Bus 600 Week 6 Discussion 1 & 2

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9 Leading Groups

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Communicate effectively in formal and informal groups.

2. Manage communication through the stages of group development.

3. Successfully lead team and group meetings.

4. Create effective business and management communications when acting as part of a group or team.

Comstock/Thinkstock

Even though Harley-Davidson produces highly individualistic

products, the company operates using teams and groups, from

the production floor to the executive suites.

9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups

Learning Objective # 1: How can individuals effectively communicate in formal and informal groups?

Today's business world features a considerable number of tasks that cannot be performed by a single employee. Complex assignments demand the attention

of a series of individuals. Managers designate teams and groups to complete such projects.

Business management requires effective communication in groups. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal

(Schein, 1980). Formal and informal groups function in companies on a daily basis. It may be tempting to think of a group and a team as the same thing.

Recent literature suggests otherwise. Both consist of a small set of people and seek to achieve goals, but differences exist. Teams become distinct from

groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico et al. 2008). This chapter focuses on groups

and the communication processes involved in managing them, although team-building represents an important aspect of group management and leadership.

For Review

Define group and team.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge

from greater interdependence and shared effort.

Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups

Harley-Davidson should be considered one of the more iconic U.S. companies.

Many things stand out, including the product itself (motorcycles), the

customers who buy the products (individualist riders), and the organization's

marketing program. The Harley-Davidson brand remains strong with intense

customer loyalty. The HOG (Harley Owners Group) program serves those who

purchase products.

The company's management program may be lesser known. Harley-Davidson's

management team focuses on a strong company culture, built on open

communications among all levels of employees and a commitment to teaching

all workers about the organization's operations, and utilizing teams and

groups to complete numerous company activities. Top management developed

a shared vision of the company's values that permeates all group activities.

Among these values are:

• Tell the truth.

• Be fair.

• Keep your promises.

• Respect the individual.

• Encourage intellectual curiosity.

Management sought to earn and keep the respect and trust of employees through these principles (Infotechdesign.net, 2008). Imperato

(1997) describes the management program this way: "Beneath the image of a hard-riding, tough-as-nails Harley-Davidson bike is a company

that thrives on the 'soft' side of management, emphasizing participation, inclusion, learning, and cooperation."

At the core of the management program, self-managed teams operate at both the manufacturing and executive levels. At the production level,

semi-autonomous work groups include members who are cross-trained and set their own work schedules. To support the program,

management created the Harley-Davidson Learning Center, a facility dedicated to lifelong learning with the primary role of helping employees

to keep their skills current. In some cases, this means remedial training in basic skills, but the Learning Center deals mainly with requests for

specific job-training courses.

At the executive level, the organization chart became three overlapping circles representing various groups: a Create Demand Circle, a

Produce Products Circle, a Support Circle, and in the center where the three circles intersect, a Leadership and Strategy Council. The Create

Demand Circle is responsible for sales and marketing issues; the Produce Products Circle handles engineering and manufacturing; and the

Support Circle takes care of legal, financial, human-resources, and communications concerns. The Leadership and Strategy Council coordinates

the efforts of the three circles without the use of a standard chain of command, instead relying on interactive group communication. The idea

is to apply the concept of self-directed, factory work teams to the executive level.

An important link was established between the union and management through the employee involvement program, which established the

goal of overall company long-term success to be achieved through continuing cooperation among all members. Following the reorganization

Fuse/Thinkstock

The gatekeeper determines who will be included in or excluded from the

group.

at both levels, Harley-Davidson's sales and profitability began to soar. The company has been able to withstand economic hard times and

expand to an international base of satisfied hog owners.

Questions for Students

1. Do you think the internal culture of Harley-Davidson matches external perceptions of the company?

2. What types of communication skills would be needed to work in a self-managed production team?

3. What types of communication skills would be needed for an executive to work in a self-managed team?

Communicating in Formal Groups

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group, the purpose is to achieve company goals and objectives. Formal groups are established through a

notation in an organization chart or by a management directive. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project

teams.

Communication in a work group or department consists of the standard chain of command, as a supervisor directs the activities of members who also

interact with one another. The same will be true for a committee or board directed by an elected or appointed leader, although many times such groups also

keep formal minutes to record their activities and elements of discussions. A project team, which is led by a team leader, will interact in many of the same

ways as work groups. Project teams often are asked to file progress reports as stages of the project or task are completed.

For Review

Define formal group and name the three most common types.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

When an organization's leaders establish a formal group through a notation in an organizational chart or by a management directive, the

purpose will be to achieve company goals and objective. Three of the most common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and

boards, and project teams.

Communicating in Informal Groups

An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship. Such groups form without the endorsement of

organizational leaders and do not have a designated structure (Shirky, 2004). People make friends on the job for various reasons. Three items tend to bring

informal groups together: activities, shared values or sentiments, and interactions. Communication patterns in informal groups involve networks such as

gossip and rumors via various media, and in-person conversations. Many employees depend on informal groups for social support and a sense of belonging,

as well as an outlet to discuss company actions, decisions, and policies.

The distinction between formal and informal groups has become blurred. New forms of office design, coupled with the emergence of social media, lead to

sets of individuals simultaneously engaging in formal and informal interactions and activities. Employees increasingly rely on social media to stay in contact

with the home office but also with friends and peers inside and outside the organization. The use of Twitter and instant messages or texts to contact a

manager to notify her that an employee is sick results in a follow-up to check on the person and offer assistance, but also results in another immediate

message to other employees to cover for the employee who is ill. The same media allow employees to make social contacts with each other on and off the

job.

Group Members

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion

leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group

activities. Formal leaders are assigned by the organization. Informal leaders emerge

based on the group's choice over time. Members who are most closely aligned with the

leader become opinion leaders. These individuals are most willing to express group

values. Members in good standing are those included in the group who do not share its

leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will be in the group and who will be

excluded. The gatekeeper will be one of the first three, a member, opinion leader, or

leader. At times, the entire group serves in the role, which is then known as the gate-

keeping function. An employee who agrees to chair a committee, on the condition that a

certain co-worker not be included in the group, is acting as a gatekeeper; when several

employees form a bowling team and deliberately exclude one person, the group has

performed the gate-keeping function.

For Review

What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper.

The leader directs group activities. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders and are the most willing to

express group values. Members in good standing are those in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will and

who will not be included in the group.

Styles of Group Behavior

Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—conflict, conformity, or consensus (Phipps, 2007;

Tubbs, 1995). Conflict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or

leader in order to move on. Pressures for conformity or premature consensus can lead to less-than-ideal decisions or decisions without true agreement, as

the side with the greatest authority or willingness to defend a point of view wins as the other side concedes. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement

among members emerges.

Several tactics help in avoiding conflicts, and achieving conformity and consensus. Various problem-solving techniques (as will be noted later in this chapter)

are open communication, goal clarification, and the creation of superordinate goals that all members agree can be used to facilitate group interactions.

For Review

What are the three styles of behavior present in groups?

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Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior—conflict, conformity, or consensus. Conflict can

occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to

move on. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement emerges among members.

Concept Check

9.2 Stages of Group Development

Learning Objective # 2: How can a leader effectively manage the stages of group development?

Tuckman and Jensen (1997) developed an often-cited explanation of how groups evolve. The model suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually

surrender a sense of independence in favor of greater interdependence. The sequence is not as precise as the one depicted in Figure 9.1, but it does provide

a general sense of how groups tend to operate. Table 9.1 identifies the communication issues in each stage.

Figure 9.1 The stages of group development

Communication issues are present at each stage of group development.

Table 9.1: Communication issues in group stages

Stage Communication Challenge

Forming Resolving feelings of uncertainty

Acquainting members with one another

Seeking to become a leader

Testing behaviors to see if they are acceptable to the group (feedback)

Storming Reduce and resolve conflicts

Overcome resistance to group standards

Norming Inform members about norms

Provide feedback to someone who violates or ignores a norm

Explain the consequences of not following norms

Offer encouragement and assistance to new and ongoing members

Performing Support team members

Coordinate activities

Quickly resolve disputes

Adjourning Provide closure formally or informally

Ceremonial skills

For Review

What are the five stages of group development?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Forming

Initially, new members of a group are less likely to trust one another to some extent and to experience feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the

forming stage. The first is to try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. The second is tentative action by a

designated leader, or by those who seek the role when a leader has not been appointed. The forming stage ends when sufficient compliance suggests that

members see themselves as part of the larger group.

Communication skills can give you an advantage in the forming stage. The ability to make others feel comfortable, remembering names and individual

idiosyncrasies, and building cooperation can help you attain a leadership role. Those wishing to be effective team players also rely on communication skills to

coordinate and work with others.

Storming

Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the constraints imposed by the group or simply test to see what

the limits are. In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group's structure (Tuckman, 1965). If the

leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibility of subgroups, member procrastination, conflicts between members, and open rebellion emerges.

Group survival may be at risk.

Conflict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new conflicts, as Chapter 7 notes, are the key communication skills required in the storming stage.

They include having the ability to listen and find common ground among disputing parties, and seeking or encouraging the willingness to make tradeoffs as

part of the conflict resolution process. A leader and group members who cannot effectively communicate run the risk of a dysfunctional group. Leaders who

are able to define limits and find common ground among members help navigate the group through the storming stage.

Norming

The close of the storming stage occurs when a leader has been established, often through the efforts of another member who challenges the group to come

together. Closer relationships build between members, and discussions of power become less emotional and more matter of fact. The norming stage is

complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. The communication approach used by the

leader and group members defines the way a group works, such as by integrating new members into the group, offering advice and encouragement to all

members, and coordinating group activities.

Also in this stage, group norms develop. Norms are rules governing behaviors in the group. As shown in Table 9.2, norms apply to three main areas in both

formal and informal groups. Many times, norms overlap between the two. When a member violates a norm, group members will express disapproval,

formally or informally.

Table 9.2: Types of norms

Effort/Productivity Units of production

Time on the job and working overtime

Department-specific activities (e.g., sales calls, sales totals, follow-ups with customers)

Work Behaviors Clothes worn, jewelry, hairstyle, other features of appearance

Use of language, cursing, formality

Following or ignoring work rules and procedures

Punctuality versus tardiness

Social Behaviors Fraternization between management and labor

Office romances

Norms summarize group influence processes, including the rules for joining and

maintaining membership (Hackman, 2003). Norms apply to workplace behaviors rather

than off-work circumstances. They often develop slowly but then become difficult to

change. Norms also apply to behaviors rather than private feelings and thoughts. Some

group members may "go along" with norms they think are foolish or insignificant.

High-status members may choose to ignore some norms, because they do not fear

losing membership. In the norming stage, these rules of behavior clarify the group or

organization's key values and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms assists an

individual in meeting behavioral expectations and in avoiding making behavioral

mistakes (Feldman, 1984).

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Norms apply to a variety of workplace behaviors, from the level of effort

given on the job to starting office romances.

Communication informs members of the presence of norms, violations of norms, and

the potential consequences of ignoring or violating a norm. Formal and informal

messages convey such information. For example, someone who is chronically late might

receive a memo (formal) regarding the behavior or may be taken aside by group

members who informally remind the individual that the norm is to be on time.

For Review

Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Norms regarding effort or productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors.

Performing

The performing stage has opened when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving problems. Clear lines of

communication connect members, and members support one another and cooperate. Disputes in the performing stage are handled quickly and constructively

(Mason & Griffin, 2005). At this point, interdependence reaches its peak and independence has been surrendered as much as it will be. Ongoing work groups

and committees that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. The performing stage often involves moving from a formal

group to a successful team. Then, project teams and informal groups with an end point (such as when a task is complete or the bowling season ends) move

to the final stage, adjourning.

Adjourning

Groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the form of parties, official statements of appreciation by

company leaders, and even graduations and mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands. In the adjourning

stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work, providing a role model for future group efforts. Adjourning can

provide closure to group members and let every member know what the next assignment is.

The group development models proposed by Tubbs, Fisher, Tuckman, and Jensen combine the elements of conflict, conformity, and consensus with individual

willingness to subsume personal agendas to larger group goals and activities. Positive outcomes occur only when communication skills are effectively utilized.

Leading Groups

Two forms of leadership appear in groups as they develop. Formal group leadership occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the

organization to fulfill the role. A person who has been assigned to manage a task force or serve as a chair of a committee is a formal group leader. Informal

leaders, or emergent leaders, evolve into the role and are selected by the group.

Poole (1983) suggests that groups move back and forth between three "tracks." Effective leaders work to understand the natures of and interrelationships

between the task track, topic track, and relation track. The task track represents the process by which a group seeks to accomplish goals. A group can

complete tasks by individuals working separately and then coming together at a key moment or it can subdivide into sets of individuals working on different

parts of a project. The task track affects communication patterns within the group as it functions. The topic track is the specific topic a group discusses when

it meets. The relation track focuses on the role and state of relationships in the group as they affect functioning.

When a group meets, the leader will experience "breakpoints" at which the group switches from one track to another. Shifts in the conversation, postponing

discussion of topics, and seeking to adjourn are examples of breakpoints. As groups operate over time, leaders coordinate activities while seeking to ensure

that the group functions efficiently.

One key aspect of leading effective groups involves building cohesion and encouragement of effort by group members. At times, group members tend to give

less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone, a problem known as social loafing. At times, a member may decide to take a free ride

and contribute nearly nothing. Effective group leadership includes finding ways to persuade a social loafer to at least get involved and show an effort. One

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

The term "tight knit" applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of

cohesion.

method is to assign the individual specific tasks and require progress reports to be made in front of the group. The leader can encourage the social loafer to

offer opinions during meetings, thereby increasing the person's involvement with the group (Liden & Erdogan, 2003).

For Review

Define social loafing.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The problem known as social loafing occurs at times when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or

alone.

Building Cohesion

Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation,

and group control over members. The term "tight knit" applies to groups exhibiting

higher levels of cohesion. A link exists between the level of cohesion in a group and

subsequent performance, most notably when the group focuses more on the task (the

task track) than on mere interpersonal relationships (the relation track) or group pride

(Mullen & Copper, 1994). Leaders have vested interests in developing and maintaining

cohesive groups (Litterer, 1973; Seashore, 1954). A cohesive work group often

experiences lower levels of member turnover and conflict. Cohesive committees use

time more efficiently and engage in fewer counterproductive arguments. Cohesive task

force groups focus on finalizing the job and work together more efficiently.

A group with too little cohesion often suffers from the lack of productivity. The

problems associated with low cohesion begin with goal disagreement rather than

agreement. Members do not conform to any potential group norms. They fail to

cooperate, and group sanctions do not affect them. A dysfunctional group can result,

one that demonstrates (Lencioni, 2002):

• lack of trust

• fear of conflict

• little or no commitment to the group

• avoidance of accountability

• inattention to results

In contrast, groups with desirable levels of cohesion tend to enjoy the highest levels of success. Among the benefits of a cohesive, functional group are:

• Members achieve high productivity.

• Members help those experiencing problems.

• Members extend extra effort during a crisis.

• Members work without supervision.

• Members share a positive social atmosphere.

A leader can build cohesion among group members through the tactics in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: How to build group cohesiveness

Keep the group size from four to seven members

Provide opportunities for members to interact frequently

Create common goals for all members (superordinate goals)

Communicate expectations for individual members and the overall group

Source: G. C. Homans (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Effective leaders help build cohesion; ineffective ones drive wedges between members (Homans, 1950).

Group leaders should also understand that cohesion might grow to a point at which problems begin to emerge. Overly cohesive groups are more likely to set

norms to reduce output or lower levels of effort. They may be inclined to view other groups as rivals and create unnecessary conflicts. At times, the formal

leader in the group becomes unable to function because of the influence of the informal leader.

The most substantial problem with overly cohesive groups is labeled groupthink, which results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that

the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views (Janis, 1991). At the extreme, groupthink becomes a process by which the group develops a sense of

invulnerability, believing it can function without outside influence or sanction. The group self-censors information, and it fails to perform effectively within

organizational confines (Von Bergen & Kirk, 1978). Some observers suggest that, under the leadership of Kenneth Lay, the executive team at Enron engaged

in groupthink by failing to challenge instances of fraud and corruption. These instances involved the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and

poor financial reporting, which were used to hide billions in debt from failed deals and projects, along with coercion directed at the Arthur Andersen

accounting firm that audited Enron's books (Healy & Krishna, 2003).

To combat groupthink, leaders can introduce new members (at least two) who have divergent opinions. Members may be isolated from each other in order

to reduce interactions that reinforce groupthink opinions. Also, members may be assigned to new groups to encourage involvement in other parts of the

organization. A group leader combating groupthink (if not a part of the groupthink process) needs to find ways to introduce divergent opinions and attitudes

into the group. During interactions, differences in points of view should be encouraged. The leader or highest-ranking person should not be first to express

an opinion. A second group can be established to examine the findings of the original group. The use of a devil's advocate to challenge ideas can be helpful

(Janis, 1982).

In summary, effective communication skills facilitate every stage of a group's development. Further, an effective leader finds ways to establish the most

productive level of group cohesion. This includes dealing with problem members, such as social loafers. Communication skills assist in managing a team's

efforts and social relationships. These skills include decision-making, persuasion, and coordination.

For Review

Define group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. Groupthink results when

group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink emerges when groups

experience levels of cohesion that are too high.

Concept Check

Digital Vision

Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings.

9.3 Leading Meetings

Learning Objective # 3: What steps and tactics are involved in successfully leading team and group meetings?

Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings. Unfortunately,

attending meetings can be one of the more universally despised aspects of

organizational life. People easily become bored, frustrated, and even gloomy. At the

same time, tasks assigned to teams and groups often require going to meetings

(Dvorak, 2006). Effective managerial communications programs use meeting time

wisely and lead to productive results. Ineffective systems cause people to waste time

and become annoyed (Armour, 1997).

Meetings take place for a variety of reasons. They can be called at the unit or

departmental level to discuss issues pertaining to that group. A task force or project

team may meet frequently to coordinate activities. Meetings held at the companywide

level often transmit information that applies to every employee. To facilitate the

success of any type of meeting, follow these steps:

• stating the motivation for holding a meeting

• preparing for the meeting

• managing the meeting session

• following up on the meeting

The technologies that create virtual meetings present new challenges to leading meetings. Leaders will still need to tend to these steps, but face additional

challenges. Time differences must be accounted for when scheduling meetings with those in other locations. The manager will need to be able to overcome

the problems associated with a less-rich information channel in which members cannot see all nonverbal and paraverbal cues. Additional information about

virtual teams is provided later in this chapter.

For Review

What four steps are involved in holding meetings?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

When seeking to hold meetings the steps to be followed include stating the motivation for holding a meeting, preparing for the meeting,

managing the meeting session, and following up on the meeting.

The Motivation for Holding a Meeting

Meetings take time and cost the organization money in terms of the payroll devoted to attendees. For example, a meeting with six attendees, each averaging

$25 per hour in wages, costs $150 per hour. Therefore, a manager should determine that the benefits of holding the meeting exceed those costs. Table 9.4

identifies legitimate reasons for conducting meetings.

Table 9.4: Reasons for calling meetings

Reason Activity

Initiate a new activity Planning and goal setting sessions

Invigorate a stagnant activity Brainstorming or creativity technique; progress report

Information session Present findings of a report or analysis

Discussion session Evaluate pros and cons of a proposal, plan, or product

Performance session Update on progress of an activity

Motivate employees Pep talk, set goals and rewards

Educate employees Updates on events or outcomes of events

Networking Panel or breakout sessions with other professionals

Reward high-performers Public recognition with prize, trophy, certificate

Recreation Team-building exercises off-site

Adapted from: J. S. O'Rourke, IV (2010). Management Communication: A case analysis approach. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Managers should not call meetings when a key person will not be available. They should not hold meetings unless attendees have sufficient time to prepare.

And, managers should avoid scheduling meetings that they know will lead to conflicts rather than positive results. The next phase begins when the manager

has become convinced that holding a meeting will be worthwhile.

Meeting Preparation

The first assignment in meeting preparation is to decide who should attend. This includes the number of people, the organizational elements they will

represent, what function(s) each might serve, and potential compatibility with others at the meeting. As discussed earlier, a more limited group of five to

seven employees will be the most effective in many situations (Filley, House, & Kerr, 1976; Levine & Moreland, 1990).

When you are assigned to lead a meeting, the level of preparation put into the process will determine whether it will succeed. Following these steps helps to

create a systematic, organized meeting:

1. Obtain clearance for the meeting place or location.

2. Make sure the meeting location has all needed equipment.

3. Send out advance notice to participants that a meeting will take place, and confirm their attendance at the meeting.

4. Create a detailed agenda for the meeting, including any ground rules.

5. Distribute the agenda to all the confirmed attendees, allowing enough time for them to read it thoroughly (Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989; Hynes, 2008).

A detailed agenda, as shown in Figure 9.2, contains four elements: logistics, purpose, agenda items, and attachments.

Figure 9.2 : A meeting agenda

A meeting agenda for a workplace safety committee is shown.

Agenda for Workplace Safety Committee Meeting

Prepared on: June 27, 2011

By: Jennifer Jones, human resource department

Attendees: Jennifer Jones, Fred White, Susan Ward, Roger Smith, Marvin Johnson, Yen-Wen Kuo

Date and Meeting Time: July 2, 2:00 p.m.

Location: South Conference Room, 2nd floor

Subject: Recent Fire in Storage Facility

Agenda items:

1. Call to Order

2. Reports (time allotment: 20-30 minutes)

a. Fire Department assessment of the cause -- Fred White

b. Injuries to personnel -- Jennifer Jones

c. Insurance claim filing -- Yen-Wen Kuo

d. Contacts and counseling of families of the injured -- Marvin Johnson

e. Company liability and legal concerns -- Susan Ward

3. Resolution of current crisis (time allotment: 20-30 minutes)

a. Recommendations

b. Discussion

4. Avoidance of similar accidents in the future (time allotment: 20-30 minutes)

a. Recommendations

b. Discussion

c. Set goals and deadlines

5. Adjournment

Attachments:

Fire Department official report

Injury roster

John Howard/Corbis

When emotions run high, meeting leaders can use communication tactics

such as "time out" periods in which the group disbands to take a break.

Even the seating arrangement of the meeting deserves attention. A meeting held at a circular table reduces the influence of the leader, because the person

does not sit in a dominant position, but the arrangement increases communication among members. A rectangular table with a chair at one end establishes

greater dominance but may limit interaction and communication. The leader should consider power dynamics and the intent of the meeting when setting up

a seating arrangement (Hackman & Morris, 1975). After establishing the meeting time and place, and distributing the agenda, the next phase will be

conducting the actual event.

Managing the Meeting

Effective participation in meetings becomes the responsibility of every person involved. The leader plays the pivotal role, but other individuals can contribute

in ways that are helpful or detrimental. Part of career success involves the perception by others that you can participate in a team or group setting without

being the source of problems. As a leader, conduct the meeting in four stages: introduce and restate the meeting's purpose, provide a brief review of the

agenda, tend to all matters stated in the agenda, and summarize and present conclusions to establish closure. The final stage often includes assigning various

tasks to specific group members and following with an email or memo that lists these responsibilities. The leader can then ask for follow-up reports about

completion of the assigned tasks.

As a meeting begins, four roles can be assigned to participants. First, the leader normally will be the person who called the meeting and formulated the

agenda. This person holds primary authority during the course of the meeting. Second, a recorder takes notes that will later be used as meeting minutes or a

meeting summary. Third, a timekeeper makes sure the agenda stays on a reasonable schedule without running too long. Fourth, participants are those who

actively engage in the discussion and agenda.

Formal meetings that will include votes often employ mechanisms such as Robert's Rules of Order, which spells out protocols for enumerating agenda items,

entertaining motions, seconding of motions, discussion of motions, and how to conduct the actual vote, including the vote to adjourn the meeting. These

instruments help maintain order and make it easier to record decisions, votes, and outcomes, including passed motions, rejected motions, and tabled motions.

Less-formal meetings still need order. Table 9.5 lists three other styles of meeting formats.

Table 9.5: Meeting formats

Format Explanation

Staff Conference Each team member reports to the leader, answers any questions, and makes recommendations with little input from

other team members

Congressional System Leader is in charge; members raise hands to participate or contribute

House of Commons

Style Leader delegates conduct of the meeting to another member; all members speak freely

Source: New York Times. Chairing a meeting: To keep order, be true to form, September 22, 1999 p. C25.

The primary problems that meeting leaders encounter include topic drift, running over

time, and conflicts rather than conversations. Unexpected topics can cause the

discussion to drift away from the intended agenda. For example, in the meeting agenda

shown in Figure 9.2, the group convened specifically to discuss a fire in the facility.

Drifting into discussions about the union protecting the person who accidentally caused

the fire quickly becomes counterproductive (Matson, 1996).

A meeting that runs over often results when people dominate discussions with

personal opinions and observations. Everyone has experienced a meeting in which one

participant loves "the sound of his own voice." Effective meeting management seeks to

contain these individuals with comments such as, "Let's move on to the next agenda

item," or, "We only have about five minutes left, so let's finish this up."

The most difficult issue involves communicating during meeting conflicts. Tempers can

flare when emotions run high and people hold strongly different positions on an issue.

Meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as "time out" periods in which the

group disbands to take a break, and other conflict management techniques, to hold

emotions in check. Angry participants can be separated. All members can be reminded

of the group's purpose, and the leader can acknowledge that some might have intense

opinions or feeling about an issue. Humor often diffuses charged conflict situations, but

the leader must be aware of the parties involved before making jests during a strong disagreement. Even a phrase such as, "Let's all take a deep breath here,"

might help. Summary statements are used to record conflicting positions (Mann, 2006).

Group Decision-Making Processes

One pitfall of trying to avoid confrontation is that a manager might seek to balance levels of conflict by arriving at a consensus too early, before the ideal

course of action has been identified. To avoid this pitfall, one discussion technique, dialectical inquiry, involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The

approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the

Nick White/Thinkstock

Disruptions of meetings take many forms.

consensus method, in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than to conduct a genuine debate of the issue. Research suggests that dialectic

inquiry achieves better results than the consensus method in the areas of final group consensus, individual member acceptance of the decision, and member

satisfaction with the group (Priem, Harrison, & Muir, 1995; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Rechner, 1989).

In certain situations, a devil's advocacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate. The "devil's advocate" is the person in

the group (leader or otherwise) who willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their

positions. Devil's advocacy appears to share the advantages of dialectic inquiry over the consensus approach (Murrell, Stewart, & Engel, 2011).

Group decision-making represents a key element in achieving goals. Successful analysis of alternatives and choosing the appropriate course of action involves

the efforts of the members and the leader working cooperatively. Communication skills, including listening, conflict resolution, and the ability move the group

forward by summarizing positions, can assist in reaching the desired decision.

For Review

Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil's advocacy approach to group decision-making processes.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Dialectic inquiry involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated

until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather

than conduct a genuine debate of the issue. The devil's advocacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate in

which the "devil's advocate" willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their

positions.

Responsibilities of Attendees

Those attending the meeting also have responsibilities. Punctuality means the meeting will not be disturbed by late arrivals. Other forms of considerate

behavior, coupled with effective listening skills, are in order. Participants may take notes to help remember key points or to raise questions at appropriate

times. Disagreements that remain civil stand the best chance of resolution. Participants should remain aware of and sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal

messages they transmit while in attendance.

Disruptive Members

At times, communication and decision-making processes suffer from the disruptions of

a single member. An individual may have strong objections to some aspect of the

meeting or may have a hidden agenda to pursue. Tactics used by disrupters are:

• attempting to change the subject

• making accusations against other members or the leader

• dominating and interrupting

• clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion

A leader can seek out a potential disrupter prior to a meeting and ask for cooperation.

The leader can attempt to settle the disrupter's agenda before going to the meeting. At

times, the leader can assign the disruptor a role, such as taking notes or summarizing

the viewpoints of others. To confront the disrupter, the leader may pre-arrange allies

to deal with the behavior. The disrupter can be told in advance that his or her actions

may lead to negative consequences from other members of the group.

During a meeting, the leader should make sure that emotional issues do not get out of

hand. Summarizing viewpoints allows time to prepare more reasoned responses.

Asking questions may help prevent the disruptor from dominating the agenda (Jones, 1980).

Follow-up

After a meeting, completing follow-up documents begins. Formal meetings normally require minutes, which are a summary record of what transpired during

the meeting. Minutes are recorded by one of the group members and will be filed at a key location. Meeting summaries or minutes may be sent to

participants via email or a memo following less-formal meetings. One purpose is to make sure that events and decisions during the meeting are accurately

recorded. A second purpose will be to remind participants of any activities they have volunteered to take care of as well as commitments made to future

activities.

Meetings continue to offer the possibility of coordinating activities, making better decisions, gathering expertise for discussion and negotiation, and even

serving as a place to train managers, who can conduct meetings in order to practice taking charge in a structured setting. Meetings also offer the potential of

wasting time and money, leading to conflicts, and allowing members to disengage and take a free ride. The quality of the leader or manager determines the

outcome.

Concept Check

Creatas Images/Thinkstock

9.4 Formal Group Business Communication

Learning Objective # 4: Preparing effective management communications by groups and teams involves what processes?

Two levels of communication take place when a group operates. The first involves communication among members as the group completes its assignment, as

has been described in this chapter. The second occurs when the group seeks to send a message or messages to others, among them managers at higher

ranks, other groups, sets of employees, and outside publics such as the government. Group communications such as these appear in written and oral forms.

Group and Team Writing Projects

Formal groups are often asked to prepare formal written documents. Three of the more common are official letters, reports, and proposals, although other

variations may be prepared, such as a manifesto or mission statement, a revision to the mission statement, a statement of corporate vision (including those

pertaining to ethics and sustainability), a planning document, and even smaller items such as memos.

Communicating in an authoritative voice that represents the viewpoints of all group members—including the voices of consensus and dissent—constitutes

the primary challenge for formal team writing projects. The final product should speak with one voice, as if the document had been prepared by a single

individual, even though more than one person has been involved. Three options for preparing a team's writing project are single writer, co-authorship, and

multiple authors. Each exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages.

For Review

What three methods can be used when preparing group and team and writing projects?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Three options for preparing a team's writing project include a single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors.

Single Writer

Most of you have probably experienced a situation, at work or in class, in which one individual clearly has superior writing skills. Oftentimes the group,

individually or collectively, will ask that person to write the report or proposal. This should not mean others in the group abdicate responsibility. Instead,

single authorship allows the document to be prepared in a consistent voice, including the level of formality or informality as well as the preciseness of

language with regard to both technical terminology and not-so-technical aspects of the message.

The other members of the group assist the process by collecting materials for the first draft and offering suggestions for revision. Group members might

provide feedback that a point should be added, omitted, or expanded upon. The more concrete the suggestions, the better the odds that the document will

communicate exactly as it should.

Two potential disadvantages of employing a single author are conflicts and social loafing. Members may genuinely disagree about what the document should

say and not say. Some may decide not to participate, either because they believe their opinions will be ignored or because they wish to attend to other

matters (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a single-author situation will be to make sure everyone contributes his or her fair share, that conflicts about content are

resolved in a professional and efficient manner, and that the process stays on schedule. An effective leader expresses appreciation to both the single writer

and to those in the group who continue to participate in preparing the final document.

Co-authorship

Several forms of co-authorship can be used when preparing formal documents. It may be that two individuals are assigned the responsibility. In other

circumstances, nearly every member of the group writes a part of the document and then it is compiled and finalized by one or more members.

The advantages of co-authorship include the ability to break the document down into

areas of interest or specialization, which can then be assigned to the individuals best

suited to each one (Allen et al., 1987). Doing so may allow each part of the report to

receive greater scrutiny by the person with the greatest level of expertise. Collecting

materials moves more quickly, as each part is prepared separately during the same

time period. Collaborative writing helps group members socialize with one another,

including allowing more senior members to assist and counsel newer employees. Co-

authorships can also foster communication among members. In some instances, the

process of collaboration improves the writing skills of team members (Gebhardt, 1980).

Co-authorship also creates challenges. Writing in one voice becomes considerably more

difficult. Making transitions from one part of the document to the next also requires

attention. Those who complete individual sections may be more prone to be defensive

if the segment is challenged or if other members of the group request revisions.

Co-authorships can also foster communication among team or group

members.

IT Stock/Thinkstock

Group verbal presentations require preparation and practice.

The role of the group leader in co-authorship begins with making sure the project does

not break down into "turf wars," with each section of writers and/or individual person

defending their work. The leader assumes larger coordination responsibilities, making

sure that each part arrives on schedule and that the whole document can be completed on time. The leader ensures communication between all members so

that the whole report works toward a consistent voice in content and writing style. The leader may need to adjudicate the decision to select a final person to

polish and edit the completed document before submission.

Multiple Authors, Single Editor

Similar to co-authorship, the multiple-authors-single-editor approach involves individuals and sets of employees that are assigned to segments of work. The

difference is that one individual is placed in charge of each draft and the final document at the outset. Each segment will be submitted to the editor for

revision individually. Then, the editor prepares the final document for consideration by the overall group.

The multiple-authors-single-editor approach takes advantage of one person's writing skills and ability to view the project from a micro and macro

perspective. Many times, this talent can be hard to find. When a person is available, the final document stands a better chance of being written in a clear

voice and with a consistent style. At the same time, multiple authorship often allows for greater specialization, making it possible for each part of the report

to be detailed and clarified by someone with specific knowledge about that area.

The primary disadvantages of the multiple-authors-single-editor approach continue to be the potential for turf-building and conflict over content. Someone,

or a few people who have invested considerable effort into a section, may have such a sense of ownership that they do not take criticism or suggestions for

revision well. Conflicts among these authors can arise as well as conflicts between the authors and the editor (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a multiple-authors-single-editor context remains basically the same. The leader continues to be responsible for deadlines,

coordination, and conflict resolution (Bacon, 1990).

The role of a member in all three of these writing circumstances should be to

contribute as a responsible team player. Doing so involves communicating concerns in

a nonconfrontational manner, offering assistance when needed, meeting deadlines, and

seeking to help successfully achieve the group's objectives. Effective team players are

also good listeners. They respect differences, value diversity, and are willing to use the

resources provided by others (Harper & Harper, 1993)

Group Speaking Projects

A group may be asked to make a verbal presentation of findings or group activities.

Many of the principles, as discussed in previous chapters, that apply to individual

verbal communications also pertain to a group presentation. It is important to

understand the target audience, including its size and composition, in order to

construct an effective message. The group should seek to predict the audience's

probable reaction to the presentation—positive, neutral, or negative—in order to be

able to respond. The presentation should put forth a key idea or limited set of ideas,

and the message should be tailored to those ideas. At that point, the group can

collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiplepresenter approach will be most effective.

For Review

What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations?

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

The group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple-presenter approach will be most effective.

Single Speaker

A single speaker may be chosen for the same reason as a single author. One group member may possess superior public-speaking skills, and the group

wishes to take advantage of that talent. Members of the group may be seated in the audience together or separately to reinforce the speaker and provide

additional support.

The primary advantage of a single speaker, especially one who is gifted, will be the ability to control the tone and pace of the presentation. Other members of

the group can assist by running any audiovisual equipment or other features incorporated into the event. The net result can be a more seamless presentation

that concentrates on the key points in the message.

A single speaker typically begins a presentation by acknowledging the other members of the group. The presenter often also thanks other members both for

their contributions and for attending the presentation. Then the actual content can be delivered. Following the presentation, the other group members may

be called on to respond to questions and objectives.

Christopher Robbins

Virtual groups allow communication and collaboration over great

distances.

A potential disadvantage is that a single speaker may give a more mundane presentation, should the individual not be as talented as the group had hoped.

Audience members may wonder why only one person is talking. If there is a cohesive team that worked to create the presentation, allowing several

presenters can create a greater awareness of this and could allow for a better impact overall.

Multiple Presenters

When more than one speaker will be presenting, several potential advantages emerge. The switch from one person to the next can enliven the audience, and

differing styles of speaking may prove interesting. The address can be framed in such a way that a person with expertise speaks about his or her part of the

operation or analysis, adding credibility. Multiple speakers may also reflect valuable professionalism, even gravitas, suggesting the topic is indeed important.

Ordinarily, one individual serves as moderator or coordinator when multiple presenters appear. This individual will have the most polished speaking skills. It

will be his or her role to open the session with a welcoming statement, introduce the speakers or panel members, and possibly outline what will be said. As

the presentation unfolds, the coordinator directs the audience to the next speaker while providing a transition.

Multiple-presenter arrangements can become distracting. Differences in presentation style may cause the audience to need to adjust, and some may be

focused on the previous speaker rather than the new one. When transitions are abrupt and not well coordinated, the presentation does not appear as

professional. Movements by and facial expressions of those not speaking can attract the attention of the audience, moving it away from the person talking.

Effective multiple-presenter events are practiced and well coordinated. The moderator moves the flow of information as smoothly as is possible. Those not

speaking remain focused on the message provided by the one in front. Transitions between speakers happen quickly. The individuals with the most direct

experience or expertise handle questions. The moderator then provides closure as the presentation ends. The key goal of a presentation will be to provide

the appearance of competent professionalism.

Virtual Groups

Today's technologies allow for the use of virtual groups or sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups

functioning in the nonvirtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities. Virtual teams and groups are

formed for short- and long-term projects, including group writing assignments, as well as deliberations on long-range, ongoing issues (Ante, 2003). Virtual

groups allow individuals and companies to reduce travel costs and permit people from remote locations to participate. A meeting can be arranged as quickly

as if members are simply down the hall, not across the country or ocean (Naughton, 2003).

The leader's role in a virtual group is to schedule meetings, keep the conversation and

dialog flowing, and to summarize at the end. A leader should follow up virtual meetings

to ensure that agreement occurred, that individuals know their tasks and assignments,

and that members are aware of upcoming deadlines and meetings.

Virtual groups do have limitations. If group meetings have no visual aspects, such as

those in a videoconference, then paraverbal and nonverbal cues, such as voice tone,

inflection, eye contact, distance, gestures, and facial expression, cannot as easily be

transmitted. This limits the richness of communications between members.

Socialization can become less likely, or paradoxically, more likely in virtual groups. The

typical boundaries between colleagues working and living in the same place do not

exist between colleagues of virtual groups. There is both more (for example, connecting

with a colleague via Facebook or over email outside of work hours) and less freedom

to communicate (for example, the lack of spontaneous office socialization that occurs

with colleagues in a centralized work environment) about topics outside work. The

boundaries of what is and what is not appropriate still apply, but the routines of

virtual groups typically take on a life of their own and relate back to the business

culture and leader of the company or industry, and the specific task at hand.

Scheduling virtual meetings can also prove a challenge or be quite easy, depending on the colleagues' locations.

In spite of the obstacles, the use of virtual groups can be expected to increase. The ability to see the other party through various new technologies increases

the usefulness of virtual groups, which can have great value for national and international companies.

For Review

Describe a virtual group.

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

Virtual groups are sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual

realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Concept Check

9.5 Chapter Review Management communication plays a critical role in operating groups and teams effectively. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a

common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort. An

organization's leaders establish a formal group to achieve company goals and objectives. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees,

and project teams. An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges without the endorsement of organizational leaders and does not have a designated

structure or work toward organizational goals other than socialization and friendship. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared

values and sentiments, and interactions. The distinction between formal and informal groups has been blurred by new office designs and virtual

communication technologies.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. Individual

members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—conflict, conformity, or consensus. Formal groups require

consensus to operate effectively.

Five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During forming, new members of a group are likely to distrust

one another and experience feelings of uncertainty. Some members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. There

may be tentative actions of a leader, if one has been designated, or by those seeking to lead.

In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to push boundaries and discover their place in the group's structure. Conflict resolution

skills and the ability to reduce potential new conflicts are vital. The norming stage will be complete when members share a common set of expectations

about behaviors and contributions to the group. Norms or rules governing group behaviors begin to form. The performing stage occurs when the group

reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems. Clear lines of communication connect members. In the adjourning

stage, groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. In this stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and

express gratitude for good work. Leadership of groups requires attention to social loafing and levels of group cohesiveness, especially when groupthink

emerges.

Leading meetings involves stating the motivation for the meeting, preparation, managing the actual event, and following up. Leaders obtain clearance for the

meeting place, arrange equipment, send out notices, and then create and distribute the agenda, confirming those who will attend. Group decision-making

processes during meetings can include dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, or a devil's advocacy approach. Attendees should be responsible and

professional, and the leader should work to prevent disrupters from interrupting or sidetracking the meeting.

Formal group business communications include writing projects and presentations by groups and teams. Group writing projects, such as letters, formal

reports, formal proposals, and other documents can be prepared by a single writer, through co-authorship, or by multiple writers with a single editor. Group

speaking projects may be handled by a single spokesperson or with a carefully rehearsed and choreographed multiple-presenter format. Virtual groups

employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information,

solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Key Terms

consensus method

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#)

A group decision-making process in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than a genuine debate of the issue.

devil's advocacy

A group decision-making process in which a person in the group (leader or otherwise) willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force

individuals and subgroups to defend their positions.

dialectical inquiry

A group decision-making process that involves inspiring genuine debate that allows for all points of view to be presented, discussed, and debated until a

resolution is reached.

dysfunctional group

A group with low cohesion and goal disagreement in which members ignore any potential norms.

formal group

A group established by an organization's leaders as part of the managerial process.

formal group leadership

What occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to fulfill the leadership role.

functional group

A group exhibiting desirable levels of cohesion and the highest levels of success.

group

Two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

group cohesiveness

The degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members.

groupthink

What occurs when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views.

informal group

Or a friendship group, a group that emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship without the endorsement of organizational leaders and that does

not have a designated structure.

informal leaders

Or emergent leaders, are individuals who evolve into the leadership role and are selected by the group.

minutes

A summary record of what transpired during a meeting as recorded by one of the group members.

norms

Rules governing behaviors in a group.

social loafing

When group members give less effort to the group than they would working individually or alone.

teams

Sets of individuals with synergies that emerge from greater interdependence and share effort.

virtual groups

Sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the nonvirtual realms, such as collaboration,

sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Analytical Exercises

1. Newer office designs and technologies have blurred the distinction between formal and informal groups. Explain how the use of Twitter, Facebook, and

LinkedIn might be used by group members for formal group functioning, informal interactions, and linking the group to persons outside the organization.

2. A disruptor interrupts communication and disturbs group functioning by attempting to change the subject, making accusations against other members or the

leader, dominating and interrupting, or by clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion. Describe how a disruptor would influence the following:

a. conflict

b. conformity

c. consensus

d. gate-keeping activities

3. Explain which specific tools of formal and informal, and verbal and written communications, along with nonverbal communications, a group leader can use in

the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

4. How would group norms regarding effort/productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors be different or the same in the following circumstances? And,

how could a leader communicate regarding the appropriateness or inappropriateness of each norm to group members, from the company's perspective?

a. a set of bank tellers who are friends

b. a road construction crew that also plays slow-pitch softball together on weekends

c. information technology employees who enjoy playing video games together

d. friends working together at McDonald's

5. How would social loafing and groupthink affect the following?

a. the task track

b. the topic track

c. the relation track

6. Explain the value of dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and a devil's advocacy approach in the following group decisions:

a. medical staff considering a highly risky but more-effective medical treatment for a patient

b. sales team trying to agree on the best method to approach a new, lucrative client

c. management team deciding whether or not to close a plant and outsource a product's manufacture

7. Choose a form of group writing (single authorship, co-authorship, multiple authors/single editor) for the following circumstances and select the type of

written message to be used in the following circumstances.

a. human resources department conducting a fact-finding mission to identify prevailing benefit plans in a metropolitan area

b. product development team describing how the item it created is superior to the competitor's product to the marketing department

c. accounting department explaining how a new tax code will affect company operations

9.6 Case Studies

Video Case Study: Success of Diverse Gender Teams

A research team in London examines the dynamics in the

boardroom that explain the success of gender diverse teams.

Part 1

Success of Diverse Gender Teams

From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

Part 2

Gender Dynamics

From Title: A Woman's Place Is in the Boardroom: Profiting...

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=41341)

1. Why are diverse teams more likely to be effective than

homogenous teams?

2. How can this help managers create effective work groups?

Video Case Study: W.L Gore and Associates

Terri Kelly, CEO of W.L. Gore & Associates, operates from the

principle that every associate contributes to the bottom line. She

explains how she encourages teamwork in this clip.

Part 1

W. L. Gore & Associates

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

Part 2

Collaborate for Success

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

Part 3

Leading in a Collaborative Culture

From Title: Human Resources: People and Partnerships

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=100753&xtid=47306)

1. How do leaders at W.L. Gore create a collaborative

environment that leads to innovation?

2. What barriers to communication take place at W.L. Gore?

Case Study 1: The Sale Before the Sale

Henry Fong faced the biggest challenge of his career. He had been with his company for five years, selling fleets of American-made cars to

other businesses. Currently, Henry had been given the charge to oversee a new major sales project by his employer. He was to head a sales

group assigned to market a fleet of midsized trucks to a local delivery service. A normal order would be 20 trucks, plus a maintenance

agreement, which generated a sizable amount of revenue for his company.

Until this year, the task would have been given to a single member of the company's sales force, Blake Mercer. Blake had been with the

company for 10 years and earned a substantial amount of money in commissions during that time. Recently, however, he had failed to

capture three major accounts that had been continuous customers. Each time, a Japanese company had obtained the contract by emphasizing

fuel efficiency and reliability of its trucks.

Company executives at Henry and Blake's U.S. firm had decided to try a sales team approach, rather than relying on interpersonal

relationships, as Blake had done in the past. Blake was assigned to the team, based on his knowledge of the product and the market. This was

to be the first sales call under the new system.

Henry called a meeting of his five-person team. As the group met in a conference room, Henry opened. "Thank you all for coming. I think this

is an exciting new project, and I'm certain we'll do a great job. Now first of all, I believe we need to find a way to counter this Japanese

company's claims about better gas mileage and reliability. What do you all think?"

A member of the team replied, "Well, it seems to me our advantage is that our trucks are much easier to load and unload, which saves time

and money during deliveries, plus I think we can challenge them on the idea of low maintenance."

"Great," Henry responded, "do you all agree?" Everyone in the room except Blake nodded "yes."

"I also think," Henry continued, "that we can point out all of the high tech we offer, the same as those guys—on-board computers and GPS.

So, what I'm hoping is that we can break this down into a really professional sales pitch, with visuals and maybe a couple of different

presenters."

At that point Blake interrupted sharply, "You know folks, this whole thing is designed to get rid of our commissions. They figure that, if this

team thing works, they can cut back on how much each of us gets paid."

Henry answered, "Well, I'm sure we'll end up dividing the commission, but I haven't heard anything about a straight salary system."

"You're a trusting little soul," Blake replied.

"Well, I really don't think this is the time for that discussion," Henry responded. He quickly moved on, "So, what I'm hoping is that Sally and

Gene will think about maybe putting together some visuals. Don and Erin can work on the main message and coordinate with them. And I'm

hoping Blake can give us all insights about the company and how we can tailor our pitch to them."

"I've got a lot on my plate right now," Blake sneered. "We'll see."

"How about the rest of you?" Henry asked, "Can we put something good together?"

The rest of the group, while tense, nodded in agreement

"Good. And think about how many presenters we want, and who they should be," Henry continued. "Well, listen, I don't really believe in long

meetings, so maybe we can just get some email going back and forth about this. All right? Okay, good. Thanks for coming."

While the rest of the group lingered to visit, Blake quickly left the room. Two of his colleagues were waiting outside. As he moved out of

sight, Henry was certain that he heard Blake continuing to complain about the new system. Henry felt his fist clench. He resisted the urge to

follow Blake and confront him directly. "Be calm; be professional," he thought. Henry knew he faced two issues; making the sale and dealing

with Blake.

Review Questions

1. What type of sales presentation should Henry's team put together?

2. Were the company executives at Henry's firm wise in putting Blake on the sales team?

3. How should Henry deal with Blake in the future?

Case Study 2: The Accident

Murphy Manufacturing suffered a terrible tragedy. For the first time in the company's history, a worker died while on the job. The employee,

Luis Morales, apparently had ignored a warning whistle that signals when a forklift is moving in reverse. He was briefly pinned against a wall,

causing internal injuries that led to his death.

Luis had worked for Murphy Manufacturing for over three years. He had gone through safety training and had never received a warning for

violating safety protocols. In fact, his supervisor had called him a "model employee" on his last performance evaluation, partly based on Luis'

willingness to carefully follow directions.

Top management formed a task force to prepare a report and response. Specifically, four areas required investigation. First, the group was to

investigate the cause of the accident to see if somehow it could have been prevented. Second, employee training was to be reviewed to make

sure all employees had been made aware of safety protocols. Third, the financial response was to be formulated. The company wanted to

make sure Luis' family received fair financial compensation from insurance and all other sources, including a company-sponsored fund-raiser.

Fourth was the human response. Company executives wanted to make sure emotional support was being provided to the family of Luis but

also to the employee who was operating the forklift at the time of the accident.

The task force included an executive in the area of finance, two members of the human resource department, two entry-level production

workers, and a quality-control employee. An attorney was retained to work with the task force regarding all legal issues.

Beyond the internal report to be prepared, the task force was also directed to respond to all media inquiries. The company's CEO made it

clear that he wanted the investigation and response to be "transparent and humane." He asked for a direct, sincere apology to all concerned,

if the company had failed in some way.

Review Questions

1. What written documents should the task force prepare?

2. Should the task force prepare written documents using a single author, co-authorship, or multiple authors with a single editor?

3. What presentations will be necessary in this case? Who should give them?

4. Should a single speaker or multiple presenters make the presentations?