented under two headings: facilitation of learning and facilitation of transfer. Facilitation of transfer, of course, also helps facilitation of learning.

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

5.5 Facilitation of Learning: Focus on Training Design Developing effective training programs requires an understanding of how individuals learn. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_031) Learning is at the heart of training. In order to facilitate learning, we must make sure our training design accommodates the trainees’ learning processes. We do this by �irst looking at how effective training practices correspond to social learning theory (SLT). We then look at instructional design theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_005) and see how the concepts from SLT are incorporated into an effective training design.

Social Learning Theory As noted in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , SLT provides a broad description of the process of learning yet is relatively easy to understand. Let’s examine the parts of SLT as they relate to training. Speci�ic training events that correspond to the speci�ic learning processes are illustrated in Table 5-8.

Table 5-8 Learning Processes and Corresponding Training Events

Learning Process Training Events

Attention/Expectancy Creating the learning environment, pretraining communications, statement of objectives and purpose, highlighting of key learning points

Retention

Activation of memory Stimulation of prior related learning

 Symbolic coding and cognitive organization

Presentation of various encoding schemes and cognitive images, associations with previously learned material, order of presentation during training

 Symbolic rehearsal and cues for retrieval

Case studies, hypothetical scenarios, aids for transfer of learning (identical elements or general principles)

Behavioral Reproduction Active and guided practice (role-plays and simulations)

Reinforcement Assessment and feedback (positive and/or negative)

Attention/Expectancy Social learning theory (see Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) in Section 3.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03lev1sec4) ) indicates that the trainee’s motivation in�luences where attention is directed. Trainees attend to things in the environment that are most important to them. Thus, the learning environment and process should be structured so that the most important things are the learning events and materials. Attention distracters need to be removed and creature comforts attended to.

Eliminating Distractions The room should be at a comfortable temperature, not too hot or too cold. People are generally comfortable at a temperature between 71 and 73 degrees Fahrenheit, with a humidity level at about 50 percent. The walls should be a neutral but pleasant color, free from distracting objects (e.g., posters, notices, and pictures unrelated to training). The room should be soundproof. The room should have no view to the outside, but if the room has windows, close the shades or curtains. Ideally, the learning facility will be away from the workplace, so trainees can concentrate on learning rather than be sidetracked by what might be going on at work. If the training must be conducted at the work site, establish a rule that no interruptions are allowed (from bosses, subordinates, or others who “just need a few minutes with . . .”). This rule also means no phones, beepers, or other communication devices while training is being conducted. Communicating with the work area can be important, so the training facility should have a system for incoming messages that can be delivered to trainees during breaks and after completion of training.

The seating should be such that trainees will not become uncomfortable over a two-hour period, but not become so comfortable that they must �ight off sleep. Choose comfortable, �lexible, cloth-covered chairs with armrests. Trainees will also need a surface on which to place their training materials, for engaging in exercises and for writing. Sometimes it is not possible to address some of the elements we identi�ied earlier. In those instances, it is important to let the trainees know that the situation prevents you from dealing with the issue. For example, if you are unable to control the room temperature, you might say something like “The temperature in the room is not adjustable and it might get a little warm. I’ve left the doors open so air can circulate, but if people walking by or talking in the hallway become a distraction I’ll need to close them. Please let me know if you are getting too warm and we’ll take a short break.”

Schedule training activities with the following rule in mind: “The brain can absorb only as much as the seat can endure.” Breaks should be scheduled so that trainees do not have to sit for too long at one time. Provide refreshments if trainees are likely to be hungry at the start of or during training. A growling stomach is a signi�icant force in taking the trainee’s mind off the learning. Remember, food is a reinforcing, so it is important to create positive associations for training while keeping trainees attentive. If lunch is provided, it should be light and not contain large amounts of carbohydrates, which tend to make people drowsy. Also avoid turkey, because it is sleep inducing. Remember how you feel after a turkey dinner? Obviously, alcohol should not be available while training is going on.

Attracting Attention The �irst steps in motivating your employees and setting their expectations are to notify them that they will be participating in the training, inform them of the nature of the training, and explain its job-related bene�its. This pretraining communication should, at a minimum, state the purpose and agenda, the type of attire that is appropriate, and provide contact numbers in case there are questions. You should also inform them if refreshments are going to be available. At the outset of training you should state the learning objectives, and review them at strategic points throughout. Reiterating the objectives helps keep the focus of training on the desired outcomes and attention on the important training activities. However, it is not enough for the trainer simply to state the objectives from time to time. The trainees must accept those objectives. To this end, at the beginning of training, ask trainees to describe how accomplishing the objectives will lead to resolving job-related problems. This exercise not only focuses trainees’ attention on the learning objectives but also builds commitment that will facilitate the transfer of new KSAs back to the job.

31

In addition to accepting the learning objectives, trainees must also feel that the objectives are achievable. This principle comes directly from both expectancy theory and goal setting. The following is a way you can design achievable goals into the training. At the start of training, the overall objective might seem dif�icult, if not impossible, to achieve. Point out that the overall objective is just the �inal step in a series of obtainable sub-objectives. Research on goal setting suggests that following this procedure will result in higher levels of trainee learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_032) Suppose the purpose of a one-day seminar was to “use the con�lict resolution model to calm an irate customer, without giving in to his request.” The thought of calming an irate customer using a method (con�lict resolution model) that the trainees know nothing about might raise trainees’ anxiety level. An intermediate objective that stated, “Respond to a single angry comment using active listening,” does not seem as imposing and would provide a view of one of the steps toward reaching the overall objective.

Finally, the trainees’ attention should be focused on the critical aspects of each step in the learning process. Techniques for highlighting the important points should be built into the learning activities so that the appropriate material is processed into permanently stored information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_033) The method of highlighting will vary according to the instructional method (e.g., case study, lecture). In the example of con�lict resolution training discussed previously, suppose the training included a videotape of the correct steps. As the video progressed through the various stages of the con�lict resolution model, these steps would �lash on the bottom of the screen. This model begins with active listening, so as the video shows the person using active listening, “Active Listening” will be �lashed on the bottom of the screen. This device would give the trainee an idea of how to perform each step and how the steps integrate into the total model.

Retention An individual goes through four stages in the process of retaining something she is taught:

1. Activation of memory

2. Symbolic coding

3. Cognitive organization

4. Symbolic rehearsal and cues for retrieval

Activation of Memory The Social Learning model does not identify the activation of memory as a separate process but includes this as a part of the symbolic coding process. We have separated these two processes to show how each is an important consideration in the design of training. Information that is attended to is transformed into symbolically coded (typically as language) long-term memory. From there, it is called up when the appropriate cues are present. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_034) Before the symbolic encoding process can begin, relevant prior learning must be stimulated, so connections between the new information and the old can be established. The trainer, through stimulating the recall of the relevant prerequisite learning or prior supportive learning, can facilitate this process.

Assume that the trainer has already discussed the various management styles and now wants the management trainees to learn the “relevant employee characteristics” for matching managerial style to the needs of the subordinate. The trainer can stimulate the recall of the prerequisite learning by asking the trainees, “Which employee characteristics are important for determining what management style to use?” Perhaps the trainees provide a few characteristics that are related to a few of the styles, but seem to have run out of ideas. Recalling supportive prior learning can be stimulated by asking the trainees to draw on related experience. In this case, the trainer might say, “Think back to employees you’ve dealt with in the past that seemed to have given you problems. What were their dominant characteristics? What would be an appropriate management style for you to adopt with them?” This activity would recall information supporting the new learning, providing a context for the new learning to occur.

Symbolic Coding and Cognitive Organization Once the appropriate prior learning is recalled, the trainee is ready to encode the new information. The trainer can facilitate the encoding process through the technique of guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_015) . Typically, the trainer makes statements and then asks a question. Assume that the trainees just watched a video of a supervisor and a subordinate discussing the subordinate’s work performance. After watching the video the trainer might say, “Remember, certain employee characteristics are more closely related to how the employee approaches the work situation. In the video, how did the employee approach the work situation and what characteristics are most likely to in�luence this approach?” The statement is intended to stimulate relevant prior learning, and the question is designed to allow the trainee to discover the appropriate rule from the cues provided. The question should not contain all the information needed for the answer but should suggest a strategy for discovering the answer. The trainee develops a coding scheme that relates the new learning to prior learning by engaging in guided discovery with the trainer.

Encoding can be enhanced through the use of images, in addition to being coded as verbal propositions. When symbolic coding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_032) incorporates both verbal propositions and images, retention of the information is improved, probably because image retention and language retention occur through different cognitive channels. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_035) The addition of visual material in support of the oral and written language increases the trainees’ ability to remember the information. So, in communication training, when you are explaining what active listening is, the showing of a video of active listening being used will help the trainee to accurately code the concept.

Cognitive organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_033) is intimately tied to symbolic coding. When you develop the materials and the �low of a training program, you should make sure the new learning builds on relevant older learning. This will help assure that the new learning is organized into the cognitive structure correctly. Similarly, the use of visual models that show how the information �its together will be very helpful in facilitating the cognitive organization of the new material.

As you design the �low of training, you want to help the learner organize the new material by providing various organizational strategies. Imagine a training program on con�lict resolution. The model of con�lict resolution has four steps; active listening, indicating respect, being assertive and providing information. The TNA indicated all trainees have had previous training in active listening. The training, therefore, will build on this prior knowledge. You might ask trainees to recall their active listening skills, and how using it might help in a con�lict situation. This will provide a background for the other three steps and how they integrate into the prior learning, which helps in assuring cognitive organization.

Symbolic Rehearsal Symbolic rehearsal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_034) is a type of practice. It is practicing in your mind, as when the trainer asks the trainees to imagine a hypothetical situation and discuss how they would behave. At this point, the trainees are not actually doing what they have learned to do—they are thinking, talking, or writing about it. Case studies provide one form of symbolic rehearsal. Trainees read about a situation and describe how they would handle the situation. See Training in Action 5-2 for a different way of providing an opportunity for symbolic rehearsal.

32

33

34

35

5-2 Training in Action Using Symbolic Rehearsal to Facilitate Retention The following is a transcript from a training class regarding a Training Needs Analysis

Professor: That’s all I have to say about a TNA, does anyone have any questions?

Silence

Professor: OK I want you to imagine you are going to do a TNA for a small organization of about 50 employees. There is 1 manager (owner) 4 supervisors, and 3 clerical and 42 employees made up of welders, metal workers and laborers. The owner has asked you to come in and train her supervisors as they have had no supervisory training whatsoever. What I want you to do is �irst create a list of questions you would want to ask and who you would ask. Once you’ve done that, then in your groups discuss the questions and come up with a list to share with the rest of the class.

20 minutes elapse

Professor: So, how about Group 3, what have you come up with?

Burt: Well, we have lots of questions for the operational and person analysis, but as a group, we have disagreement as to the need to do an organizational analysis, so we have no questions in that category.

Professor: What about the other groups, is an organizational analysis necessary? Yes Jan.

Jan: We had the same argument, some of us think you always need to do an organizational analysis but a few of us disagreed. Those of us that believe it is necessary have generated some questions for the organizational analysis but there is still the disagreement as to its necessity.

Professor: What about your group Helen?

Helen: We have a number of organizational analysis questions as we all believed it is necessary to do all three levels of analysis whenever you are doing a TNA.

Professor: Alright let’s hear the reasons an organizational analysis is not necessary under these circumstances. OK Pat let’s hear from you.

Pat: Well it is a small organization and clearly the owner just wants us to provide some basic supervisory skills.

Professor: Helen, you obviously disagree, why?

Helen: Well even in a small organization there may be obstacles or poor feedback mechanisms in place that could be preventing supervisors from using effective supervisor skills they may already know. Or, even if they don’t have the skills these obstacles could be in place. When we train the supervisors in the appropriate skills, they would not be able to transfer the training because the obstacles or feedback issues haven’t been identi�ied and dealt with. In that case, we would have wasted the company’s time and money.

Professor: Well does that make any sense to those why thought one might not be necessary?

I see a lot of you nodding your heads yes. So, do you see what happened here. By getting you to symbolically rehearse what you might do, and discussing this with your group, we identi�ied an important issue that needed to be resolved. In SLT jargon we have made sure that all of you have symbolically coded and cognitively organized the material in an appropriate manner. I would think that now after this little exercise, we all understand the importance of the organizational analysis in all situations. Do you agree? Does anyone have anything to add?

Jan: Well I am glad we did this in class as it is an argument we would have de�initely had in our groups eventually, given our project.

Professor: Good, yes Jan I agree, and this is but one more method to assure that symbolic coding and cognitive organization have taken place accurately. Now that we have accomplished that, let’s go through the questions you came up with for each of the categories and discuss them.

Behavioral Reproduction Behavioral reproduction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_050) is the transformation of the learning into actual behavior. Pilot training provides a clear example of the difference between behavioral reproduction and symbolic rehearsal. Pilots go through an extensive training process in learning how to �ly a new aircraft. They read manuals, attend lectures, watch videos, and engage in computer-assisted, self-paced learning modules. Once a suf�icient amount of learning occurs, the pilot trainees demonstrate their knowledge of procedures through discussions with the trainer and one another about what they would do in speci�ic situations. Trainees are given written or visual scenarios and asked how they would respond. All of these activities are symbolic rehearsal. When trainees demonstrate suf�icient cognitive command of the aircraft’s systems, procedures, and capabilities, they are put into �light simulators, which allow them to practice �lying the aircraft. After they demonstrate competence �lying the aircraft in simulation, they �ly the actual aircraft under the supervision of an experienced pilot. The simulation and supervised �lights are behavioral reproduction activities.

Design Theory There are several theories related to the effective design of training. Some, such as component display theory, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_036) are speci�ic only to cognitive learning, and others focus only on attitude change. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_037) For more information on these and many others, you should consult Instructional-Design Theories and Models, Volume III: Building a Common Knowledge Base by Charles Reigeluth. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_038) For our purposes, we will examine two design theories with a broader application: elaboration theory (ET), (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_039) a macro theory of design, and the micro theory of Gagné and Briggs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_040)

Theories of training design are not theories in the traditional sense, because they do not predict cause-and-effect relationships. They prescribe methods of presenting what is to be learned in a way that enhances the likelihood that the learning will occur. So instructional design theories offer guidelines for designing effective training in terms of what techniques to use in what situations. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_041)

36

37

38

39

40

41

Elaboration theory Elaboration theory is a macro theory of design. It is based on a holistic alternative to the part/whole sequencing that is usually followed in training. This holistic approach is more meaningful and motivational for learners, because from the start they see and get to practice the complete task. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_042) It is relevant only for complex tasks (and is not applicable for the design of attitudinal training). To understand when to use ET, it is necessary to understand the issue of sequencing. Sequencing is the process of how to group and order the content of training. It is directed at facilitating the “cognitive organization” aspect of SLT.

If you are training employees in the use of several software packages (word processing, spreadsheet, e-mail use), sequencing is not important, and it does not matter which you teach �irst. If the operating system is Windows and it is a part of the training, it would be necessary to present it �irst (because all other programs require its use). In this case, sequencing is important. Sequencing is important only when a strong relationship exists among the topics of the course. So, if your training included producing charts from the spreadsheet program and integrating them into a necessary word processing document, some sequencing would be necessary.

For the purposes of training different topics, two sequencing strategies are possible: topical and spiral (see Figure 5-3). Topical sequencing requires the complete learning of one topic before moving to the next task. Spiral sequencing requires learning the basics of the �irst task, then the basics from the second task, and so on. After completing the basic understanding of all tasks, the learner moves to the second level of the �irst task to do the same thing. The advantages and disadvantages to each of these strategies are depicted in Table 5-9.

Figure 5-3 Comparison of Topical and Spiral Sequencing

Table 5-9 Comparison of Topical and Spiral Sequencing

Advantages Disadvantages

Topical Concentrate on topic, no interference from other topic Once learned, move to the next topic, and the �irst is forgotten

Spiral Built-in synthesis and review, interrelationships are more obvious and understood Disruption of learner’s thought processes when moving to the next topic

A training program is seldom all one or the other, but a combination of the two, depending on the relationships among the tasks being taught. Consider a weeklong workshop for supervisor training on topics such as effective feedback, effective communication, providing performance reviews, running an effective meeting, problem solving, and so forth. In sequencing these topics, it makes sense to have feedback and effective communication before performance reviews, because they will provide help in doing an effective performance review. They can also be taught separately, using topical sequencing strategy. Consider another topic—problem solving. If you were teaching a six-step problem-solving process, you might combine the methods of sequencing. Learning to de�ine a problem correctly and brainstorming might be taught topically before the problem-solving model is presented because they are stand-alone topics. Then the six-step model could be taught using the spiral method. The learning process is facilitated, because some tasks are learned independently. The complexity of the overall problem-solving process and interrelationship among the steps suggest the use of the spiral approach.

Here is where ET comes in. Recall that it is only applicable to complex tasks and is based on what Charles Reigeluth calls the Simplifying Conditions Method (SCM). As he states:

Regarding complex tasks, the SCM sequencing strategy enables learners to understand tasks holistically. . . . Holistic understanding of the task results in the formation of a stable cognitive schema to which more complex capabilities and understanding can be assimilated. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_043)

42

43

SCM is based on the notion that for all complex tasks, simple and more complex versions exist. Consider driving a car, which is considered a complex task. Driving in an empty lot is much less complex than driving on a freeway during rush hour.

The SCM is based on two parts, epitomizing and elaborating. Epitomizing is the process of identifying the simplest version of the task, which is still representative of the task as a whole. Elaborating is the process of identifying progressively more complex versions of the task. In the design of training, the epitomizing version of the task is taught �irst, followed by increasingly more complex (elaborating) versions of the task until the desired level of complexity is reached. Consider the job of air traf�ic controller. The task is complex; they must assist several aircraft landings under various weather conditions. Training would take place in a simulator when the computer would simulate aircraft landing at the airport. First, determine the epitome: the simplest version of the task possible while still representative of the complex task. It would be where only one aircraft is on the screen, no wind or other adverse weather conditions are present, and the pilot is responding perfectly to the trainee’s instructions (when told to turn to heading 040 and descend at 100 feet per minute, the pilot response is exactly that). Once this epitome is mastered, a number of elaborations of the task must be mastered, each more complex, until the complexity required on the job is reached. In the air traf�ic trainee’s situation, the �irst elaboration is to add a light crosswind, then perhaps errors in responses from the pilot (�irst regarding the heading, then both heading and descent). The �inal elaboration would be matched to the expectation of air traf�ic controller in the �ield.

The major advantage of this approach to training is that the more complete tasks are presented immediately, which should foster better understanding and motivate trainees as they immediately see the relationship between what they are learning and the job-related tasks. Evidence indicates that ET is not only effective but also appealing to trainees. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_044) Students wanting to know more about the theory and see actual examples of its use are referred to work by Carson and Curtis and others. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_045)

This process of presenting the simplest form of the task (Epitomizing) and gradually presenting more complex forms (Elaborating) until the level of complexity needed is reached also helps the trainee develop a higher self-ef�icacy. Recall that earlier in the chapter, we discussed three of the four methods of improving a trainee’s self-ef�icacy. These could be done prior to training. The �inal method was personal experience. Personal successes (experience) through gradual presentation of the task to be learned; �irst in simpli�ied form (epitome), and continued successes through the gradual increase in complexity (elaboration), leads to an increase in a trainee’s self-ef�icacy. So, using the elaboration theory to design your training accomplishes two things. First, such a design makes it easier to learn the concepts. Second, in allowing for consecutive successes, such a design actually helps improve a trainee’s self-ef�icacy.

Let’s go back to the older female supervisor who did not have a good relationship with her subordinates and was sure she could not learn the new interpersonal skills. Recall we suggested some ways to improve her self-ef�icacy prior to training. This would give her more con�idence in believing she could in fact master the skills. Now, in training if we use epitome and elaboration of the skills (starting simple and moving slowly to more complex) she should have some early successes in using the skills, which will improve her self-ef�icacy even more. As a result, she would be more likely to not only learn the skills, but also transfer the skills to the job.

Gagné–Briggs Model and Social Learning Theory The Gagné–Briggs model of instructional design, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_046) discussed in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , is applicable to cognitive, behavioral, and attitudinal learning. It provides a set of procedures to follow for each instructional event to enhance learning. The model identi�ies nine events of instruction, which are tied to social learning theory (see Table 5-10). Note that the �irst event in the theory of instructional design is “attention,” which parallels that of social learning theory. The next event, “informing of the objectives,” further activates a process of getting the trainees’ “attention” focused on training goals. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning is one aspect of activating relevant memory. The one aspect of social learning theory (SLT) that is not addressed in the nine-step model is activation of motivation. As you may recall from SLT (see Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) ), motivation needs to be activated before learning can occur. So, in our discussion of the Gagné–Briggs model we have included an additional step that activates motivation to learn. This is why Table 5-10 is titled the “Revised Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction.” Let’s examine our ten events of instruction in more detail. Typically a training program consists of multiple modules that are integrated to meet the training objectives. It is important to remember as you go through the ten events that they can apply to each module of a training program.

Table 5-10 Relationship Between Revised Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction and Social Learning Theory

44

45

46

Social Learning Theory Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction

Factors to Consider

Training Module (name of module)

Attention/Expectancy Gain attention

Beginning Create/reinforce positive attitude toward training

Provide introductory comments to develop a relaxed atmosphere.

Inform trainee of goals

Describe the objectives for this module.

Activate Motivation to Learn Not included

Discuss the value/ relevance of achieving the goal.

As you are discussing the objectives for the module have trainees explain how they are related to the job. Draw out examples of how achieving the objective(s) will be of value. Use guided discovery technique if no or few examples are forthcoming.

During Module

Retention Focus material on training

Symbolic coding Stimulate recall of prior knowledge

Develop links between previous learning and the new learning (activation of memory).

Make relevant

Cognitive organization Present material

Use multiple media and make interesting.

Make interesting

Ask questions to obtain trainee involvement.

Symbolic rehearsal Provide guidance for learning

Get trainees involved (symbolic rehearsal).

Use relevant examples, and offer many of them.

Behavioral Reproduction/Reinforcement

Elicit performance Encourage learning

Provide relevant activities that allow practice with the material (including maximum similarity and/or different situations).

Provide feedback

Provide time to evaluate performance level accomplished and provide feedback. Tell trainees how they are doing or design activity to provide feedback

Ending of Module

Reinforcement

Ensure that trainees see results of training

Assess performance

Use an assessment tool (written or oral to determine if trainees have the KSAs). Allow trainees to indicate their comfort with the material. Ask for any questions.

Sensitize trainees to dif�iculty in transfer training

Enhance retention and transfer

Review objectives to show what was accomplished. Ask trainees to describe how this could apply to the workplace.

Gain Attention Attention can be gained in several ways (raise voice, clap hands, or a comment such as “Now watch me carefully”), but is best when tied to the training at hand. If the training was in problem solving, for example, ask the question, “How do you go about solving a problem?” or “We have high absenteeism; what should we do about it?” These types of questions focus discussion on the types of problems trainees face and their typical problem-solving approaches. This initial focus leads nicely into the introduction of the problem-solving objectives. Another way to gain attention is to have the CEO/president welcome the trainees and indicate how important the training is to the future of the company. High-level support for training is always important, and when a key decision maker takes time to convey this support, it is especially effective in getting trainees’ attention.

Inform the Learner of the Goal or Objective We covered learning objectives and their importance in depth. Clearly, this step is important in getting the trainee focused and aware of not only what needs to be learned, but also what will be required when training is complete. Also, it is useful to tie the training back to the job and how it will help trainees be better performers. Having done a TNA,

you will �ind this an easy task.

Activate Motivation to Learn This step is not included in the Gagné–Briggs model. However, it is a key process in SLT. Trainers need to activate the trainees’ motivation to learn the new material or learning will not occur. Remember that motivation is one of the three factors that determine whether someone will perform. In this case, performance is learning and without motivation, learning will not occur. One way to get trainees motivated to learn the new material is to tell them how relevant the training is to their job performance and how valuable the training will be to them. A better way would be to get the trainees to describe the training’s relevance and value. This can be accomplished in conjunction with the preceding step (informing of the goal) and the following step (recall of prior knowledge). For example, the trainer could ask trainees to think about problems they have experienced in their job (in the areas the training is targeting). She could then identify the training objectives and as she does, ask the trainees how achieving that objective would be of value. Using this approach the trainer should be able to provide the link between learning the new material and the on-the-job rewards that will follow (i.e., elimination of problems, easier to do, better performance and so on).

Stimulate Recall of Prior Relevant Knowledge This step is important to ensure that the trainee has accessed the information/knowledge necessary for the learning that is about to take place. At the moment of learning, all relevant prerequisite capabilities must be highly accessible to be part of the learning event. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_047) Suppose “team problem solving” training is to be conducted. Previously, some brainstorming training and problem-de�inition training had been completed. Now trainees should be thinking about these topics so that the previous learning will be accessible to the problem-solving training. Ask for an explanation of brainstorming from a trainee, or focus a discussion on these two topics and show how they are related to the present learning task. Or simply review the two topics with a high level of participation from trainees.

Present Material to Be Learned Material is presented in a logical and understandable format. This point seems obvious, but recall that what the trainer might think is obvious might not �it in the trainees’ schema. To ensure understanding, the method of instruction should include several questions designed to elicit responses from trainees regarding their level of understanding. Highlight important points with verbal emphasis (raise voice, slow down presentation for effect). Use easel sheets with bold print to highlight important learning points. Also, eliciting examples from trainees serves to ensure that trainees understand the material. The trainer in team problem solving should list the steps on an easel board for all to see, with the sub-steps provided under each of the main headings. Some simple examples of problems and the procedures to solve them could be on a video for effect. The video could be stopped at each step to highlight the step and the preparation for the next step. These examples re�lect ways in which the organization and presentation of material assist the trainee in their symbolic coding and cognitive organization.

Provide Guidance for Learning The key here is to guide the trainees to the appropriate answer/conclusion, not just to tell them the answer. Get trainees to examine the possibilities related to the topic, both right and wrong. When the solution is reached, the overall discussion will have helped trainees obtain an in-depth understanding of the topic. Provide them with a problem and ask for possible alternatives. For example, in problem-solving training, give trainees a problem such as “absenteeism is high” and ask them to “de�ine the problem” (the �irst step in problem solving). This task gets trainees thinking and providing different perspectives. These different perspectives are shared, and all can assess (depending on whether the response was correct) their own level of understanding. Providing numerous examples allows the trainees to see the generality of the material to many situations. Asking for their examples con�irms that the material is being put into the correct context.

Elicit the Performance Here, trainees actually do it. For example, in the case of learning a problem-solving model, they now would work in teams to solve a real problem. The problem should be similar to or even the same problem they have been discussing all along. It should also be the simplest type of problem they are likely to come across. Until now, working through the solution was piecemeal; now, as a team, they do it as a whole integrated process without interaction with other teams or the trainer. Once they are successful, provide a more complex problem to solve—even suggest that they use one they previously encountered in their workplace.

Provide Feedback Once the team completes a process, a feedback session as to how they did is essential. Feedback can be provided in numerous ways. Videotaping the session and going over it with the team (time-consuming), sitting in on parts of each meeting and providing feedback, or having another team watch and provide feedback are all methods used to provide feedback. The type you use will, to some extent, be a function of the time available and the number of trainees. Of course, designing a program in which training is spread over a number of weeks would allow for more individual feedback between training sessions, but the bene�its must be weighed against the cost of trainer time. The important thing is that trainees know what they are doing right and wrong, and that they can make corrections before training is complete.

Assess Performance The Gagné–Briggs theory indicates that learning should be assessed after each topic is taught. So, after training on effective feedback skills and before moving to performance appraisal training, you need to assess the learning that took place regarding feedback skills. The assessment need not be formal, especially when a formal evaluation may be planned for the end of the training program. But some method of determining whether the trainees learned the material is necessary. Questioning (for cognitive knowledge) is one way to assess this. Asking trainees for a behavioral response (a skill) is also a form of assessment. This approach has two purposes: It con�irms that learning took place and provides for additional practice at recalling the knowledge or performing the skill.

Enhance Retention and Transfer An important part of any training program is the transfer of the training to the job. Designing the program to facilitate retention and transfer is one of the more critical components of the training design. If the purpose of the training is cognitive knowledge, the opportunity for review (retrieval of the information) needs to be provided at spaced intervals after the training is complete. The same applies to skills. All of the support processes discussed earlier are relevant here. For an example of using the Gagné– Briggs design theory to develop training, see Table 5-11. This is an example of an introductory module of a multi-module training program designed to teach supervisors how to give feedback.

Table 5-11 Module for “Giving Effective Feedback” Using the Revised Gagné–Briggs Ten Step Model

47

Event Feedback Training

Gain attention

Ask questions of trainees to initiate interest in topic of feedback: “Who has received constructive feedback that they actually appreciated?” If some have, ask them what it was about the feedback that made it better than other feedback they received. If no one has, ask what it was about previous feedback that made them not appreciate it. Have a brief discussion about what is wrong with the typical feedback received and what would make it better.

Inform of goal

Show objectives and discuss; tie to previous discussion.

Activate motivation to learn:

Discuss the value/relevance of the objectives. Have the trainees identify how achieving the objectives will improve their ability to work with their subordinates, peers and supervisors.

Stimulate recall of prior knowledge

Ask “How do you behave when you are trying to help someone versus when you are disciplining them?” “How do you behave toward someone you are trying to help (helping is what feedback is all about)?” Get trainees to verbalize things they do such as “provide it in private,” “do it as soon as possible,” and so forth, to put them in a helping frame of mind with their rules for helping in their “working memory.”

Present material

Share a list of what makes for effective feedback—be speci�ic, not general; be descriptive, not evaluative; and so forth. Present it on an easel sheet in bold. Provide examples for each item.

Provide guidance

Provide trainees with multiple examples (some good, some poor) and ask for input as to effectiveness. Give a handout sheet with a number of feedback statements, and ask trainees to rate their effectiveness. Get trainees in small groups to discuss their results and come up with a group consensus as to which are good and which are not so good. Have them provide a rationale. Now go through each and ask trainees to discuss this in terms of their responses.

Elicit performance

Performance here is cognitive knowledge about what is effective, and not effective feedback. Ask trainees to form groups of three. Have one of the three teach the others the rules of effective feedback with examples. Then switch, so each trainee has the opportunity to show that they know the information well enough to teach it to others and provide their own unique examples.

Provide feedback

The other two trainees receiving training complete an evaluation form giving feedback to the one doing the training (in the groups of three). The trainer also goes around to each group and provides feedback.

Assess performance

Conduct a quiz that asks trainees to recall the rules for effective feedback. Go through a list of feedback examples (similar to the ones earlier), and indicate which are effective, which are not effective, and why they were not effective.

Enhance retention and transfer

Trainees will be back to learn the behavioral component of training in a week. At that time, review will take place to facilitate retention.

Strategic Knowledge In the past, training was designed to provide trainees with only the KSAs needed for their particular job. Many organizations found that more broadly based training leads to greater organizational effectiveness. In many cases, physical work is being replaced by knowledge work. An examination of some of North America’s best-managed companies found that the use of management teams was a common approach. This use of teams is on the increase all over Northern America. The Center for Study of Work Teams at the University of North Texas indicates that about 80 percent of the Fortune 500 companies use teams with half or more of their employees. To be effective in the team approach, employees need a broad understanding of how their jobs interact with other jobs. In these companies, job-speci�ic training is supported with information about the job’s relationship to other parts of the organization. This type of training incorporates aspects of strategic knowledge development because it allows trainees to understand when and why to use their new KSAs.

Strategic knowledge development increases the breadth of what is learned by extending the training content to include learning when and why KSAs are appropriate and developing strategies for their use. The strategies that are developed revolve around the planning, monitoring, and modifying of behavior. The trainee learns not only how to perform the task but also how to behave strategically and adaptively. Table 5-12 compares a traditional skills training format with a strategic knowledge training format. You can see that the main difference is that the strategic knowledge training provides information as to when the skill is used and why it is important. Trainees are also provided with practice sessions in determining when to use the skill.

Table 5-12 Comparison of Traditional and Strategic Knowledge Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_054)

54

Training Topic: Reading and Interpreting Quality Control Charts

Traditional Training Strategic Knowledge Training

Step 1

Declarative Knowledge (what) is presented. Trainees are told the purpose of the training and given speci�ic objectives.

The different types of charts that are used in the work area and their purpose are explained.

The different components of the charts are presented with a brief explanation

Step 1

Declarative Knowledge (what) is presented in the same way as in traditional training.

Step 2

The context is presented. How the information from each of the charts is used to make decisions about production processes is explained. It is explained that if the trainees could read and interpret quality control data, mistakes would be caught earlier and the product saved instead of scrapped.

Step 2

Procedural Knowledge (how) is presented.

Trainees are guided in recalling required mathematics skills.

Then the information and materials required to master the task are presented. Trainees are shown how to create the charts during production and interpret them. Examples of charts with explanations are provided.

Step 3

Procedural Knowledge (how) is presented in the same was as traditional training, but with the following addition.

The context for the procedures is added by explaining why the procedures used to create the charts are important and the appropriate times for applying the procedures.

Step 3

Trainees practice using the charts and interpreting the results.

Step 4

Trainees practice using the charts and also are given exercises to allow practice in determining when and why to use them.

Workers are provided opportunities for rehearsal and reinforcement of both declarative and procedural knowledge.

Step 4

Trainees are given feedback.

Step 5

Trainees would be given feedback (same as in traditional training).

5.6 Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Training Transfer of training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_011) refers to how much of what is learned in training transfers to the job. Training can result in the following transfer outcomes: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_048)

Positive transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_012) : a higher level of job performance,

Zero transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_013) : no change in job performance, or

Negative transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_014) : a lower level of job performance.

The goal is to have training result in positive transfer to the job.

Research into factors that in�luence transfer of training focuses on three areas: conditions of practice, identical elements, and stimulus variability. The research also provides evidence that the nature of feedback, the strategies used for retention, and goal setting can in�luence how well the training is transferred back to the job.

Conditions of Practice Opportunities for trainees to practice can be designed in several ways. Each will facilitate the transfer of training more or less effectively depending on the nature of the KSAs to be learned.

Massed versus Spaced Practice Which is more effective—having trainees practice continuously for four hours, for one hour on four different days, or for a half hour on eight different days? Research demonstrated that material learned under the latter approach, spaced practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_015) , is generally retained longer than is material learned under the �irst approach, massed practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_016) . (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_049) This �inding is one of the most replicated in psychological research, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_050) and additional support was found for simple motor tasks in a recent meta- analytic review of the research. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_051) However, spaced practice requires a longer training cycle, and management generally resists it. Training departments need to become more creative in developing their training to allow for spaced practice. Instead of the traditional one-day workshop, eight one-hour sessions at the beginning of the workday might be possible. Instead of a �ive-day workshop, consider once a week for �ive weeks. This approach also gives trainees time to think about and even practice the knowledge or skill on their own.

Regarding more complex tasks, the research is less clear. A recent meta-analytic review suggests that using spaced practice for complex tasks is not as critical. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_052) Tasks that are dif�icult and complex seem to be performed better when massed practice is provided �irst, followed by briefer sessions with more frequent rest intervals. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_053) More recent work suggests that although there is no difference between the two with regard to acquisition of the complex task, spaced practice seems to inoculate trainees against skill loss over extended periods of nonuse. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_055)

Whole versus Part Learning First we need to be clear that in most instances it is important to provide an explanation of the whole before getting into the details of the individual parts of the training material. The learner needs to understand the “big picture” to see how the facts, principles, and concepts that will be presented in each of the “parts” of the training relate to each other and to the job. A wall chart that visually depicts the overall structure and individual parts of the training will be useful to trainees as a reference as the training moves through its individual modules.

Once the big picture is understood, the question still remains, should the training be designed to teach everything together or should it be separated into its component parts? From the learner’s perspective this is termed part learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_017) and whole learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_018) . Whether trainees should learn parts of a task separately or learn the whole task all at once depends on whether the task can be logically divided into parts. In many cases, it is just too dif�icult to design part training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_056) Whole training devices are much easier because the design can be modeled after the real device (e.g., pilot-training simulators). James Naylor suggests that even when the task can be divided into parts, the whole method is still preferred when

The intelligence of the trainee is high,

The training material is high in task organization but low in complexity, and

Practice is spaced rather than massed. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_057)

Task organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_019) relates to the degree to which the tasks are interrelated (highly dependent on each other). For example, in driving a car, the steering, braking, and acceleration are highly interdependent when you are turning a corner (high organization). Starting a standard-shift car, however, requires a number of tasks that are not as highly organized (pushing in the clutch, putting the gear shift in neutral, placing the foot on the accelerator, and turning the key to start). Task complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_020) relates to the level of dif�iculty of performing each task. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_058)

In the design of training, it is often not practical to attempt to subdivide the task into meaningful parts. If it is possible to subdivide them, use the whole method if the task organization is high and use the part method if task organization is low.

As an example of high-task organization, imagine training a backhoe operator to dig a hole by �irst having her practice raising and lowering the boom, then moving the outer arm in and out, and �inally moving the bucket. This sequence simply does not make sense. Ultimately the trainee has to learn how to open each of the valves concurrently and sequentially in the digging of a hole. An example of low-task organization is the maintenance of the backhoe. Here a number of tasks (check the teeth on the bucket, check the hydraulic oil, and inspect the boom for cracks) are not highly organized, so each could be taught separately.

A third option, progressive part training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_021) , can be used when tasks are not as clear in their organization. Consider the training of con�lict resolution skills. Imagine that the model to be taught involves four steps (actively listen, indicate respect, be assertive, and provide information). These tasks are interdependent but might also be taught separately. In this case, a combination of the two types may make sense. The process is as follows:

1. The trainees learn and practice active listening.

48

49

50

51

52

53

55

56

57

58

2. Then the trainees learn and practice active listening and indicating respect.

3. Then the trainees learn and practice active listening, indicating respect, and being assertive.

4. Finally, the trainees learn and practice the whole model.

Whole, part, and a combination of the two (progressive part) learnings are represented in the following diagram:

Phases

Training Type Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5

Whole A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D

Part A B C D A + B + C + D

Progressive Part A A + B A + B + C A + B + C + D A + B + C + D

As mentioned previously, “whole learning” is generally preferred. However, you will need to take into consideration the cognitive load (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_022) that is being placed on your trainees. Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental processing that is needed for the trainee to learn the material. The less familiar the trainee is with the material, the more complex the material, and the more material there is to learn, the higher the cognitive load. Other factors such as stress, fatigue, low self-ef�icacy, and so forth, can also increase the cognitive load. Perhaps you’ve experienced the situation in which the instructor just presented a constant stream of facts, principles and concepts until you felt that you just couldn’t take anymore. At that point you probably shut down your processing of the information, feeling that your brain was overloaded. As a trainer you can avoid this type of situation by designing the material to be presented in organized and “right-sized” chunks. Allowing trainees to master smaller tasks (overlearning) leads to better learning of the whole.

Overlearning Overlearning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_023) is the process of providing trainees with continued practice far beyond the point at which they perform the task successfully. The more a task is overlearned, the greater the retention. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_059)

Overlearning is particularly valuable for tasks that are not used frequently or if the opportunity to practice them is limited. In a study of soldiers assembling and disassembling their weapons, the overlearning group received extra trials equal to the number of trials it took them to learn the task. The other group, called the refresher group, received the same extra number of trials as the overlearning group, but at a later date. The third group received no extra trials. The overlearning and refresher groups both outperformed the third group, but the overlearning group also retained more than the refresher group. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_060) Even when information or skills are overlearned, however, it is important to put mechanisms in place to reinforce the use and practice of the learned behaviors on a continual basis, especially when it is a newly learned knowledge or skill. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_061)

When trainees practice a skill beyond the ability to simply do the task, the responses become more automatic and eventually do not require thinking. For this reason, overlearning is most valuable for tasks performed in high-intensity or high-stress situations such as emergencies. For example, one trainee recalls that numerous times during initial pilot training in the air force, the instructor would pull back the throttle of the aircraft and yell, “Emergency!” He did it frequently, and soon the trainee discovered that thinking was not even required—the emergency procedures became automatic. This re�lexive nature is important in a situation where correct responses are critical.

In Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) we de�ined the concept of automaticity, a concept closely related to overlearning. It could be thought of as an outcome of overlearning, although it could also occur after a great deal of on-the-job practice. It is a shift to a point where performance of a task is �luid, requires little conscious effort, and, as the name implies, is “automatic.” Automaticity, through overlearning, should be designed into training when the task will be performed in high-stress situations, or those that are encountered infrequently but must be performed correctly.

Maximize Similarity Maximizing similarity is also known as identical elements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_024) . The more the elements in the training design are identical to the actual work setting, the more likely it is that transfer will occur. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_062) Two areas of similarity are possible: the tasks to be performed and the environment in which they are to be performed. How to increase similarity? A newscaster reading the news on television must use a teleprompter (the task) while someone is talking to him via an earphone (environment). After the basic skill is learned, the trainees practice the skill in an environment similar to their actual workplace environment to ensure transfer. A machinist is exposed to the background noise of the factory �loor and the interruptions common to the job. The secretary is exposed to the of�ice noise and to the interruptions that occur in the of�ice.

Vary the Situation It is much easier to use the concept of identical elements for motor or technical skills, where most of the elements required for learning are in the job situation. When conceptual or administrative skills are required, as in management training, a great deal of variability often characterizes typical situations, and the use of identical elements simply is not effective. In such cases, the general principles approach is more useful.

General Principles For much of management training, it is impossible to provide speci�ic training for what to do in every situation that might arise. It is necessary, therefore, to provide a framework or context for what is being taught, which is what strategic knowledge training attempts to do. Training through general principles will better equip trainees to handle novel situations.

Suppose that in teaching managers how to motivate employees, you tell them that praise is a good motivator. A manager goes back to the job and begins praising workers. Some workers are not motivated and, in some cases, they even become less motivated. The manager is at a loss. If, however, the managers were taught some general principles about motivation, they would understand the responses they get and alter their own behavior. The principles related to expectancy theory suggest that certain rewards are attractive to some and not to others. Furthermore, it indicates that praise must be a function of performance to be motivating. The manager could think through these principles and identify what change was required to motivate those not responding to the praise. For some of these employees, the attractive outcome might be for the manager to say nothing and stay away when they perform at an appropriate level.

Other Considerations to Facilitate Transfer

59

60

61

62

Knowledge of Results Providing feedback (knowledge of results (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_025) ) to a trainee is important to learning and the transfer of training back to the job. Feedback performs three functions: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_063)

1. It tells trainees whether their responses are correct, allowing for necessary adjustments in their behavior.

2. It makes the learning more interesting, encouraging trainees to continue.

3. It leads to speci�ic goals for maintaining or improving performance.

When providing such feedback, it is better to indicate that the trainee can control the level of performance. Sometimes inexperienced trainers will try to be supportive by suggesting that the task is dif�icult, so any problems in mastering it are understandable. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_064) This approach reinforces low self-ef�icacy. Feedback indicating that a trainee can master the task improves a person’s self-ef�icacy, and trainees with high self-ef�icacy tend to be more motivated and achieve more. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_065)

Frequent opportunities to provide feedback should be part of the training design. Providing feedback takes a rather long time if the group is large because the trainer needs to get to all trainees and monitor improvements. To help overcome this problem, other trainees can be used to provide feedback. For example, three-person groups can be used in interpersonal skills training. One of the three acts as an observer of the behavior and provides feedback to the person who is practicing.

Combination of Relapse Prevention and Goal Setting A major reason that training does not transfer to the job is that, once back on the job, the trainee faces many of the same pressures that caused reduced effectiveness in the �irst place. Marx (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_066) instituted a system of relapse prevention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_026) into his training, modeled after a successful approach to assisting addicts to resist returning to their addictive behavior. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_067) The strategy sensitizes trainees to the fact that relapse is likely, prepares them for it by having them identify high-risk situations that will result in relapse, and helps them develop coping strategies to prevent such a relapse.

Goal setting has also been shown to increase the likelihood of transfer. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_068) With goal setting, the trainees are required to meet with fellow trainees to discuss the goals and how they will accomplish them. Furthermore, trainees are required to keep a record of their goal accomplishments, return these records to the trainer, and promise to meet at a later date to discuss these accomplishments publicly. This public commitment, through documentation of behavior, discussions with fellow trainees, and monitoring by trainers, further increases the likelihood of transfer.

Some evidence shows that relapse prevention without goal setting is not always successful, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_069) so Marx incorporated both the goal setting and public commitment into his relapse prevention training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_070) This revised relapse prevention training is presented in Table 5-13. Table 5-14 presents some of the relapse prevention strategies (step 4 in Table 5-13) used in training. In preparation for relapse prevention training, trainees complete a relapse prevention worksheet (Figure 5-4) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_071) to get them thinking of the issues involved.

Table 5-13 Seven-Step Relapse-Prevention Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_072)

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

Step Purpose

1. Choose a skill to retain

Helps manager to identify and quantify the skill chosen. Goal setting and monitoring of the skill require clear de�initions of the skills, so this is an important step and often requires help from the trainer. “Be nice to my employees” is not clear enough and needs to be revised to something more concrete such as “Provide praise to employees when they meet their quota.”

2. Set goals Once a skill has been de�ined and quanti�ied, then appropriate de�initions of what a slip (warning that goal is in jeopardy) and relapse (more serious disengagement from goal) are. From this, goals are set as to what is desired. For example, the goal might be to praise at least �ive employees a minimum of once a day when they meet their quotas. Then de�ine what a slip is: “Two consecutive days where �ive employees are not praised”; and what a relapse is: “A week where targeted behavior is not met.”

3. Commit to retain the skill

Need to think about the reasons for maintaining the skill. Trainees write out advantages of maintaining the skills.

4. Learn coping (relapse prevention) strategies

These strategies help increase awareness of potential trouble spots, how to respond emotionally and behaviorally, where to get help, and so forth.

5. Identify likely circumstances for �irst relapse

The trainees are asked to think of a situation that would most likely cause them to slip back to old behavior. Prepares them for when it really happens and provides a nice transition to the next step, which is practice.

6. Practice coping (relapse prevention) strategies

With an understanding of what will cause a slip, trainees work in small groups practicing (using role-plays, and so forth) how to maintain the skill in such situations.

7. Learn to monitor target skill

Develop feedback mechanisms to help you monitor the frequency of using the speci�ied skill. Use of whiteboard in of�ice or notepad where you can check off each time you use the skill.

Table 5-14 Coping Strategies for Relapse Prevention

Step Purpose

Understand the relapse process

By understanding that relapses are common and can be expected, it better prepares the trainee for such events. When a slip or relapse occurs, it is expected.

Recognize difference between training and the work setting

In training, there is often a lot of positive feedback from peers and the trainer. This creates some overcon�idence about how easy it will be to continue with the new skill when back on the job. However, you need to think about the likelihood that this attention and feedback will not happen back on the job, so realize that the transfer will be more dif�icult.

Create an effective support network on the job

Identify and enlist others who can support you back on the job. Peers who have also attended the same training and superiors who are supportive can be asked to provide you with needed feedback on how you are doing.

Identify high- risk situations

Determine times and situations where you are likely to slip back to old behavior. These cognitive “�ire drills” help you determine cues that signal a potential slip.

Reduce emotional reactions that interfere with learning

Understanding that there will be slips and not reacting with feelings of failure, or tendency to blame the poor training. These responses are self- defeating, and being aware that they are likely to occur prepares you to take them in stride. Realize that it is a part of the learning process and does not re�lect poorly on you or the training

Diagnose speci�ic support skills necessary to retain new skill

Determine what support skills are necessary to assist in the transfer of the trained skill. Consider the skill of allowing the team, rather than the supervisor, to make the decisions. This is dif�icult to change, and the skill of time management is an important collateral skill. If you are always running behind, the tendency to make the decisions yourself or push the team to hurry will interfere with the taught skill. You need to be aware of this and, if necessary, also get training in the collateral skills.

Identify organizational support for skill retention

Determine who in the organization will support the skill, and actively seek them out for assistance in providing feedback. Ask supervisor to give feedback even if initially, the supervisor is not that interested in doing so.

This combination of relapse prevention and goal setting is a powerful tool for encouraging transfer. The relapse part uses both cognitive and behavioral components to facilitate long-term maintenance of the newly learned behaviors. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_073) Trainees leave the training expecting that relapse is a strong possibility, but possessing a repertoire of coping responses to deal with it. The addition of the goal setting and public commitment further provides an incentive for transfer. Recent research indicates this method is particularly effective where the climate for the transfer is not supportive. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_074)

Figure 5-4 Relapse Prevention Worksheet

73

74

5.7 Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Organizational Intervention In Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) , we noted that once a performance gap is identi�ied, the next step is to determine how much of the gap is a function of inadequate KSAs and how much arises from other factors. Remember what Nancy Gordon from Ameritech said, that many of these gaps are a function of organizational forces and not a lack of KSAs. Just as these forces can interfere with effective performance, they can also interfere with new learning and inhibit transfer. To increase the likelihood of transfer, therefore, it is useful to harness as much help as possible back on the job.

Supervisor Support Supervisor support is one of the key determining factors for the transfer of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_075) Supervisors need to understand the behaviors being trained and provide support for trainees who use these new behaviors back on the job. In addition, research indicates that transfer is more likely when supervisors provide trainees with desired outcomes upon successful completion of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_076) These actions on the part of supervisors will go a long way toward facilitating transfer.

Supervisors also can affect their employees’ learning and transfer of training in other ways. If employees who are motivated to improve (involved in their own development) receive support from their supervisors for such developmental activity, this support enhances their motivation. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_077) Also, motivation to learn can be enhanced when employees understand realistic information regarding the bene�its of their development activities. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_078) Two other factors that affect motivation to learn are the employee’s perception of training relevance and reduction of negative side effects (like work that piles up) of attending training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_079) These two factors can also be controlled, to a great extent, by the supervisor.

Peer Support Research indicates that peer support can also have a positive effect on transfer of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_080) If the trainee is the only one from a department who receives training, peers back on the job might not understand how to provide social support. In some climates, this situation could result in pressure from more experienced peers to “forget all that stuff.” With the right climate, however, peers can provide the proper support to use the training. What is the right climate? Learning must be considered an integral aspect of the organization’s ongoing operation, becoming part of the employees’ and managers’ responsibilities. If everyone is involved in the learning process, it continues beyond the classroom. Most important, all employees must understand and support overall organizational objectives. By involving the entire workgroup in training, the resulting peer pressure will support company goals and objectives. With this type of climate, it is possible to use peer support in a more formalized manner. Peers could be considered potential coaches. Although it is the supervisor who is generally thought of as a coach to help recently trained employees transfer their skills to the workplace, experienced peers can also take on this role. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_081) The peers would receive training as coaches and be provided with speci�ic checklists to evaluate trainees periodically on their performance. In addition, more experienced peers can serve as mentors, willing to answer questions and provide advice, guidance, and support to remedy the dif�iculties trainees may encounter in applying the new skills to the work situation.

We discuss strategies for dealing with different climates in a later section. For now, it is suf�icient to note that it is the training department’s responsibility to inform upper management of the advantages of creating such a climate if the goal is to encourage transfer of training.

Trainer Support Conventional wisdom is that the trainer’s job is done when training is over. More recent research, however, demonstrates the value of continued trainer involvement in the transfer of training. Trainees who commit to meet the trainer and other trainees at some later date to discuss transfer of training use the training more effectively. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_082) Thus, value derives from the continued involvement of the trainer, who can be a useful resource in helping trainees work through any problems encountered in the workplace.

In this regard, one idea is to have trainers monitor trainees at some point after training to assess how they are doing and provide feedback. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_083) The trainer sits in and observes the trainee in a situation where she is required to use the trained behavior. To be effective, the sit-in (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_027) must be

voluntary on the part of the trainee,

con�idential between the trainer and trainee, and

only for developmental purposes, not administrative

During the sit-in, the trainer must not interrupt the interaction between the trainee and others and provide feedback only after the session is over. After all, “Who is better to be coaching the trainee on behaviors that were learned in training than the trainer?” (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_084)

Using the trainer in a follow-up to facilitate transfer of training might spread the trainers rather thin. However, it is important to consider the investment already made in training. If transfer does not occur, the investment is lost.

Reward Systems As noted earlier, valued outcomes contingent upon successful training enhance training transfer. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_085) Operant conditioning is a powerful regulator of behavior. Employees are quite adept at determining which behaviors can get them in trouble, bring them rewards, or result in their being left alone. If trained behaviors are not reinforced, then the likelihood is small that such behaviors will be exhibited. Part of the trainer’s responsibility is to work with the supervisor and other parts of the organization to align reward systems to support the behaviors learned in training.

Climate and Culture Using a systems approach to training, you facilitate transfer of learning by focusing as many forces as possible on reinforcing the learned behaviors. Although supervisors, peers, and reward systems all in�luence an organization’s climate and culture, these factors need to be discussed in their own right.

Climate

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

Climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_028) can in�luence the transfer of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_086) Climate is generally conceptualized as the perception of salient characteristics of the organization. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_087) Such salient characteristics as company policies, reward systems, and management behaviors are important in determining the organizational climate. Supervisor support and peer support are part of the total climate that will reinforce the use of the trained skills, but they alone do not make up an organization’s climate. Other climate factors such as company policies and the attitudes re�lected by upper management regarding training, if positive, will also support the transfer of training. Consider how trainees perceive training. If they believe adequate resources (time and money) went into the development of training, trainees are more motivated to attend and learn. The message here is that the company cares enough about this training to devote valued resources. If these characteristics do not describe the climate, it might be better not to offer training at all. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_088) Cultivating such a supportive climate toward training is important and does facilitate transfer. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_089)

Climate is related to, and in many ways re�lects, the culture of an organization. When asked, “What is useful in promoting transfer of training?” HR specialists and supervisors responded that it is critical to have a culture that supports training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_090)

Culture Culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_029) is de�ined as a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered, or developed by a group within the organization. It can be considered a set of shared understandings about the organization. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_091) One type of culture—a continuous learning culture—evidenced by the shared understanding that learning is an important part of the job, shows a positive effect on the transfer of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_092) A continuous learning culture is in�luenced by a variety of factors such as challenging jobs, social support (peer and supervisor), and developmental systems that allow employees the opportunity to learn continually and receive appropriate training.

In�luencing Climate and Culture Given the importance of climate, what can be done if the climate is nonsupportive or neutral regarding training? Changing climate and culture in an organization is a long and dif�icult process and must be done from the top. Issues related to the mismatch of the training goals and organizational climate and culture should surface in the organizational analysis part of the needs analysis. This information would then be provided to the top HR manager.

Evidence in North America indicates that the HR departments of organizations now carry more in�luence in organizational decision making than in the past (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_093) and that employees in these departments are better trained in HR issues. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_094) With this increased in�luence and training, HR professionals are responsible for helping the company leadership to understand and resolve con�licts between organizational strategies and objectives and the existing climate and culture. Training in Action 5-3 provides an example of things that, when incorporated into the training process to facilitate transfer, help change the learning climate and culture.

5-3 Training in Action Helping Ensure Transfer Dr. Richaurd Camp is a consultant to many organizations in the United States and abroad. A few years back, an executive search �irm hired him to train its employees on effective interviewing techniques. This was a key part of their work. Dr. Camp, in a meeting with the �irm’s management, discussed the importance of approaching the training as an organizational intervention and the need to consider several organizational factors to ensure that the training transferred to the job. The client would be spending a great deal of money on the training and was willing to do what was necessary to ensure transfer, which would be especially dif�icult because the international company is highly decentralized.

After a number of meetings with management, Dr. Camp designed a three-day workshop to provide the interviewing skills requested. The �irst group to go through the training consisted of all the top managers, including the president. This not only provided them with the necessary skills but also garnered their support for the process throughout the organization. He then began training of all the other employees, from the top down. At the beginning of each training session, to indicate the importance of the training to the trainees, a video of the president of the company was shown. In the video, the president indicates the importance of the training and how it would make them a more effective organization. Furthermore, a senior manager who also verbalized support for the training was in attendance at each training session. The manager was also able to provide real-life examples of when employees had used old versus new training skills, and he answered questions that arose about using the training back on the job. This put the training in a real organizational context for the trainees.

In each local area, “stars” were identi�ied (those using the process very effectively) and used as a resource people to facilitate transfer. After training, employees were also assigned coaches (recall that everyone has received the training, so experienced coaches were available). To reinforce the importance of using the skills on the job, Dr. Camp developed a “one-day refresher” training and went to the various of�ices to provide this. Part of the “refresher” training was to share concerns about the dif�iculties in implementing the process and to generate ideas on how to make transfer easier. At the end of this training, Dr. Camp encouraged trainees to send him copies of the “outcome of an interview process” so he could provide them with feedback to again facilitate effective transfer to the job.

Dr. Camp then suggested that the company develop a task force to examine how effective the transfer of training was and consider other steps that could be taken to ensure that what trainees were learning was being transferred to the job. A representative of the task force began meeting with employees (while they were at different training sessions) to explore ways of facilitating the transfer. One of the ideas to come from these meetings was that each trainee team up with another trainee who was at the training session. When they got back to their respective of�ices throughout the world, they would stay in contact, providing support, feedback, and ideas for dealing with obstacles to using the trained skills.

How successful has the training been? Management has looked at some bottom-line results and has determined that the training has helped them become more pro�itable. Does everyone use the skills as effectively as they could? No, but the organization continues to work on ideas to encourage the transfer. Recently, the task force has begun discussing the possibility of videos and online information to introduce the skills and to reinforce their correct use.

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

Focus on Small Business Small businesses follow more sophisticated HR policies today than in the past. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_095) In fact, a recent study suggests that many of their policies and practices are not much different from those of large businesses. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_096) Furthermore, like larger businesses, effective HR practices have been shown to have a positive effect on quality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_097) and productivity. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_098) These �indings suggest that small businesses are beginning to realize the importance of sound HR practices.

Much of what was discussed earlier is relevant for any size organization. Ensuring that employees are highly motivated to learn, and presenting interesting and relevant training, is the goal no matter what the size of the company. Again, the major problem in many training programs is not the learning of the skills but the transfer of these skills to the job. We believe that given the requirements necessary for transfer of training, the small business enjoys a de�inite advantage. We see that climate and a continuous learning culture go a long way toward ensuring the transfer of training. Although any organizational change is dif�icult, a small organization should be able to accomplish climate and culture change faster and more easily than a large one. Furthermore, in the small business, it should be easier to obtain and demonstrate top management’s commitment. In many of the large company interventions conducted by the authors, top management provides written or verbal support for the intervention, but little else. Most of our dealings are with the HR manager, rather than with the CEO or president. Although we stress the continued involvement of upper management, we often have little interaction with top management once the intervention has begun. Top management typically feels they must spend their time on more important things.

In the small �irm, it is often the CEO or owner who makes decisions about the type of training and development that will be provided. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_099) Access to these individuals is much easier and provides a greater opportunity for you to in�luence them. Because of their greater involvement, they often develop a clearer understanding of their role in making training successful. An example of this involvement is shown in our Training in Action 5-4.

5-4 Training in Action Real Support The Sandwich Community Health Centre is a service-oriented organization with about 35 employees located in Sandwich, Ontario, Canada. The executive director and assistant executive director of the organization wanted to integrate the two areas of the organization (clinical and health promotion) and develop a team approach to much of the community care they offer. After a discussion on the issue, a consultant conducted a TNA and provided training on communication skills and con�lict resolution.

Everyone attended training, even the executive director. This involvement by top management conveyed an important message about the importance of the training. Top management also insisted that the training be evaluated. Knowing that an assessment would be made at some future date kept everyone focused on the need to change. Finally, although no formal culture assessment was made, the interviews conducted in the TNA clearly indicated a climate of continuous learning.

Will the training in Training in Action 5-4 transfer? According to the research, it stands a good chance. The fact that the organization is small enough that all could attend the same training at the same time and experience the same things will help the transfer process. This situation simply could not occur in a larger company.

95

96

97

98

99

Outcomes of Design As noted at the start of this chapter, to develop effective training programs you need to understand the various factors that facilitate learning and transfer. This is one of the three outputs of the design phase. The other two outputs are the development of evaluation methods and the identi�ication of alternative methods of instruction.

Evaluation The design of the evaluation for your training has already begun if you have been following our training process model. The methods you used to determine the organizational and person performance gaps are the same methods you should use to evaluate whether the training has reduced those gaps. The objectives you set (reaction, learning, etc.) de�ine the behaviors, standards and conditions for evaluating the effectiveness of the training. These become one set of inputs to the evaluation process discussed in Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) . Recall the learning objective from earlier in the chapter:

Using a drop wire, bushing, and connector, but without the use of a manual, the trainee will splice a drop wire according to the standards set out in the manual.

This objective assists us in development of the evaluation. From the objective it is clear that we need to develop a behavioral test that will assess how well the trainee will splice a drop wire compared with the standards set out in the manual. Ideally, you would have developed such a test when you were assessing employees to determine their needs. Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) discusses evaluations strategies when this is not the case. In any case, you should begin the design of your evaluation strategy once you have addressed the other design issues. Once you have completed the development phase you should �inalize the evaluation strategy (develop the evaluation instruments, determine the time frame and location and so on). Note in Fabrics, Inc. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i79#ch05sidebar05) how we use the learning objectives in the development of the evaluation. You should �ind it useful to re-read this portion of Fabrics, Inc., just prior to reading Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) on evaluation, so that the contiguity between design and evaluation remains clear.

Identi�ication of Alternative Methods of Instruction In addition to developing the evaluation for the training, you also begin developing the training. To do this, you �irst need to understand the various methods available and what their effectiveness is in terms of training KSAs. So the next two chapters (Chapters 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) and 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) ) provide that information. Then in Chapter 8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) we return to the development of training, which, as noted earlier, is done in tandem with developing the evaluation.

Case: The Real World of Training . . . What Is Wrong Here? (Conclusion) Were you able to �igure out what went wrong in the two cases at the beginning of the chapter? Both deal with the need to develop good training objectives.

Case 1 Recall the incidents discussed in Case 1 at the beginning of the chapter. Training in troubleshooting did not transfer well. What went wrong? Would more training have helped the mechanics become better troubleshooters? Reexamine the training that took place. The instructor provided a problem, and the trainees indicated the symptoms that would result from the problem. This problem/symptom sequence was the exact opposite of what they would have been required to do on the job, which involved seeing a symptom and then determining the problem. A given set of symptoms might have several different causes, but the mechanics weren’t trained to use symptoms to diagnose the cause. Had proper learning objectives been developed before the design of the training, the instructor would have realized this mistake. For example, consider the learning objective, “Upon identifying the symptoms of the electrical problem, the trainee will be able to list and describe the possible causes of these symptoms.” Had this objective been developed before training, the type of training required would have been more obvious.

Case 2 In case incident 2, all the trainees followed a cycle of doing poorly on tests 1, 5, 9, 13, and 17, and much better on the other exams. Remember, a different instructor taught each section. On the very �irst test, the trainees did not know what to expect and so did poorly. Once they understood what to expect on the tests, they improved on the remaining three tests. When a new instructor arrived, they prepared as usual, only to �ind the type of test had changed; once again they did poorly. When they understood what the new instructor wanted, they did better. It was “getting used to what the instructor wanted” that caused the cycle. The training director then looked at the objectives for each section and found them to be loosely worded and unclear about what would constitute trainees having learned what they were supposed to have learned. If done correctly, the objectives for each of the sessions would clearly describe the performance expectations and the way in which they are to be measured. Knowing this, the training director revised the learning objectives for all sections, providing guidance to both instructors and trainees as to what would constitute successful learning. The problem soon disappeared.

Summary Table 5-15 provides a tool to use in reviewing design phase activities and whether the design is ready to be moved into the development phase. In the design of training, several constraints need to be considered, such as how much time will be given to prepare and present training, how much of a priority it is, and how much money can be spent. These will all place constraints on the type of training offered. Once these questions are answered, it is necessary to determine the type of trainees, their current level of KSAs, their motivation to learn, and the degree of homogeneity for the group. Answers to these questions will provide you with a framework that will be used to develop the objectives for training.

Table 5-15 Design Matrix

Design Component

Activities and Issues Ready to Move to Development?

Organizational Constraints

Review analysis data, and then identify any additional constraints that might relate to the “who, what, when, where and how” of the training program.

All constraints are identi�ied, and accommodation strategies developed.

Training Objectives

Trainee reaction, learning, transfer, and organizational results objectives need to be developed. These must have a clear description of the desired outcome, the conditions under which that outcome will occur, and the standards that will signal that the outcome has been achieved.

All objectives have been reviewed and approved by the appropriate parties.

The evaluation instruments are developed, and decisions about when and where to evaluate have been made.

Learning Theory

 Focus on the trainee Individual differences (KSAs, learning style, etc.) must be addressed.

Trainee motivation issues must be addressed.

The issues to the left have been completed and documented. This document will drive the development and implementation of the training.

 Focus on training design

Review Social Learning theory, the Nine Events of Learning model, Elaboration theory, and other learning theories to arrive at the rules, policies, and procedures that will guide the development of the training and facilitate learning.

 Focus on Transfer Appropriate use of whole/part practice, maximized similarity, varied situations, and general

principles to maximize transferability from the classroom.

Using data from the analysis phase, develop strategies for addressing organizational impediments to transfer.

Alternative training methods

With the learning objectives in mind, identify the methods most suited to achieving those objectives and which �it within the constraints that have been identi�ied are selected to be used for the training

Learning objectives provide clear, unambiguous goals for the training. An effective objective contains three parts: (1) desired behaviors, or what the trainee is expected to be able to do; (2) conditions, or what help/environment trainees will have when performing the expected behavior; and (3) standards, or what will be required to be successful. Learning objectives should be developed for reaction to training, learning, transfer to the job, and organizational outcomes. These objectives provide guidance for designing and developing the training. They also provide the trainer with clear instructions on what to train and how to do it. Finally, they inform the trainees about what to expect.

In the design of training, consider two aspects: learning and transfer. To facilitate learning, the design must address the motivation of the trainees and the environment in which training will take place. Social learning theory and the Gagné–Briggs micro theory of design provide a framework for setting up each instructional event in a manner that is most effective. To facilitate transfer, consider issues such as type of practice, whole or part learning, overlearning, and similarity to the job. Also, using a combination of goal setting and relapse prevention helps trainees transfer the KSAs to the job.

The support of the supervisor and peers in the work group is just as important to transfer, and sit-ins by the trainer will help too. Finally, congruent reward systems and a supportive climate/culture need to be present to ensure transfer.

ET, a macro theory of design, is useful for determining the sequencing of events and just how to present them in a training context. This theory argues that one should focus on whole rather than part learning, but to make the whole as simple as possible at the beginning and then make it more dif�icult in stages until it reaches the level of complexity found in the workplace.

This chapter sets the stage for showing the link between the learning objectives and the methods used to provide training. Understanding what makes a good learning objective and the groundwork in terms of what facilitates learning and transfer on the basis of theory allow for an examination of the methods of training and the link between these methods and the learning objectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i79#ch05sidebar05)

The Training Program (Fabrics, Inc.) This continues the description of the Fabrics, Inc., training program that we began in Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . Recall that Fabrics, Inc., grew quickly and experienced problems with its supervisors. In Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) , we described how the consultant completed a needs

analysis. From this TNA, the consultant determined a number of areas in which supervisors could use training. A partial list included a lack of KSAs in the following areas:

Effective listening

Communication

Con�lict resolution

Effective feedback

Measuring employee performance

Motivating employees

For the purpose of this exercise, we deal with only one, con�lict resolution. The �irst step will be to develop the learning objectives.

The Learning Objectives Some of the learning objectives are as follows:

The trainee will, with no errors, present in writing the four types of active listening, along with examples of each of the types, with no help from reference material.

When, in a role-play, the trainee is presented with an angry comment, the trainee will respond immediately using one of the active listening types. The trainee will then explain orally the technique used and why, with no help from reference material. The trainee will be presented with �ive of these comments and be expected to correctly respond and explain a minimum of four.

The trainee will, with 100 percent accuracy, provide in writing each step of the con�lict resolution model, along with a relevant example, with no help from any reference material.

In a role-play of an angry customer, the trainee/employee will show concern for the customer by listening and providing alternative solutions, using the steps in the con�lict resolution model, with help from an easel sheet that has the steps listed on it. The trainee must use all the steps and two types of active listening in the role-play.

After watching a role-play of an angry person and an employee using the con�lict resolution model, the trainee will, without reference to material, immediately provide feedback as to the effectiveness of the person using the con�lict resolution model. The trainee must identify four of the six errors.

Reaction Objective The trainee will, upon completion of training, respond to a 15-item reaction questionnaire with minimum scores of 4 on a 5-point scale.

Transfer of Training Objective When an angry customer approaches the employee and begins speaking in an angry tone of voice, the employee will, immediately, use the con�lict resolution model to calm the customer down.

Organizational Objective Three months after training, there will be a 75 percent drop in letters of complaint from customers.

Design Issues We turn now to design issues. The con�lict resolution model has four steps and requires attending to cues at verbal, vocal, and visual levels. From an ET perspective then, it is a complex task. The four steps in the model are as follows:

1. Use active listening.

2. Indicate respect.

3. Be assertive.

4. Provide information.

Further examination of the model reveals that the �irst part, active listening is a complex task by itself, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_100) as is the total model. So the �irst decision is what mix of spiral/topical sequencing to use in the training of this model. Active listening, being a skill that can also be used on its own, suggests the use of topical sequencing to train employees in active listening �irst. Then we will use spiral sequencing to train the total con�lict resolution model.

Teaching of the cognitive component of each of these skills will be completed before the skills training, but for brevity we will discuss only the behavioral component. Using SCM, as proposed by ET, we �irst determine the epitome (simplest version of the task that still embodies the whole task). For active listening, it will be to use the skill in an everyday situation, such as discussing which movie to see. In this situation, the initiator (person in the role of disagreeing with the trainee) will simply disagree regarding a movie the trainee wants to see. This situation has minimal emotional content and should require minimal monitoring of the initiator by the trainee, as it will not result in an argument. The same epitome used for active listening can also be used for the con�lict resolution model because the latter simply takes the discussion to a different level.

The most complex task will require dealing with a great deal of anger on the part of the initiator of the discussion. Once these two extremes are conceptualized, those in between can be determined.

Let’s now examine this training at a micro level using Gagné–Briggs theory. For the module related to teaching active listening, we want to begin by getting trainees’ attention, as suggested by Gagné–Briggs design theory. This can be accomplished by showing a video of two people in a heated argument and then asking, “Has that situation ever happened to you? Would you like to have a better way of responding in such a situation so tempers do not �lare?” This would allow you to introduce active listening. The next step in the theory is to inform the trainees of the goal. Presenting the learning objective related to active listening accomplishes this. The training would continue to be designed paying close attention to the steps in the design theory.

Now let’s turn to the evaluation component as an output from the training design. To consider these, we turn back to the learning objectives, which are as follows:

100

The trainee will, with no errors, present in writing the four types of active listening, along with examples of each of the types, with no reference material.

The trainee will, with 100 percent accuracy, provide in writing each step of the con�lict resolution model, along with a relevant example, with no help from any reference material.

These, along with a number of similar objectives not shown, will require a paper-and-pencil test of declarative knowledge.

Regarding the behavioral component of the evaluation, consider these objectives:

When, in a role-play, the trainee is presented with an angry comment, the trainee will respond immediately using one of the active listening types. The trainee will then explain orally the technique used and why, with no help from reference material. The trainee will be presented with �ive of these and be expected to correctly respond and explain a minimum of four.

In a role-play of an angry customer the trainee/employee will show concern for the customer by listening and providing alternative solutions, using the steps in the con�lict resolution model, with help from an easel sheet which has the steps listed on it. The trainee must use all the steps and two types of active listening in the role-play.

After watching role-play of an angry person and an employee using the con�lict resolution model, the trainee will, without reference to material, immediately provide feedback as to the effectiveness of the person using the con�lict resolution model. The trainee must identify a minimum of four of the six errors.

These objectives will require carefully developed standardized role-plays. The role of the initiator will be scripted and standardized to provide each trainee with similar situations to respond to. In addition, a standardized scoring key, which will guide the scoring of a trainee in the behavioral tests, will be developed. These scoring keys will provide examples of acceptable and unacceptable behavior of the trainee, and a rating scale for different responses. There will also be a scoring key provided for the explanations (oral test) that follow the behavioral part of the test.

We will return to Fabrics, Inc., in Chapter 8, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) to provide a look at the development process.

Key Terms Behavioral reproduction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term01)

Climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term02)

Cognitive load (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term03)

Cognitive organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term04)

Conditions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term05)

Culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term06)

Design theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term07)

Guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term08)

Identical elements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term09)

Knowledge of results (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term10)

Learning objectives (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term11)

Massed practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term12)

Negative transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term13)

Overlearning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term14)

Part learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term15)

Positive transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term16)

Progressive part training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term17)

Relapse prevention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term18)

Self-ef�icacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i73#ch05term19)

Sit-in (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term20)

Spaced practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term21)

Standards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term22)

Symbolic coding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term23)

Symbolic rehearsal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term24)

Task complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term25)

Task organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term26)

Transfer of training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term27)

Whole learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term28)

Zero transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term29)

Questions for Review 1. What is a learning objective? List and explain its three components.

2. What can be done long before the trainee attends training to ensure that the trainee will be motivated to learn?

3. How does knowledge of classical and operant conditioning assist you in designing effective training?

4. How would you present training material in a manner that facilitates retention?

5. If a particular task were critical to saving a life (police of�icer shooting a gun, pilot responding to an emergency), what factors would you build into the design of training to ensure that the behavior was both learned and transferred to the workplace?

6. To help ensure transfer of training, what would you do outside the training itself ? Who would you involve and how? What would you do about the organizational structure/environment?

7. Suppose you are designing a training program for a group of 40 employees. These employees come from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds and have different educational and experience backgrounds relative to the content area of the training. What training design features would you use to address these constraints?

8. Discuss the Gagné–Briggs theory of design and its relationship to social learning theory.

9. Explain ET and how it would help you design a training program.

Exercises 1. You perhaps already noted that the learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter do not completely follow the three criteria we identi�ied. They all describe the

outcome in behavioral terms but do not identify the conditions or standards, which vary with the instructor. Assume you will be the instructor for this chapter and will rewrite each of the learning objectives at the beginning of the chapter in complete form. Your trainees are corporate HRD employees, and you are training them on the contents of this chapter. Additionally, write an objective for each of the other types of training objectives (trainee reaction, transfer of training, and organizational outcome).

2. Examine each of the �ive objectives below, and rewrite them using the criteria presented in the chapter

Upon completion of training, the trainee:

A. will be able to identify the different types of employee motivation, and methods that could be used to motivate the employee

B. will be able to give a 20-minute oral presentation on a topic of their choice using all the skills taught

C. Without the use of any training material, the trainee will be able to list and provide a description of four methods of providing incentives, two monetary based and two nonmonetary based.

D. Will feel more positive toward union stewards

E. After watching a video of a supervisor–subordinate interaction will be able to identify what the supervisor did wrong and how she should have responded.

3. What is your grade point average since you started your education at this institution? How hard do you work to maintain that average: 3 (very hard/hard), 2 (about average), and 1 (enough to get by)? Now ask yourself why. Tie your answer into Expectancies 1 and 2 and the valence of outcomes. Break into groups that contain a mix of 1s, 2s, and 3s. Discuss what makes the person in your group a 3. Is it attractive outcomes (valence), con�idence in ability (Expectancy 1), or belief that it will result in the positive outcomes desired? From that information, is there any way you believe you could in�luence the 2s or 1s to be more motivated? What would you try to in�luence? Explain your approach in terms of Expectancies 1 and 2. How does this process relate to trainee populations in the workplace?

4. In the chart below, identify from the column on the right which prescription �its with which of Gagne’s 9 events in the left column. Write the appropriate letter in the middle column.

Event Letter Prescription

1. Gaining attention

A) Restate the problem in general terms, and then add speci�ic details: (a) rectangular lot 50 by 100 ft; (2) radius of the sprinklers, 5 ft; (3) water source in the center of the lot.

2. Inform the learner of the objective

B) Present a different problem using the same type of sprinkler, with different lot shape and size. Check the ef�iciency of the student’s solution in terms of coverage and amount of materials used.

3. Stimulate recall of requisites

C) Have the learners recall applicable rules. Since the sprinkler heads they will use spray in circles and partial circles, rules to be recalled are (1) area of a circle, (2) area of quarter and half circles, (3) area of rectangular areas, and (4) area of irregular shapes made by the intersection of circular arcs with straight sides.

4. Presenting the stimulus material

D) Have the student design tentative sprinkler layouts, draw them out, and calculate the relative ef�iciency of each. Guide the learner through various options if it appears that rules are not being applied correctly. For example, “Could you get more ef�icient coverage in the corner by using a quarter- circle sprinkler head?” or “It looks like you have a lot of overlap; are you allowing for 10 percent non-coverage?” Ask the learner what rule he is following for placing the sprinkler.

5. Providing learning guidance, and

E) The problem to be solved is to design the most ef�icient sprinkler system for a plot of ground—one that covers at least 90% and uses the least amount of materials.

6. Eliciting performance

7. Providing feedback

F) Present several different problems varying in shape of lot, position of the water source, and area of sprinkler coverage. Assess the student’s ability to generalize problem solving to these new situations.

8. Assessing performance

G) Show pictures of sprinkler coverage of a rectangular plot of ground. One highly successful (90 percent coverage), one unsuccessful (70 percent coverage), and one using too many sprinkler heads. Show these rapidly, asking for them to identify differences.

9. Enhancing retention and transfer

H) Con�irm good moves, when in a suitable direction. If the learner doesn’t see a possible solution, suggestions may be made. For example, “Why don’t you draw four circles that barely touch, calculate the area, then draw a rectangle around the circles and calculate the area of coverage to see how much you have?”

Web Research Conduct an Internet search to identify two companies that provide training design consulting services. Identify the design process for each. Compare and contrast each in terms of their approach.

Some Interesting Sites Conditions of Learning (R. Gagné)

http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html

Zenon Environmental, Inc. (small business with ef�icient HR management)

www.zenonenv.com

Case Analysis

1. Review the Domtar case from Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) , and answer the following questions:

A. In the implementation of Kaizen, what groups of employees are likely to need training? How should the trainees be organized? Think of this issue from a training design perspective and from a training content perspective.

B. For the type of training envisioned, what are the learning objectives? Write these objectives in complete form.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints that need to be addressed in the design of the training? What design features should be used to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training issues.

2. Review the Multistate Health Corporation case from Chapter 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02) , and answer the following questions:

A. In the implementation of the HRPS, what groups of employees are likely to need training? Think of this from a training design perspective and from a training content perspective.

B. For the type of training you envision for each group, what are the learning objectives? Write these in complete form.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints you will need to address in the design of your training? What design features will you use to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training issues.