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Diversity,

Personality,

and Values

■ Bringing OB to LIFE TAKING STEPS TO CURB BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

■ Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided? WOULD YOU PLEASE MOVE OVER? WE’RE MAKING ROOM FOR GENERATION Y

■ Checking Ethics in OB PERSONALITY TESTING

■ Finding the Leader in you STEPHEN HAWKING INSPIRES AND SOARS DESPITE DISABILITY

■ OB in Popular Culture AMBITION AND THE SOCIAL NETWORK

■ Research Insight TWIN STUDIES: NATURE OR NURTURE?

The Key Point

■ Why Are Individual

Diff erences

and Diversity

Important?

■ What Is

Personality?

■ How Are

Personality and

Stress Related?

■ What Are Values,

and How Do

Th ey Vary Across

Cultures?

Chapter at a Glance

What’s Inside?

An understanding of organizational behavior begins with the individual. People

vary in their personalities, traits, values, and individual characteristics. Th ese indi-

vidual diff erences infl uence how we behave and work together in organizations. ■

28 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Individual Differences and Diversity

L E A R N I N G

R O A D M A P

SELF CONCEPT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND AWARENESS OF OTHERS

VALUING-OR NOT VALUING-DIVERSITY • DIVERSITY ISSUES IN THE WORKPLACE

DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

People are complex. You approach a situation one way, and someone else may approach

it quite diff erently. Th ese diff erences among people can make it diffi cult to predict and

understand individual behavior in relationships, teams, and organizations. Th ey also

contribute to what makes the study of organizational behavior so fascinating. Th e term

individual diff erences refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in

personal characteristics.

Th e mix of individual diff erences in organizations creates workforce diversity. Some

of these diff erences are easily observable and often demographic. Th ey represent

surface-level diversity based on quite visible physical attributes such as ethnicity, race,

sex, age, and abilities. Other individual diff erences—such as personalities, values, and

attitudes—are more psychologically innate and less immediately visible. Th ey represent

deep-level diversity that may take time and eff ort to understand. 1

Regardless of the level, diversity issues are of great interest in OB. Women, for exam-

ple, now lead global companies such as PepsiCo, Xerox, IBM, and Kraft. But they still hold

only 3 percent of top jobs in American fi rms. 2 Why have so few women so far made it to

the top? 3 Society is becoming more diverse in its racial and ethnic makeup. But a research

study found that résumés of people with white-sounding fi rst names—such as Brett—

received 50 percent more responses from potential employers than those with black-

sounding fi rst names—such as Kareem. 4 How can these results be explained given that

the résumés were created equal?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Awareness of Others

To best understand and deal well with individual diff erences and diversity, it only makes

sense that it’s important to have a strong sense of self. Th e self-concept is the view individ-

uals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings. 5 It is a way of recog-

nizing oneself as a distinct human being. Two factors that increase awareness of individual

diff erences—our own and others—are self-awareness and awareness of others. Self-

awareness means being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personali-

ties, and so on. Awareness of others means being aware of these same things in others.

A person’s self concept shows up in self-esteem, a belief about one’s own worth based

on an overall self-evaluation. 6 People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worth-

while, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are low

in self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. Someone’s

self-concept is also displayed in self-effi cacy, sometimes called the eff ectance motive,

which is a more specifi c version of self-esteem. It is an individual’s belief about the likeli-

hood of successfully completing a specifi c task. You could have high self-esteem and yet

have a feeling of low self-effi cacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking.

What determines the development of the self ? How, for example, can we explain

prejudice in the form of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward per-

sons who are diff erent from ourselves? Perhaps you have heard someone say “She acts like her

mother,” or “Bobby is the way he is because of the way he was raised.” Th ese two comments

illustrate the nature/nurture controversy: Are we the way we are because of heredity—genetic

endowment, or because of environment—the cultural places and situations in which we have

been raised and live? It is most likely that these two forces act in combination, with heredity

setting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them. 7

Individual diff erences are

the ways in which people are

similar and dissimilar in

personal characteristics.

Surface-level diversity

involves individual diff erences

in visible attributes such as

race, sex, age, and physical

abilities.

Deep-level diversity involves

individual diff erences in

attributes such as personality

and values.

Self-concept is the view

individuals have of themselves

as physical, social, spiritual, or

moral beings.

Self-awareness means being

aware of one’s own behaviors,

preferences, styles, biases,

personalities, and so on.

Awareness of others is being

aware of the behaviors,

preferences, styles, biases, and

personalities of others.

Self-esteem is a belief about

one’s own worth based on an

overall self-evaluation.

Self-effi cacy is an individual’s

belief about the likelihood of

successfully completing a

specifi c task.

Prejudice is the display of

negative, irrational, and

superior opinions and

attitudes toward persons who

are diff erent from ourselves.

29Individual Diff erences and Diversity

Research Insight

There is a long-standing question in individual diff-erences psychology: How much of who we are is determined by nature and how much by nurture? Research fi ndings are beginning to provide fascinating insights into this question by investigating samples of twins. Before you read on, take a guess at the following: In thinking about leadership, how much of leadership capacity do you think is determined by nature and how much by nurture?

This question is being investigated in a research pro- gram by Rich Arvey and colleagues. In a recent study, he and his researchers used a sample of 178 fraternal and 214 identical female twins to see if they could generalize their fi ndings that 30 percent of the variance in leadership role occupancy among the male twins could be accounted for by genetic factors. Their sample came from the Minnesota Twin Registry—a registry of twins born in the state between 1936 and 1951 who had been reared together during child- hood. Surveys were sent to the female twins with measures assessing their history of holding leadership roles (i.e., lead- ership role occupancy) and an assessment of developmen- tal life experiences, including family and work experiences.

The results supported the pattern shown in the male sample—32 percent of the variance in the women’s lead- ership role occupancy was associated with hereditability. Family experience and work experience were also related to leadership role occupancy although, not surprisingly, experiences at work are more important than family

Do the Research How close was your guess? Do these fi ndings correspond with what you see in your own families (e.g., with brothers and sisters or with parents and children)? How would you test the question of nature versus nurture?

Twin Studies: Nature or Nurture?

experiences in shaping women’s leadership develop- ment. The fi ndings are important because they indicate that developmental experiences can help both men and women move into leadership roles.

Source: R. Arvey, Z. Zhang, B. Avolio, and R. Krueger, “Developmental and Genetic Determinants of Leadership Role Occupancy among Women,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92.3 (2007), pp. 693–706.

Genetic 31.9%

Other Environmental

Influences 56.6%

Work Experience

11.5%

Valuing-or Not Valuing-Diversity

Th e U.S. population is not just getting bigger; it is more racially and ethnically diverse,

and it is getting older. Th e U.S. Census Bureau predicts that the country will become a

true plurality by 2060, with no one ethnic or racial group being in the majority. Hispanics

are now the fastest growing community and by 2060 will constitute one-third of the pop-

ulation. America is also growing demographically older ; by 2050 one in fi ve people will

be aged 65-plus. 8 What do these and other such demographic trends mean for everyday

living, for our personal relationships, for the way we work?

More and more organizations are embracing policies and practices to value diversity in

their workforces as a way to increase competitiveness, build talent, expand organizational

capabilities, and enhance access to diverse customers. 9 Individual diff erences are fast becom-

ing valued for the strengths that diversity can bring to a workforce. 10

If you need creativity,

for example, do you turn to people who think like you or to people who can help you think

diff erently? Moreover, when you need to understand something you have never encoun-

tered before, such as another culture or an emerging market, do you turn to people who are

the same as you or would you want access to co-workers familiar with those cultures?

Th e fl ip side of valuing diversity is outright discrimination against women and

minorities in the workplace. It occurs when minority members are unfairly treated and

Discrimination actively

denies minority members the

full benefi ts of organizational

membership.

30 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

denied the full benefi ts of organizational membership. An example is when a manager

fabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a

working mother on the belief that “she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a

good job at this level.” Such thinking underlies a form of discrimination called the glass

ceiling eff ect, an invisible barrier or “ceiling” that prevents women and minorities from

rising above a certain level of organizational responsibility. 11

Diversity Issues in the Workplace

Race and Ethnicity Th e value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and organizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of racial and

ethnic diversity. And Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against

employment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin,

sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state and

local governments.

According to Title VII, equal employment opportunity cannot be denied any person

because of his/her racial group or perceived racial group, his/her race-linked characteris-

tics (e.g., hair texture, color, facial features), or because of his/her marriage to or associa-

tion with someone of a particular race or color. It also prohibits employment decisions

based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of indi-

viduals of certain racial groups. But, as noted earlier in the research showing prejudice in

job searches against person’s with black-sounding fi rst names, it’s still an imperfect world. 12

Gender Women are bringing not just task expertise but valuable interpersonal skills and styles to the workplace, such as listening and collaborative skills, and abilities to

multitask and synthesize alternative viewpoints eff ectively and quickly. Research shows

that companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate offi -

cers, on average, fi nancially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by signif-

icant margins. 13

Th e presence of women leaders is also benefi cial because they encourage

more women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women.

Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organization

has a broad and deep talent pool, and off ers an inclusive workplace.

Despite these benefi ts to organizations and anti-discrimination protections aff orded

them under Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have not penetrated

the highest level of organizational leadership to the extent we would expect. Even worse,

many are still abandoning corporate careers just as they are positioned to attain

higher-level responsibilities. Th e term leaking pipeline was coined by Professor Lynda

Gratton and colleagues of the London Business School to describe this phenomenon. 14

In one study of 61 organizations operating in 12 European countries, they found that the

number of women decreases the more senior the roles become.

Th e nonprofi t research organization Catalyst reports that women consistently iden-

tify gender stereotypes as a signifi cant barrier to advancement and cause for the leaking

pipeline. 15

Th ey describe a “think-leader-think-male” mind-set in which men are largely

seen as leaders by default because of stereotypically masculine “take charge” skills such

as infl uencing superiors and problem solving. Women, by contrast are stereotyped for

“caretaking skills” such as supporting and encouraging others. Th is creates what is called

a leadership double bind for women. If they conform to the stereotype they are seen as

weak, and if they go against the stereotype they are breaking norms of femininity.

As some describe it, female leaders are “damned if they do, doomed if they don’t.” 16

Organizations can help address these stereotypes by creating workplaces that are more

meaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are less

command-and-control and status-based. As Catalyst reports, “Ultimately, it is not

women’s leadership styles that need to change but the structures and perceptions that

must keep up with today’s changing times.” 17

Th e glass ceiling eff ect is

an invisible barrier limiting

career advancement of

women and minorities.

Title VII of the Civil Rights

Act of 1964 protects

individuals against

employment discrimination

on the basis of race and color,

as well as national origin, sex,

and religion.

Th e leaking pipeline

describes how women drop

out of careers before reaching

the top levels of organizations.

Th e leadership double bind

describes how women are

seen as weak in leadership if

they conform to the feminine

stereotype and also weak if

they go against it.

31Individual Diff erences and Diversity

Sexual Orientation Th e fi rst U.S. corporation to add sexual orientation to its non- discrimination policy did so 30 years ago. Th at company was AT&T and its chairman,

John DeButts, said that his company would “respect the human rights of our employ-

ees.” 18

Although employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender

identity is not yet protected by federal legislation, such legislation has been proposed to

Congress (the Employment Non-Discrimination Act), and individuals are protected

from sexual harassment bullying at work and school. 19

Also, many states now have exec-

utive orders protecting the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender workers. 20

Regardless of weak and incomplete legislative support, the workplace is beginning to

improve for gay Americans. Harris polling shows that 78 percent of heterosexual adults

in the United States agree that how an employee performs at his or her job should be the

standard for judging an employee, not one’s sexual orientation, while 62 percent agree

that all employees are entitled to equal benefi ts on the job, such as health insurance for

partners or spouses. 21

Age Age or generational diversity is aff ecting the workplace like never before. Popula- tion demographics and economic trends have created a workforce where Millennials,

Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers have to work and get along together. Nonetheless, there are

BRINGING OB

TO LIFE Taking Steps to Curb Bias in Performance Assessment Try as we might, bias has a way of creeping into

performance assessments and other human resource

management decisions. But Harvard scholars Iris

Bohnet, Alexandra van Geen, and Max H. Bazerman may

have found a way to minimize or eliminate such implicit

discrimination. Th e key, they say, is to make sure

evaluators compare candidates directly rather than one

by one.

Th is advice comes from research that asked 100

participants to act as candidates for a new job. Th ey

performed a variety of math and verbal tasks chosen

by the researchers because of the common gender

stereotype that “females are believed to be worse at math

tasks and better at verbal tasks than males.” Another 554

study participants then acted as evaluators to select

candidates for a second round of testing. Th ey were

given test results and gender for each candidate. Some

evaluators were asked to evaluate the candidates one at

a time while others directly compared male and female

candidates.

Gender stereotypes infl uenced the one-by-one

evaluations, with female candidates more often chosen

for further verbal testing and male candidates for further

math testing. When male and female candidates were

evaluated together,

however, gender

stereotypes largely

disappeared.

Bohnet et al.

summarize the

research by noting

that “if you look at one

pair of shoes, it’s hard

to evaluate the quality

of those shoes. You will

be much more likely to

go with stereotypes or

heuristics or rules of

thumb about shoes.

But if you have several

pair of shoes available,

you’re much more

likely to be able to

compare diff erent attributes of the shoes.”

Has this OB research put its fi nger on a simple way to

remove bias from human resource decisions? Is it time

to stop assessing candidates one at a time and instead

compare them to one another directly?

“If you have several pair of shoes available, you’re much more likely to be able to

compare diff erent attributes of the shoes.”

Jon Feingersh Photography/ SuperStock/Corbis

32 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

points of confl ict based on age stereotypes. Baby Boomers may view Millennials as feel-

ing a sense of entitlement and not being hard working due to the way they dress and their

interest in fl exible hours. Millennials may view Baby Boomers and Gen Xers as more

concerned about the hours they work than what they produce. 22

Th e generational mix in organizations provides an excellent example of how diver-

sity can deliver benefi ts. For example, Millennials seem to embrace gender equality and

sexual, cultural, and racial diversity more than any previous generation, and they bring

these values to work. Millennials also have an appreciation for community and

collaboration. Th ey can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the

problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. At the same time,

Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment that

contribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is benefi ting their

younger counterparts. 23

Ability In recent years the “disability rights movement” has been working to bring attention and support to the needs of disabled workers.

24 Estimates indicate that over

50 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and studies show

these workers do their jobs as well as, or better than, nondisabled workers. Despite this,

nearly three-quarters of severely disabled persons are reported to be unemployed, and

almost 80 percent of those with disabilities say they want to work. 25

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Employers fi nd a lot to like in the skills Generation Y members—the Millennials—bring to the workplace. No problem with technology—they’re always on the cusp of things. No problem with collaboration—they’ve grown up with teamwork and social media. No problem either with motivation—they’re task oriented and career focused.

But Gen Ys also need special handling. They can be spoiled and self-centered, quick to complain when their bosses don’t communicate enough, when their skills aren’t fully tapped, and when work rules and bureaucracy get too restrictive. They’re also impatient for new assignments and promotions, and fl exible work arrangements. And when they don’t get them they’re quick to move on. Loyalty to a single-employer career isn’t part of their DNA.

Some employers go to great lengths to keep their Gen Ys happy, even to the point where “older” employers feel a bit put upon. The online book service Chegg cut middle man- agement positions to make room for younger employees to advance. CEO Dan Rosensweig said, “If they don’t feel like they’re making a contribution to a company overall quickly, they don’t stay.” Software fi rm Aprimo guarantees Gen Ys promotion and a raise in a year if they perform up to expec- tations. When some of the older workers balked at this special treatment, President Bob Boehnlein said, “I had to strong-arm a little bit.”

Would You Please Move Over? We’re Making Room for Generation Y

Do the Analysis Do Gen Ys deserve special treatment? And when they get it, should it come at the expense of their more senior co-workers? Just how do you blend the needs and interests of a new generation of workers with others who have been around awhile—perhaps quite awhile? Who gains and who loses when the new generation pushes employers to rethink the nature of the employment contract?

Barry Austin/Moodboard/Corbis

33Individual Diff erences and Diversity

Stephen Hawking Inspires and Soars Despite Disability

S tephen Hawking cannot speak and does not have use of his motor skills, but he doesn’t let that stop him. Renowned for his work in theoretical physics, Hawk- ing has been an infl uential voice in redefi ning the way we see black holes and the origin of the universe. He is perhaps most recognized for his book A Brief History of Time, in which he works to translate Einstein’s general theory of relatively and quantum theory for a general audience.

Hawking was diagnosed with ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease, a few years after his twenty-fi rst birthday. Over time, ALS has gradually crippled his body, fi rst making him dependent on a wheelchair and private nurse, and then requiring 24/7 nursing care. He uses a voice synthe- sizer devised by a colleague that allows him to type rather than having to check letters off a card.

Despite his disability, Hawking has maintained an extensive program of travel, public lectures, and televi- sion appearances—even defying gravity by experiencing weightlessness on a zero-gravity fl ight for two hours over the Atlantic. His accomplishments and ability to live a full life, with three children and three grandchildren, have

inspired people around the world. As Hawking says, “I’m sure my disa- bility has a bearing on why I’m well known. People are fascinated by the contrast between my very limited physical powers, and the vast nature of the universe I deal with. I’m the archetype of a disabled genius, or should I say a physically challenged genius, to be politically correct. At least I’m obviously physically challenged. Whether I’m a genius is more open to doubt.”

What’s the Lesson Here? How do you respond to individual differences in the workplace? Are you understanding of the strengths and limitations of others? What about your own limita- tions and challenges? Do you work to overcome them, or do you let them bring you down?

Menahem KahanaAFP/GettyImages/NewsCom

IN YOU FINDING THE LEADER

Th e passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 has been a signif-

icant catalyst in advancing their eff orts. Th e focus of the ADA is to eliminate employers’

practices that treat people with disabilities unnecessarily diff erent. Th e ADA has helped

to generate a more inclusive climate in which organizations are reaching out more to

people with disabilities. Th e most visible changes from the ADA have been in issues of

universal design—the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and

programs to be usable by the greatest number of people. You may see this in your own

college or university’s actions to make their campus and classrooms more accessible. 26

Th e disability rights movement is working passionately to advance a redefi nition of

what it means to be disabled in U.S. society. Th e goal is to overcome the stigmas attached

to disability. A stigma is a phenomenon whereby an individual with an attribute that is

deeply discredited by his or her society is rejected as a result of the attribute. Because of

stigmas, many are reluctant to seek coverage under the ADA because they do not want to

experience discrimination in the form of stigmas.

Diversity and Social Identity

Although in the past many organizations addressed the issue of diversity from the stand-

point of compliance with legal mandates, the focus is now on policies and practices of

inclusion. 27

Th is new focus represents a shift in thinking about how organizations can

create inclusive cultures for everyone. 28

Th e move from compliance to inclusion occurred primarily because employers began

to learn that although they were able to recruit diverse individuals, they were not able to

retain them. In work settings where upper ranks of organizations continued to be mostly

composed of white males, diffi cult questions started to be asked and answered: Do

employees in all groups and categories feel comfortable and welcomed in the organiza-

tion? Do they feel included, and do they experience the environment as inclusive? 29

Th e Americans with

Disabilities Act is a federal

civil rights statute that

protects the rights of people

with disabilities.

Universal design is the

practice of designing products,

buildings, public spaces, and

programs to be usable by the

greatest number of people.

A stigma is a phenomenon

whereby an individual is

rejected as a result of an

attribute that is deeply

discredited by his or her

society.

34 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Questions like those just posed are the focus of social identity theory as developed by

social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in their quest to understand the psycho-

logical basis of discrimination. 30

According to the theory, individuals have not one but

multiple “personal selves.” Which self is activated depends on the group with which the

person identifi es. Th e mere act of identifying, or “categorizing,” oneself as a member of a

group will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in the

form of “in-group” enhancement. Th is in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of the

out-group. In terms of diversity, social identity theory suggests that simply having diversity

in groups makes that identity salient in peoples’ minds. Individuals engage these identities

and experience feelings of in-group membership and out-group membership.

Th e implications of social identity theory are straightforward. When organizations have

strong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity,

this will work against a feeling of inclusion. Such in-group and out-group categorizations

can be subtle but powerful, and they may be most noticeable to those in the “out-group”

category. Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but when

only a few members of a group are present, this may evoke a strong out-group identity. Th ey

may end up feeling uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. Managers and orga-

nizations try to deal with all this by creating work cultures and environments that welcome

and embrace inclusion. Th e concept of valuing diversity emphasizes an appreciation of dif-

ferences while creating a workplace where everyone feels valued and accepted. 31

Personality L E A R N I N G

R O A D M A P

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS • SOCIAL TRAITS

PERSONAL CONCEPTION TRAITS

Th e term personality encompasses the overall combination of characteristics that

capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.

It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that refl ect how a person looks,

thinks, acts, and feels. Th ink of yourself, and of your family and friends. A key part of how

you interact with others depends on your own and their personalities, doesn’t it? If you

have a friend who has a sensitive personality, do you interact with that person diff erently

than you do with a friend or family member who likes to joke around?

Sometimes attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires or special

tests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personality

is an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictable

interplays between people’s individual diff erences and their tendencies to behave in

certain ways.

Big Five Personality Traits

Numerous lists of personality traits—enduring characteristics describing an indivi-

dual’s behavior—have been developed, and used in OB research. A key starting point is to

consider the personality dimensions known as the “Big Five Model”: 32

■ Extraversion—the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive.

An extravert is comfortable and confi dent in interpersonal relationships; an intro-

vert is more withdrawn and reserved.

■ Agreeableness—the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and

trusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is

a source of confl ict and discomfort for others.

■ Conscientiousness—the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and

careful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets

Social identity theory is

a theory developed to

understand the psychological

basis of discrimination.

A feeling of in-group

membership exists when

individuals sense they are

part of a group and

experience favorable status

and a sense of belonging.

A feeling of out-group

membership exists when

individuals sense they are

not part of a group and

experience discomfort and

low belongingness.

Personality is the overall

combination of

characteristics that capture

the unique nature of a person

as that person reacts to and

interacts with others.

Personality traits are

enduring characteristics

describing an individual’s

behavior.

Big Five Personality � Dimensions

35Personality

commitments; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do

too much and failing, or doing little.

■ Emotional stability—the degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and un-

worried. A person who is emotionally stable is calm and confi dent; a person lacking

in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense.

■ Openness to experience—the degree to which someone is curious, open to new

ideas, and imaginative. An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things,

and comfortable with change; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has

few interests, and is resistant to change.

A considerable body of literature links the personality dimensions of the Big Five

model with behavior at work and in life overall. For example, conscientiousness is a good

predictor of job performance for most occupations, and extraversion is often associated

with success in management and sales. Indications are that extraverts tend to be happier

than introverts in their lives overall, that conscientious people tend to be less risky, and

that those more open to experience are more creative. 33

You can easily spot the Big Five personality traits in people with whom you work,

study, and socialize. But don’t forget that they also apply to you. Others form impressions

of your personality, and respond to it, just as you do in response to theirs. Managers often

use these and other personality judgments when making job assignments, building

teams, and otherwise engaging in the daily social give-and-take of work.

Social Traits

Social traits are surface-level traits that refl ect the way a person appears to others

when interacting in various social settings. A person’s problem-solving style, based on

the work of noted psychologist Carl Jung, is a good example. It refl ects the way someone

goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making deci-

sions. Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by the typically 100-item

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or

feel in specifi c situations. Th e MBTI is often used by organizations to improve self-

awareness of participants in management development programs. 34

Th e fi rst component in Jung’s typology, information gathering, involves getting and

organizing data for use. Styles of information gathering vary from sensation to intuitive.

Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defi ned details in

gathering information; they would rather work with known facts than look for possibili-

ties. By contrast, intuitive-type individuals prefer the “big picture.” Th ey like solving new

problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts.

Social traits refl ect how a

person appears to others in

social settings.

Problem-solving style is

how we gather and evaluate

information when solving

problems.

Attractiveness Good for Men But Bad for Women When Job Hunting Physical attractiveness is often considered a pathway

to advancement and career success. Th e better looking

among us, the reasoning goes, tend to fare better. But

researchers from Ben Gurion University and Ariel

University Centre in Israel faced unusual results when

they tackled “attractiveness” in a study of employment

practices. Th ey sent similar résumés with and without

photos of the job applicants to prospective employers.

Th ese photos of the male and female applicants were

rated for attrac-

tiveness. Findings

showed that

attractive males

were better off

sending photos

with their résumés,

but attractive

females were not.

Th e hiring bias against attractive women in the study

was explained as jealousy on the part of human

resource staff ers who are mostly female.

StockLite/Shutterstock

36 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Ambition and The Social Network Sony’s movie The Social Network is based on Facebook’s story and especially the role of visionary and contro- versial founder Mark Zuckerberg (played by Jesse Eisenberg). Although Zuckerberg calls the fi lm pure “fi ction,” it raises ethical questions about his actions while developing the initial Web site, refi ning it, and eventually turning it into a global company valued at over $50 billion. Two former Harvard classmates, Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, sued him, claiming the original idea was theirs. Another early collaborator and co-founder, Eduardo Saverin, was initially left out of the new fi rm’s fi nancial gains.

In its reaction to the fi lm, Entertainment Weekly asks, “Why did Zuckerberg betray these people? Or, in fact, did he really?”

One thing that cannot be denied is Zuckerberg’s ambition, the desire to succeed and reach for high goals. He’s the youngest self-made billionaire in busi- ness history. As the movie shows, ambition is one of those personality traits that can certainly have a big impact on individual behavior—both for the good and for the bad.

Get to Know Yourself Better Watch The Social Network and discuss with your friends and classmates how different personalities and talents played out in creating the Facebook revolution. What can you learn that might help you deal with the ethics and intricacies of human behavior in work situations? Then take “Assessment 19: Your Personality Type” in the OB Skills Workbook. Personality is a good starting point for exploring your prefer ences and gaining a better understanding of who you are. How diffi cult would it be for someone else to understand you? Spend a few minutes looking at that. After you score the assessment, sit down with your roommate or a close friend and discuss the results. Is what you discovered consistent with how they see you?

Columbia Pictures/Photofest

Th e second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgments

about how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of information

evaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feeling-

type individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to

other people. Th ey try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Th inking-type

individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions.

When the two dimensions of information gathering and evaluation are combined,

four basic problem-solving styles can be identifi ed. As shown in Figure 2.1, people can be

classifi ed into combinations of sensation–feeling (SF), intuitive–feeling (IF), sensation–

thinking (ST), and intuitive–thinking (IT).

Research indicates that there is a fi t between the styles of individuals and the kinds of

decisions they prefer. For example, STs (sensation–thinkers) prefer analytical strategies—

those that emphasize detail and method. IFs (intuitive–feelers) prefer intuitive

strategies—those that emphasize an overall pattern and fi t. Not surprisingly, mixed styles

(sensation–feelers or intuitive–thinkers) select both analytical and intuitive strategies.

Other fi ndings also indicate that thinkers tend to have higher motivation than do feelers,

and that individuals who emphasize sensations tend to have higher job satisfaction than

do intuitives. Th ese and other fi ndings suggest a number of basic diff erences among

37Personality

diff erent problem-solving styles, emphasizing the importance of fi tting such styles with a

task’s information processing and evaluation requirements. 35

Personal Conception Traits

What are known as personal conception traits represent various ways people think

about their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientations

toward a range of issues. Personal conception traits often discussed in the work context

include locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavel-

lianism, and self-monitoring.

Locus of Control Th e extent to which a person feels able to control his or her own life is known as locus of control.

36 People have personal conceptions about whether

events are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, or

by outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an

external orientation. Internals, or persons with an internal locus of control, believe that

they control their own fate or destiny. In contrast, externals, or persons with an external

locus of control, believe that much of what happens to them is beyond their control and

is determined by environmental forces (such as fate).

In general, externals are more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and are

more oriented toward the world around them. Internals tend to be more introverted and are

more oriented toward their own feelings and ideas. Figure 2.2 suggests that internals tend to

do better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative.

Proactive Personality Some people in organizations are passive recipients when faced with constraints, whereas others take direct and intentional action to change their

FIGURE 2.1 Four problem- solving styles of the Jungian typology.

Sensation–Feeling

Interpersonal Specific human detail Friendly, sympathetic Open communication Respond to people now Good at:

Empathizing Cooperating

Goal: To be helpful

Sensation–Thinking

Technical detail oriented Logical analysis of hard data Precise, orderly Careful about rules and procedures Dependable, responsible Good at:

Observing, ordering Filing, recalling

Goal: Do it correctly

Intuitive–Feeling

Insightful, mystical Idealistic, personal Creative, original Global ideas oriented to people Human potential Good at:

Imagining New combinations

Goal: To make things beautiful

Intuitive–Thinking

Speculative Emphasize understanding Synthesize, interpret Logic-oriented ideas Objective, impersonal, idealistic Good at:

Discovery, inquiry Problem solving

Goal: To think things through

Personal conception traits

show up as personal beliefs

and orientations toward

settings and issues.

Locus of control is the

extent a person feels able to

control his or her own life and

is concerned with a person’s

internal–external orientation.

38 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

FIGURE 2.2 Ways in which internal locus of control differs from external locus of control.

Information processing

Job satisfaction

Performance

Self-control, risk, and anxiety

Motivation, expectancies, and results

Response to others

Internals make more attempts to acquire information, are less satisfied with the amount of information they possess, and are better at utilizing information.

Internals are generally more satisfied, less alienated, less rootless, and there is a stronger job satisfaction/ performance relationship for them.

Internals perform better on learning and problem- solving tasks when performance leads to valued rewards.

Internals exhibit greater self-control, are more cautious, engage in less risky behavior, and are less anxious.

Internals display greater work motivation, see a stronger relationship between what they do and what happens to them, expect that working hard leads to good performance, and feel more control over their time.

Internals are more independent, more reliant on their own judgment, and less susceptible to the influence of others; they are more likely to accept information on its merit.

circumstances. Th e disposition that identifi es whether or not individuals act to infl uence

their environments is known as proactive personality. Individuals with high proactive

personalities identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and

persevere until meaningful change occurs. Th ose low in proactivity are the opposite.

Th ey fail to identify—let alone seize—opportunities to change things. Th ey tend to be

passive and reactive, preferring to adapt to circumstances rather than change them. 37

In the ever more demanding world of work, many employers are seeking individuals

with more proactive qualities—individuals willing to take initiative and engage in pro-

active problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is

positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Other

studies have shown that proactive personality is related to team eff ectiveness and

entrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovative

change, these changes have more positive eff ects for proactive individuals—they are

more involved and more receptive to change. Th is research is showing that proactive

personality is an important and desirable element in today’s work environment.

Authoritarianism/Dogmatism Both authoritarianism and dogmatism as personal conception traits deal with the rigidity of someone’s beliefs. A person high in authoritarian-

ism tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. Th is

person is concerned with toughness and power and opposes the use of subjective feelings.

Highly authoritarian individuals present a special problem because they can be so eager to

comply with directives from authority fi gures that they end up willing to behave unethically. 38

An individual high in dogmatism sees the world as a threatening place. Th is person

regards legitimate authority as absolute, and accepts or rejects others according to how

much they agree with accepted authority. Superiors who possess these latter traits tend

to be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certainty

imposed on them.

A proactive personality is

the disposition that identifi es

whether or not individuals

act to infl uence their

environments.

Authoritarianism is a

tendency to adhere rigidly to

conventional values and to

obey recognized authority.

Dogmatism leads a person to

see the world as a threatening

place and to regard authority

as absolute.

39Personality

Machiavellianism Th e very name of the sixteenth-century author Niccolo Machiavelli often evokes visions of someone who acts with guile, deceit, and opportunism. Machiavelli

earned his place in history by writing Th e Prince, a nobleman’s guide to the acquisition and

use of power. 39

Th e subject of Machiavelli’s book is manipulation as the basic means of gain-

ing and keeping control of others. From its pages emerges the personality profi le of Machia-

vellianism—the practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain.

Persons high in Machiavellianism approach situations logically and thoughtfully, and

are even capable of lying to achieve personal goals. 40

Th ey are rarely swayed by loyalty,

friendships, past promises, or the opinions of others, and they are skilled at infl uencing

others. Th ey can also be expected to take control and try to exploit loosely structured

environmental situations but will perform in a perfunctory, even detached, manner in

highly structured situations. Where the situation permits, they might be expected to do

or say whatever it takes to get their way. Th ose low in Machiavellianism, by contrast, tend

to be more strongly guided by ethical considerations and are less likely to lie, cheat, or get

away with lying or cheating.

Machiavellianism causes

someone to view and

manipulate others purely for

personal gain.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Personality Testing Dear [your name goes here]: I am very pleased to invite you to a second round of screening interviews with XYZ Corporation. Your on- campus session with our representative went very well, and we would like to consider you further for a full-time position. Please contact me to arrange a visit date. We will need a full day. The schedule will include several meetings with executives and your potential team members, as well as a round of personality tests.

Thank you again for your interest in XYZ Corp. I look forward to meeting you during the next step in our recruiting process.

Sincerely, /signed/ Human Resource Director Getting a letter like this is great news: a nice confi r-

mation of your hard work and performance in college. You obviously made a good fi rst impression. But have you thought about this “personality test” thing? What do you know about them and how they are used for employment screening?

Make the Decision What are the ethical issues of personality testing? When might the use of personality tests be considered an invasion of privacy? When might their use be considered unethical? Now go back to the situation just described: Will you take the tests at XYZ? Will you ask any questions about the tests when you contact the human resources director? Is the fact that XYZ uses personality tests a positive or a negative in terms of your likely fi t with the fi rm?

Tek Image/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commis- sion says that personality tests can’t have an adverse impact on members of protected groups. And, a report in the Wall Street Journal advises that lawsuits can result when employers use personality tests that weren’t specifi cally designed for hiring decisions. Some people might even consider their use an invasion of privacy.

40 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring refl ects a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors.

41 High self-monitors are sensitive

to external cues and tend to behave diff erently in diff erent situations. High self-monitors

can present a very diff erent appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors,

are less able to disguise their behaviors—“What you see is what you get.” Th ere is also

evidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conform

more readily than do low self-monitors. 42

Th us, they appear fl exible and may be especially

good at adjusting their behavior to fi t diff erent kinds of situations and the people in them.

Personality and Stress L E A R N I N G

R O A D M A P

TYPE A ORIENTATION AND STRESS • WORK AND LIFE STRESSORS

OUTCOMES OF STRESS • APPROACHES TO MANAGING STRESS

An individual’s personality can also be described in terms of emotional adjustment

traits that indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts,

such as impatience, irritability, or aggression. 43

Among these, a personality with Type A

orientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. In

contrast, those with a Type B orientation are characterized as more easygoing and less

competitive in relation to daily events. 44

Type A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt,

uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as “obsessive”

behavior. When carried to the extreme, it may lead to greater concerns for details than for

results, resistance to change, and overzealous attempts to exert control. In contrast, Type B

people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Type A Orientation and Stress

In one survey of college graduates, 31 percent reported working over 50 hours per week,

60 percent rushed meals and 34 percent ate lunches “on the run,” and 47 percent of those

under 35 and 28 percent of those over 35 had feelings of job burnout. A study by the Soci-

ety for Human Resources Management found that 70 percent of those surveyed worked

over and above scheduled hours, including putting in extra time on the weekends; over

50 percent said that the pressure to do the extra work was “self-imposed.” 45

Th e situations just described all evidence the presence of stress as a state of internal

tension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinary

demands, constraints, or opportunities. 46

If you look back to the discussion of Type A and

Type B personalities, the fact is that Type As often bring stress upon themselves. Th ey

may even do this in situations others may fi nd relatively stress free. You can spot Type A

personality tendencies in yourself and others through the following patterns of behavior:

■ Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly

■ Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting

■ Doing, or trying to do, several things at once

■ Feeling guilty when relaxing

■ Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others47

Work and Life Stressors

Not all stress that we experience is personality driven. Any variety of things can cause

stress for individuals. Some stressors can be traced directly to what people experience in

the workplace, whereas others derive from life situations and nonwork factors.

Work Stressors Th ere is no doubt that work can be stressful and job demands can sometimes disrupt one’s work–life balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively

Self-monitoring is a person’s

ability to adjust his or her

behavior to external

situational (environmental)

factors.

Type A Behaviors �

Emotional adjustment

traits are traits related to

how much an individual

experiences emotional

distress or displays

unacceptable acts.

Persons with Type A

orientations tend to be

impatient, achievement

oriented, and competitive.

Persons with Type B

orientations tend to be

easygoing and less

competitive.

Stress is a state of tension in

response to extraordinary

demands, constraints, or

opportunities.

41Personality and Stress

high or low task demands, role confl icts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations,

career progress that is either too slow or too fast, and more. Th e following is a list of com-

mon stressors:

■ Task demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little

■ Role ambiguities—not knowing what one is expected to do or how work perfor-

mance is evaluated

■ Role confl icts—feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly confl icting, performance

expectations

■ Ethical dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values

■ Interpersonal problems—experiencing bad relationships or working with others

with whom one does not get along

■ Career developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly

and feeling stuck on a plateau

■ Physical setting—being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other

unpleasant working conditions

Life Stressors Life stressors such as family events (e.g., the birth of a new child), eco- nomic diffi culties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse), and personal aff airs (e.g., a separation

or divorce) can all be extremely stressful. Th at pretty much goes without saying. But it’s

also true that people can easily suff er from spillover eff ects that result when forces in their

personal lives spill over to aff ect them at work or when forces at work spill over to aff ect

their personal lives. Because it is often diffi cult to completely separate work and nonwork

lives, especially in this age of smart devices that keep us continually in touch with work

and personal aff airs, life stressors and spillover eff ects are highly signifi cant.

Outcomes of Stress

Th e stress we experience at work or in personal aff airs isn’t always negative. Scholars

talk about two types of stress. 48

Th e fi rst is eustress—constructive stress that results in

positive outcomes. It occurs when moderate—not extreme—stress levels prompt things

like increased work eff ort, greater creativity, and more diligence. You may know such

stress as the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class,

and complete assignments on time. Th e second type of stress is distress—destructive

stress that turns out to be dysfunctional for both the individual. Key symptoms of indi-

viduals suff ering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from

punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to

Eustress is constructive

stress that results in positive

outcomes for the individual.

Distress is destructive stress

that is dysfunctional for the

individual.

Learning to Power Down: Vacation Habits Vary Around the World “Most years I leave my vacation days on the table”—so

says a bank marketing manager. Sound farfetched? Not

necessarily; perhaps a bit extreme but still indicative of

a pattern. A global survey of vacation habits fi nds that

Americans on the average take fewer vacation days than

they are allowed: an average of 12 out of 14. Th ey leave

anywhere from 2 to 11 days unused. Th is contrasts with

French and Spanish workers who take all of their

allocated 30 days, whereas the Japanese take only 4 of

10. One worker says, “It’s almost not worth the stress of

having double the

work when you

get back.” Some

employers are

trying to curb

tendencies to

“work too much”

as a way of helping

people “do better

work.” Th e

consulting fi rm KPMG uses a wellness scorecard to

track and counsel workers who skip vacations and

work excessive overtime.

Photomorphic/Robert Churchill

� Common Work Stressors

42 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

a negative attitude, from openness to change to resistance to change, or from coopera-

tion to hostility.

One possible outcome of extended distress, for example, is the job burnout that

shows up as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working condi-

tions. Someone who is “burned out” feels emotionally and physically exhausted, and is

less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extreme

reactions to distress include bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. It is

also clear that too much stress can overload and break down a person’s physical and

mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction,

reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness. 49

Approaches to Managing Stress

Coping Mechanisms Along with rising sensitivities to stress in the workplace, interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping is a response or

reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behav-

ioral eff orts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation.

Th ere are two major types of coping mechanisms. Problem-focused coping strate-

gies try to manage the problem that is causing the distress. Indicators of this type of

coping are comments like “I’ll get the person responsible to change his or her mind,” “I’ll

make a new plan of action and follow it,” and “I’m going to stand my ground and fi ght for

what I need.” Emotion-focused coping strategies try to regulate the emotions drawn

forth by stress. Indicators of this type of coping include comments like “I’ll look for the

silver lining, try to look on the bright side of things,” “I’ll accept the sympathy and under-

standing off ered by others,” and “I’ll just try to forget the whole thing.” 50

People with diff erent personalities tend to cope with stress in diff erent ways. In respect

to the Big Five, emotional stability has been found linked with increased use of hostile reac-

tion, escapism/fantasy, self-blame,

withdrawal, wishful thinking, pas-

sivity, and indecisiveness. People

high in extraversion and optimism

tend to show rational action, posi-

tive thinking, substitution, and

restraint. And individuals high in

openness to experience are likely to

use humor in dealing with stress.

Stress Prevention Stress prevention is the best fi rst-line

strategy in the battle against

stress. It involves taking action to

present stress from reaching

destructive levels. Work and life

stressors must be recognized

before one can take action to

prevent their occurrence or to

minimize their adverse impacts.

Persons with Type A personali-

ties, for example, may exercise

self- discipline, whereas supervi-

sors of Type A employees may

try to model a lower-key, more

relaxed approach to work. Family

Job burnout is a loss of

interest in or satisfaction with

a job due to stressful working

conditions.

Coping is a response or

reaction to distress that has

occurred or is threatened.

Problem-focused coping

mechanisms manage the

problem that is causing the

distress.

Emotion-focused coping are

mechanisms that regulate

emotions or distress.

Persons high in achievement-striving can be overwhelmed by opportunities.

Th ey may end up over committed and less successful in the long run. A key

element of managing stress is learning to say “No.” 51

When to Say No

• Focus on what matters most—focus on your priorities.

• Weigh the yes-to-stress ratio—how much added stress will this cause? Is it

worth it?

• Take guilt out of the equation—guilt is infl ated due to feeling of self-

importance—it’s okay to say no.

• Sleep on it—discipline yourself to not automatically say yes; what will it cost you?

How to Say No

• Just say no—or “I’m sorry but I can’t. . . .”

• Be brief—state your reason and avoid elaborations or justifi cations—“I’m

swamped.”

• Be honest—don’t fabricate reasons; the truth is always best and people do

understand.

• Be respectful—”I am honored to be asked but I can’t do it.”

• Be ready to repeat—stick to it if they ask again; just hit the replay button, don’t

give in.

Achievement-Striving, and Learning to Say “No”

43Values

problems may be partially relieved by a change of work schedule; simply knowing that

your supervisor understands your situation may also help to reduce the anxiety caused

by pressing family concerns.

Personal Wellness To keep stress from reaching a destructive point, special tech- niques of stress management can be implemented. Th is process begins with the recogni-

tion of stress symptoms and continues with actions to maintain a positive performance

edge. Th e term wellness is increasingly used these days. Personal wellness involves the

pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion pro-

gram. Th e concept recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness

through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to such

factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical fi tness.

Values L E A R N I N G

R O A D M A P SOURCES OF VALUES • PERSONAL VALUES • CULTURAL VALUES

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.

Th ey refl ect a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be. 52

Statements

like “Equal rights for all” and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” are

indicators of values. And we recognize that values tend to infl uence attitudes and

behavior.

Sources of Values

Parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groups

are all possible infl uences on individual values. Our values develop as a product of the

learning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learning

and experiences diff er from one person to another. Value diff erences result. Such diff er-

ences are likely to be deep seated and diffi cult (though not impossible) to change. Many

have their roots in early childhood and the way a person has been raised. 53

Personal Values

Th e noted psychologist Milton Rokeach classifi ed values into two broad categories. 54

Terminal values refl ect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved; they are

the goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values

refl ect the “means” for achieving desired ends. Th ey represent how you might go about

achieving your important goals. Rokeach identifi es the eighteen terminal values and

eighteen instrumental values shown in Figure 2.3. Take a look at the list. Th en ask this: What

are my top fi ve values, and what do they say about me and how I relate or work with others?

Bruce Meglino and colleagues discuss the importance of value congruence between

leaders and followers. 55

It occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encoun-

tering others who exhibit values similar to their own. When values diff er, or are

incongruent, confl icts over such things as goals and the means to achieve them may

result. Research fi nds that satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruence

among the four values of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness. 56

■ Achievement—getting things done and working hard to accomplish diffi cult things

in life

■ Helping and concern for others—being concerned for other people and with helping

others

■ Honesty—telling the truth and doing what you feel is right

■ Fairness—being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

Personal wellness involves

the pursuit of one’s job and

career goals with the support

of a personal health

promotion program.

Terminal values refl ect a

person’s preferences

concerning the “ends” to be

achieved.

Instrumental values refl ect a

person’s beliefs about the

means to achieve desired ends.

� Megilino Values Schema

Values are broad preferences

concerning appropriate

courses of action or

outcomes.

44 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Cultural Values

Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture. In

this sense, culture can be defi ned as the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular

society. It is the way, for example, in which its members eat, dress, greet and treat one

another, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on. 57

Geert Hofstede, a Dutch

scholar and consultant, refers to culture as the “software of the mind,” making the analogy

that the mind’s “hardware” is universal among human beings. 58

But the software of culture

takes many diff erent forms. We are not born with a culture; we are born into a society that

teaches us its culture. And because culture is shared among people, it helps to defi ne the

boundaries between diff erent groups and aff ect how their members relate to one another.

Cultures are known to vary in their underlying patterns of values, and these diff erences

are important in OB. Th e way people think about such matters as achievement, wealth and

material gain, risk, and change, for example, may infl uence how they approach work and

their relationships with organizations. Increasingly now you will hear the term cultural

quotient (CQ) used to describe someone’s ability to work eff ectively across cultures. And it’s

a point well worth considering in terms of personal growth and professional development.

One framework for understanding how value diff erences across national cultures

was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in

Figure 2.4 and includes these fi ve dimensions of national culture:

■ Power distance is the willingness of a culture to accept status and power diff er-

ences among its members. It refl ects the degree to which people are likely to respect

hierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distance

culture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture.

■ Uncertainty avoidance is a cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and am-

biguity. It refl ects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus

unstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high- uncertainty-

avoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty-avoidance

culture.

Culture is the learned and

shared way of thinking and

acting among a group of

people or society.

Cultural quotient, or CQ,

describes someone’s ability

to work eff ectively across

cultures.

Power distance is a culture’s

acceptance of the status and

power diff erences among its

members.

Uncertainty avoidance is

the cultural tendency to

be uncomfortable with

uncertainty and risk in

everyday life.

FIGURE 2.3 Terminal and Instrumental Values in the Rokeach value survey.

Instrumental Values

• Ambitious (hardworking) • Broad-minded (open-minded) • Capable (competent, effective) • Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) • Clean (neat, tidy) • Courageous (standing up for beliefs) • Forgiving (willing to pardon) • Helpful (working for others' welfare) • Honest (sincere, truthful) • Imaginative (creative, daring) • Independent (self-sufficient, self-reliant) • Intellectual (intelligent, reflective) • Logical (rational, consistent) • Loving (affectionate, tender) • Obedient (dutiful, respectful) • Polite (courteous, well mannered) • Responsible (reliable, dependable) • Self-controlled (self-disciplined)

Terminal Values

• A comfortable life (and prosperous) • An exciting life (stimulating) • A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) • A world at peace (free of war and conflict) • A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) • Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity) • Family security (taking care of loved ones) • Freedom (independence, free choice) • Happiness (contentedness) • Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) • Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) • National security (attack protection) • Pleasure (leisurely, enjoyable life) • Salvation (saved, eternal life) • Self-respect (self-esteem) • Social recognition (admiration, respect) • True friendship (close companionship) • Wisdom (mature understanding of life)

45Values

■ Individualism–collectivism is the tendency of a culture to emphasize either indi-

vidual or group interests. It refl ects the degree to which people are likely to prefer

working as individuals or working together in groups. Th e United States is a highly

individualistic culture, whereas Mexico is a more collectivist one.

■ Masculinity–femininity is the tendency of a culture to value stereotypical mas-

culine or feminine traits. It refl ects the degree to which organizations emphasize

competition and assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity and concerns for

relationships. Japan is considered a very masculine culture, whereas Th ailand is

considered a more feminine culture.

■ Long-term/short-term orientation is the tendency of a culture to emphasize values

associated with the future, such as thrift and persistence, or values that focus largely

on the present. It refl ects the degree to which people and organizations adopt long-

term or short-term performance horizons. South Korea is high on long-term orienta-

tion, whereas the United States is a more short-term-oriented country. 59

Th e fi rst four dimensions in Hofstede’s framework were identifi ed in an extensive study of

thousands of employees of a multinational corporation operating in more than forty coun-

tries. 60

Th e fi fth dimension, long-term/short-term orientation, was added from research using

the Chinese Values Survey conducted by cross-cultural psychologist Michael Bond and his

colleagues. 61

Th eir research suggested the cultural importance of a value they called Confucian

dynamism, with its emphasis on persistence, the ordering of relationships, thrift, sense of

shame, personal steadiness, reciprocity, protection of “face,” and respect for tradition. 62

When using the Hofstede framework, it is important to remember that the fi ve cul-

tural value dimensions are interrelated, not independent. 63

National cultures may best be

understood in terms of cluster maps or collages that combine multiple dimensions. For

example, high power distance and collectivism are often found together, as are low power

distance and individualism. Whereas high collectivism may lead us to expect a work

team in Indonesia to operate by consensus, the high power distance may cause the con-

sensus to be heavily infl uenced by the desires of a formal leader. A similar team operating

in more individualist and low-power-distance Great Britain or America might make deci-

sions with more open debate, including expressions of disagreement with a leader’s

stated preferences.

Hofstede also warns against falling prey to the ecological fallacy. Th is is acting with

the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value, such as individualism in

American culture or masculinity in Japanese culture, applies equally to all members of

the culture. 64

And, fi nally, this model is just one starting point for developing cross-

cultural awareness of values and value diff erences, and other frameworks of interest are

available. 65

Long-term/short-term

orientation is the degree to

which a culture emphasizes

long-term or short-term

thinking.

FIGURE 2.4 Sample country clusters on Hofstede’s fi ve dimensions of national values.

Japan Mexico USA

Masculinity Femininity

SwedenThailand

India Malaysia Japan USA

High power distance Low power distance

Australia

Costa RicaJapan France

High uncertainty avoidance

SwedenUSA

Low uncertainty avoidance

USA Australia Japan

Individualism Collectivism

Mexico Thailand

NetherlandsUSA

Short-term thinking Long-term thinking

JapanIndia

Individualism–collectivism

is the tendency of members

of a culture to emphasize

individual self-interests or

group relationships.

Masculinity–femininity is

the degree to which a society

values assertiveness or

relationships.

Ecological fallacy is acting

with the mistaken assumption

that a generalized cultural

value applies equally to all

members of the culture.

46 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Key Questions and Answers Why are individual diff erences and diversity important?

• Th e study of individual diff erences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies

are similar and where they are diff erent to more accurately predict how and why people

behave as they do.

• Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual

or moral beings. It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being.

• Both self-awareness (being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and

personalities) and awareness of others (being aware of these same things in others) are

important capabilities if we are to best understand individual diff erences and diversity.

• Th e nature/nurture controversy addresses whether we are the way we are because of

heredity or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live.

• Th ere are many types of diversity, but the most commonly discussed in the workplace

are racial/ethnic, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation.

• In recent years there has been a shift from a focus on diversity to a focus on inclusion.

Th is represents a need to emphasize not only recruitment but retention.

• Social identity theory suggests that many forms of discrimination are subtle but power-

ful, and may occur in subconscious psychological processes that individuals of out-

groups perceive in the workplace.

• Organizations can value diversity by promoting cultures of inclusion that implement policies

and practices to help create a more equitable and opportunity-based environment for all.

What is personality?

• Personality captures the overall profi le, or combination of characteristics, that repre-

sents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others.

• Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality

characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 50–50. Th e Big Five

personality traits are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability,

and openness to experience.

• A useful personality framework consists of social traits, personal conception traits,

emotional adjustment traits, and personality dynamics, where each category repre-

sents one or more personality dimensions.

How are personality and stress related?

• Stress emerges when people experience tensions caused by extraordinary demands,

constraints, or opportunities in their jobs.

• Personal stressors derive from personality type, needs, and values; they can infl uence

how stressful diff erent situations become for diff erent people.

• Work stressors arise from such things as excessive task demands, interpersonal prob-

lems, unclear roles, ethical dilemmas, and career disappointments.

• Nonwork stress can spill over to aff ect people at work; nonwork stressors may be traced

to family situations, economic diffi culties, and personal problems.

• Stress can be managed by prevention—such as making adjustments in work and nonwork

factors; it can also be dealt with through coping mechanisms and personal wellness—taking

steps to maintain a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding stressful situations.

Study Guide2

47Self-Test 2

What are values, and how do they vary across cultures?

• Values are broad preferences concerning courses of action or outcomes.

• Rokeach identifi es terminal values (preferences concerning ends) and instrumental

values (preferences concerning means); Meglino and his associates classify values into

achievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness.

• Hofstede’s fi ve dimensions of national culture values are power distance, individualism–

collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, and long-term/short-

term orientation.

• Culture is the learned and shared way of doing things in a society; it represents deeply

ingrained infl uences on the way people from diff erent societies think, behave, and solve

problems.

Terms to Know Americans with

Disabilities Act (p. 33)

Authoritarianism (p. 38)

Awareness of others (p. 28)

Coping (p. 42)

Culture (p. 44)

Cultural quotient (p. 44)

Deep-level diversity (p. 28)

Discrimination (p. 29)

Distress (p. 41)

Dogmatism (p. 38)

Ecological fallacy (p. 45)

Emotion-focused coping

(p. 42)

Emotional adjustment

traits (p. 40)

Eustress (p. 41)

Glass ceiling eff ect (p. 30)

In-group membership (p. 34)

Individual diff erences (p. 28)

Individualism–collectivism

(p. 45)

Instrumental values (p. 43)

Job burnout (p. 42)

Leaking pipeline (p. 30)

Leadership double bind

(p. 30)

Locus of control (p. 37)

Long-term/short-term

orientation (p. 45)

Machiavellianism (p. 39)

Masculinity–femininity

(p. 45)

Out-group membership

(p. 34)

Personal conception traits

(p. 37)

Personal wellness (p. 43)

Personality (p. 34)

Personality traits (p. 34)

Power distance (p. 44)

Prejudice (p. 28)

Proactive personality (p. 38)

Problem-focused coping

(p. 42)

Problem-solving style (p. 35)

Self-awareness (p. 28)

Self-concept (p. 28)

Self-effi cacy (p. 28)

Self-esteem (p. 28)

Self-monitoring (p. 40)

Social identity theory (p. 34)

Social traits (p. 35)

Stigma (p. 33)

Stress (p. 40)

Surface-level diversity (p. 28)

Terminal values (p. 43)

Title VII of the Civil Rights

Act of 1964 (p. 30)

Type A orientation (p. 40)

Type B orientation (p. 40)

Uncertainty avoidance (p. 44)

Universal design (p. 33)

Values (p. 43)

Self-Test 2 Multiple Choice

1. Individual diff erences are important because they ____________.

(a) mean we have to be diff erent

(b) reduce the importance of individuality

(d) help us more accurately predict how and why people act as they do

2. Self-awareness is ____________ awareness of others.

(a) more important than (b) less important than

48 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

3. Self-effi cacy is a form of ____________.

(a) self-awareness (b) self-esteem

4. Personality encompasses ____________.

(a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person

(b) only the nurture components of self

(d) how self-aware someone is

5. People who are high in internal locus of control ____________.

(a) believe what happens to them is determined by environmental forces such as fate

(b) believe that they control their own fate or destiny

(d) do worse on tasks requiring learning and initiative

6. Proactive personality is ____________ in today’s work environments.

(a) punished (b) missing

7. People who would follow unethical orders without question would likely be high in

____________.

(a) internal locus of control

(b) Machiavellianism

(d) authoritarianism and dogmatism

8. Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards,

and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________.

(a) Type B (b) Type A

9. Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress.

(a) constructive, destructive (b) destructive, constructive

10. Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements.

(a) cognitive, intellectual (b) promotion, prevention

11. When it comes to values, ____________.

(a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values

(b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction

(d) most cultures share the same values

12. Culture is ____________.

(a) a person’s major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues

(b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information

(d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society

49Steps for Further Learning 2

13. Th e demographic makeup of the workforce ____________.

(a) has been relatively stable

(b) is not related to managerial practices

(d) is becoming less of an issue for management.

14. Companies that ____________ experience the greatest benefi ts of workforce diversity.

(a) have learned to employ people because of their diff erences

(b) have learned to employ people in spite of their diff erences

(d) have implemented diversity programs based only on affi rmative action

15. Th e experience in which simply having various diversity groups makes that group

category salient in people’s minds is an example of ____________.

(a) stigma (b) leaking pipeline

Short Response

16. What are individual diff erences, and why are they important to organizational

behavior?

17. What is more infl uential in determining personality: nature or nurture?

18. What values were identifi ed by Meglino and associates, and how do they relate to

workplace behavior?

19. With respect to diversity and inclusion, what do we know about environments that

are most conducive to valuing and supporting diversity?

Applications Essay

20. Your boss has noticed that stress levels have been increasing in your work unit and

has asked you to assess the problem and propose a plan of action for addressing it.

What steps would you take to meet this request? What would be the fi rst thing you

would do, what factors would you take into consideration in conducting your assess-

ment, and what plan of action do you think would be most promising?

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

• Diversity Leads the Way • What Do You Value in Work?

• Prejudice in Our Lives • How We View Differences • Alligator River Story • Expatriate Assignments

• Turbulence Tolerance Test Global Readiness Index

• Personal Values • Time Management Profi le • Personality Type

Steps for Further Learning 2

Top Choices from Th e OB Skills Workbook

Th ese learning activities from Th e OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book

are suggested for Chapter 2.

M at

t R

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rk e

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A discerning eye tells the story