BUS 375 Week 3 Assignment

BUS375Chapter5.pdf

Home >Human Resource Management homework help >BUS 375 Week 3 Assignment

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 1/21

Chapter 5 (D)evelopment: Putting Theory Into Practice

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Create training materials (end products). Identify appropriate instructional method and media. Describe characteristics of an optimal training setting. Summarize how to review and edit training materials for accuracy.

In theory, theory and practice are the same. In practice, they are not.

—Albert Einstein

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 2/21

Introduction Although the design phase of the ADDIE model is considered the blueprint for workplace training, the development phase begins the actual manufacturing of the training content itself. Speci�ically, this step involves the production of the end user training materials, known as end products. From the training materials and methods to the instructional technologies, we can think of development as the phase that converts the theory of instructional design into practice.

In the development phase all the prior work we have done in the analysis and design phases comes together. After creating the training materials, we then put them through a rigorous editorial process, not only to verify their accuracy, but also to assess whether any gaps or sections need improvement.

In sum, whereas the design phase was "how we are going to do it," the development phase is about "doing it right" (Piskurich, 2010).

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 3/21

5.1 Creating Training Materials As previously discussed, the focus in the development phase is the procurement or production of the training materials to be used (Hodell, 2011). The data collected in the analysis phase—and subsequently used in the design phase—now inform our choices regarding both the use and development of the end products of training. Speci�ically, training materials may include end products such as:

communication packs; lesson plans; session plans, trainer guides, and learner guides and resources; trainer and on-the-job aids; participant assessment instruments; and program evaluation instruments.

With training material, we must consider both the horizontal and vertical aspects; that is, "How much?" and "How complex?" The answers to these questions are not only a function of the required level of trainer engagement and participant interaction with the material (Dick et al., 2009; Dobbs, 2006; Swanson, 2002), they are also related to cost and practicality, as well as based on the training content, number of trainees, and delivery method. Swanson (2002)—and subsequently others (ASTD, 2012; Fee, 2011; Wan, 2013)—speci�ically noted �ive stages of training material development in relation to the horizontal and vertical characteristics; speci�ically, the appropriateness of particular training material:

Stage 0: No planned instructor materials; no planned participant materials Stage 1: Training presentation slides; paper copies of the slides for the participants; job aids Stage 2: Training presentation slides; trainee print materials in the form of a structured trainee notebook (including paper copies of the slides for the participants) Stage 3: Training presentation slides; trainee print materials in the form of a structured trainee notebook; workplace objects and artifacts from the tasks to be learned; dynamic or interactive support materials such as e-learning products Stage 4: Materials are designed to the level that they can mediate the development of trainee knowledge and expertise seeking without the need of a trainer.

No training materials or limited training materials (stage 0) would be needed when workplace learning was informal or incidental, for example. Other training material would require much more depth and breadth (stage 4), such as when a trainee is required to do post-training self-directed study in developing further expertise in the training content. For example, if a trainee is the departmental liaison for the organization's safety program, the trainee may leave the session with a thick reference binder of safety regulations, standards, and procedures such as lock out or tag out. Even with on-the-job training, where the trainee is on the job site in real time, training materials must be available to ensure an effective OJT system; these include task lists, job aids, schedule, and even lesson plans (Chase, 1997; Clark, 2013; Clark, 2010; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Here is a typical OJT training material list:

Task list. Following a job-task analysis, we should now have a detailed list of all the tasks the trainee must be able to perform to do his or her job. The list should include:

– Conditions: What tools or equipment and environment are needed to perform the task? – Performance measure: How well must it be designed as far as depth and speci�icity? – Frequency: How often is the task performed (hourly, daily, weekly, and so on)? – Dif�iculty: How dif�icult is the task, using a standard scale such as from 1 to 5? – Importance: What place of importance is this task as compared to the other tasks? – Steps: What are the logical steps for performing the task?

Job aids. Used during training and/or on the job, job aids are step-by-step instructions or checklists that guide the trainee through the correct way of performing a task. They should also include guidelines for employees to check their own work. Training schedule. A training schedule helps trainers organize their OJT and document who has and has not been trained for any given task. Lesson plan. As created in the design phase, the lesson plan is an outline of how to teach the class and what to include to ensure trainers teach each task correctly and consistently every time.

Trainer and Participant Assessment Instruments

As Chapter 7 will discuss further, the training session must develop and use materials that assess not only if the trainees enjoyed the session—what is called a level 1 assessment—but also if they learned anything, known as a level 2 assessment. This classi�ication system for training evaluation was introduced by Donald Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin and past president of the American Society for Training & Development. His four-level training evaluation model, known as Kirkpatrick's taxonomy, includes four levels of evaluation—reaction, learning, behavior, and result—and was �irst published in 1959 in the US Training and Development Journal (Kirkpatrick, 1959; Kirkpatrick, 2009). It will be discussed in depth in Chapters 7 and 8.

These �irst two levels of Kirkpatrick's taxonomy are particularly important to consider here when developing the training materials for the training session itself. (Levels 3 and 4, behavior and results, respectively, are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.) Speci�ically, a level 1 assessment covers the trainee's reaction and is sometimes called a "happy sheet" (Kirkpatrick, 2009; Wan, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). It can be paper based or online and asks questions such as: Did the trainees like and enjoy the training? Did they consider the training relevant? Was it a good use of their time? Did they like the venue, style, timing, amenities, and so on? (See samples in Figure 5.1.)

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 4/21

Employers can use "happy sheets," or evaluations, to gather feedback from trainees to ensure the ef�icacy of the training and modify future trainings, if needed.

Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/{�igures}�igure5.1.pdf) to download a pdf of the workshop evaluation form. Open with Adobe Acrobat to access an editable �ile.

Level 2 evaluation attempts to gauge if any learning occurred as a result of the training. To assess this, many times trainees are tested prior to the training and then again subsequent to the training to see if there was any change in knowledge, skills, or attitudes.

Figure 5.1: Level 1 evaluation sample

Level 2 assessments try to ascertain if the trainee learned anything from the training. Many times, this assessment takes on the form of pretests and, subsequently, posttests. Of course, the questions within any level 2 assessment would be linked to the original learning objectives of the training, as determined by the analysis phase. So, for example, with a materials and storage handling workshop, trainers might test the trainees prior to the session on questions such as these:

What are the potential hazards for workers? What precautions should workers take when moving materials manually? What precautions should workers take when moving materials mechanically? What precautions must workers take to avoid storage hazards? What safeguards must workers follow when stacking materials?

And, let us say the average correct score on the pretraining survey was 66%. We could look at that as our baseline prior to the training, and then following the materials and storage handling workshop, we could again survey the trainees to see if any learning had occurred, given the new knowledge they would have been presented. So in our example, following the workshop, the average correct score on the posttraining survey jumps to 93%; in this case it would be dif�icult to suggest that some learning had not taken place.

Figure 5.2 is an actual level 2 assessment pre- and posttest using a Likert scale to measure knowledge gain for the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) used at Harvard Medical School's Brigham and Women's Hospital.

Figure 5.2: Level 2 assessment pre- and posttest using a Likert scale

https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/%7Bfigures%7Dfigure5.1.pdf

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 5/21

Source: Brigham and Women's pre and post test guidelines. (2014). Brigham and Women's Hospital.

You can calculate the learning gain—the improvement between the pre- and postlearning assessment scores—from the level 2 assessment. It can be calculated using the following formula:

(Postlearning score − prelearning score ÷ maximum score − prelearning score) × 100

For example, if the prelearning score is 50, the postlearning score is 80, and the maximum score is 100, then you get the following:

[(80 − 50) ÷ (100 − 50)] × 100 = (30 ÷ 50) × 100 = 60%

This shows that there was a 60% learning gain.

Materials Development Process

As you begin the training materials development process, overarching yet practical questions should guide you (ASTD, 2012; Shaw, 2011). You would have considered some of these during the analysis and design phases. They include:

1. What is the immediacy to achieve the new learning? If there is an immediate need to achieve (and therefore apply) the new learning, it is especially important that the training materials and activities, which include games and simulations, have a quick learning curve; that is, the training materials should be easy to use and straightforward.

2. Do the training materials honor adult learning principles? Training materials (including computer-based materials) must also be developed with adult learning principles in mind (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Wan, 2013) and thus be problem oriented, be relevant to real-world issues, and lead the learner toward intrinsic motivation (Dobbs, 2006; Knowles, 1973; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011).

3. Do the training materials build on current work activities? If the training materials and activities build on and extend current work activities and functions, trainees have a better chance of seeing the relevance of the training.

4. What is the budget for developing training materials? It is imperative to get some sense of the availability of funding to obtain and develop resources as early as the analysis phase. For example, technology-based and on-the-job-based activities often are much less expensive than hiring subject matter experts; however, those experts would be a more effective source if the training were highly specialized or technical.

Did You Know? Three Effective Components Make for One Great Presentation!

According to expert presenter Ellen Finkelstein, if you want an effective presentation, you must ensure that your content, design, and delivery are effective. Each of these components has to be well crafted, and they all have to work together.

First, with content, you must decide on two or three main points to which other points will refer. Content needs to be logical, simple, and clear so it will meet the needs of your audience.

On design, Finkelstein says the number one concern is legibility. You cannot put too much text on a slide and still keep it large enough to read easily. Likewise, the text color should be in high contrast to the background color. You also must ensure that your design complements your content: The background and images should not detract from the content, and the images themselves should clarify the text. The layout and size of text should underscore the major points of the presentation.

Finally, you must have an engaging delivery. Engaging your audience with eye contact and your overall energy is important. Finkelstein says to make sure you know your main points and emphasize them with in�lection, and to spend an appropriate amount of time on each point.

Finkelstein reminds us that two's a party but three's a crowd. If you plan to just read your slides, you are putting PowerPoint® between you and the audience, and your presentation will suffer. Consider these guidelines and you will be well on the way to an effective presentation.

Source: Adapted from Finkelstein, E. (2014). 3 components of an effective presentation. Retrieved from http://www.ellen�inkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-of-an- effective-presentation (http://www.ellen�inkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-of-an-effective-presentation)

On the Aesthetics of Training Materials

http://www.ellenfinkelstein.com/pptblog/3-components-of-an-effective-presentation

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 6/21

Training materials must engage the trainee. Visual aids such as PowerPoint® presentations or YouTube® videos should not only facilitate but also enhance the trainees' learning experience, especially in an e-learning environment (David & Glore, 2010). Remember, training materials are effective only when they are easy to read and highlight the most important training themes. Especially when the training content is dull, the design of the training material can be the difference between the trainee being engaged in the content or not. The following are some principles for creating easy-to-read materials (Bray, 2009; U.S. Department of Labor, 2010; McArdle, 1999; Piskurich, 2010; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011; Wake�ield, 2011):

Use a large, easy-to-read font for the main text. Emphasize important points with underlining, bold type, italics, or boxes. Include plenty of white space by using wide margins. Use plenty of simple illustrations to explain the text. Use simple line drawings that are free of clutter and abstract drawings.

Food for Thought: Interview With Ash Hibbert, Technical Writer In this article, Ash Hibbert underscores how attention to the aesthetics of the training material goes a long way. Speci�ically, making training material clearly organized and visual helps trainees quickly conceptualize the �low of the instructions and encourages them to turn each page.

Source: Hibbert, A. (2012). Interview with the Technical Writer. Retrieved from http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical-writer.html (http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical-writer.html)

Consider This

1. Why does Hibbert suggest keeping user feedback mechanisms in place after publication of training materials? 2. What particularly does Hibbert suggest to make training materials more relevant and accurate? 3. What bene�its does Hibbert see in working with graphic designers during production of training materials?

Training Materials Speak

As Chapter 10 will discuss further, training materials are important, too, because they become artifacts of both the organization and society at large. Although training itself may be value neutral, training programs historically have been the means to sustain stereotypes, racism, anti-Semitism, sexism, and prejudice in general. Today we can study historical training materials that memorialized sexism (for example, airline hostess training manual) and fanatical cultural movements (for example, the Hitler Youth training manual). Re�lecting on training and development's objectivity is part of the critical perspective of HRD, which includes contemplations such as:

the consequences of training and development to society, organizations, and individuals; the moral base and ethical dilemmas raised by HRD practice; and the overall social responsibility of training.

What will future trainers think of training material 70 years from now?

Table 5.1 has some additional do's and don'ts for training material.

Table 5.1: Do's and don'ts of training materials

Do Don't

Organize text into short, logical sections by using headings or subtitles. Offer so much information that a reader could feel overwhelmed.

De�ine technical terms or jargon. Copy the material so many times the visual clarity suffers.

Keep sentences short and simple. Have any typos!

Use a conversational style and active voice. Use outdated references.

Source: Albrecht, 2006; Allen & Sites, 2012; Bray, 2009; Dobbs, 2006.

The Tone and Purpose of the Training Text

An appropriate writing style (Alamargot, Terrier, & Cellier, 2008; Jonassen & Driscoll, 2013) also is important in training materials, and depending on the training content, one of these styles might be most appropriate:

Descriptive tone. The primary purpose of descriptive training material is to describe the topic clearly so the reader understands it. For example, material might describe the speci�ics of a case of sexual harassment. Expository tone. The primary purpose of expository training material is to provide information such as an explanation or directions (for example, how to load paper in a printer). Narrative tone. The primary purpose of narrative training material is to describe an experience, event, or sequence of events in the form of a story. This method could be used, for example, in new employee orientation to describe the history of how the company was started. Persuasive tone. The primary purpose of persuasive training material is to give an opinion and try to in�luence the reader's way of thinking using supporting evidence. For example, materials might urge employees to report safety infractions they witness at the work site.

http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical-writer.html

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 7/21

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 8/21

A trainee can engage with training material in both active and passive ways. The learning retention pyramid illustrates learner recall for the various approaches. The �irst four levels are passive, and the last three are participatory.

5.2 Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media The decisions made regarding the particular instructional methods and media that will be used are a signi�icant and consequential part of the development process. Although training budgets often dictate the training modalities, developers should also consider trainee learning styles, available technology, training setting, and the practicality of delivering the training to the trainee (for example, a U.S. trainer in Chicago, Illinois. may select videoconferencing as an option to train employees at the Mumbai, India, division.)

Training Methods

Generally, training methods fall into four major categories (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Pelet, 2013; Wan, 2013):

1. Instructor-led 2. On-the-job training 3. Self-directed training 4. E-learning (Many times, e-learning is used with the other three methods as part of blended learning.)

Instructor-Led Training

According to the ASTD's 2012 State of the Industry Report, when it comes to workplace training, instructor-led training still outpaced other methods, accounting for almost 73% of training methods used (ASTD, 2012). This �igure included whether the training was led face-to-face, online, or remotely (see Table 5.2). Instructor-led training is any kind of training that occurs in a training room, typically in an of�ice, classroom, or conference room, but now also via online classrooms, as shown in Table 5.2.

This form of training can have one or more instructors who teach skills or material to another person or group through lectures, presentations, demonstrations, and discussions (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner & DeSimone, 2011).

Table 5.2: Percentage of instructor-led training

Distribution method ASTD State of the Industry Report

Instructor led, classroom 59.4%

Instructor led, online 8.75%

Instructor led, remote (satellite, video) 4.5%

As discussed in Chapter 4, the instructional method—including icebreakers—can dictate the training setting, but training methods should support the learning activities in the session and the objectives of the training itself (Hodell, 2011; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011). For example, instructor-led training is most appropriate when the learning activities are knowledge acquisition, problem solving, changing attitudes, or interpersonal skills (Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Vijayasamundeeswari, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Instructor-led classroom examples of learning activities include:

Knowledge acquisition—"In today's session we are going over the history of our company, including our organizational mission." Problem solving—"Okay, pair up and let's work on this hypothetical customer service problem." Changing attitudes—"In today's training, we are going to discuss the bene�its of carpooling and recycling." Interpersonal skills—"Welcome to the Effective Communication Workshop."

On-the-Job Training

When knowledge retention is critical, on-the-job training is most appropriate. In 1969 Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, �irst introduced his "cone of experience" research that illustrated how various modalities of imparting information based on levels of abstraction—words being the most abstract and at the top of the cone and real-life experiences the most concrete at the base of the cone (Dale, 1948; Hoban & Zisman, 1937). Dale's and others' research led to the concept of the learning pyramid that shows, for example, that up to 75% of the new information is retained after 72 hours when students are given an opportunity to practice the skill (see Figure 5.3). For more information, see the learning retention pyramid used by the National Training Laboratories (http://www.ntl.org (http://www.ntl.org) ).

Figure 5.3: Learning retention pyramid

http://www.ntl.org/

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b76… 9/21

On-the-job training materials give detailed guidance for completing job-related tasks in a training situation.

Source: Reprinted with permission from NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Sciences.

On-the-job training can be formal or informal (Jacobs, 2003; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Formal OJT is planned and organized training that is conducted by trainers with trainees at the job site (see Figure 5.4). Informal OJT is not planned or organized in any logical pattern. Learning takes place when trainees perform the work or watch others perform it (Jacobs & Phillips, 2002; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011).

With informal OJT, incidental workplace learning can also take place while trainees perform the work or watch the trainer perform (Wan, 2013). Incidental learning is a subcategory of informal learning and is characterized as unintentional and unexpected; it takes place when people are not conscious that learning is happening (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Chapter 6 will discuss the particular challenges to OJT as it relates to how important the trainer–trainee communication process becomes.

Figure 5.4: Formal OJT example

Source: Molnar, J. & Watts, B. (2000). Figure 4 "Typical Training Event". Structured On-the-Job Training: Effectively Training Employees with Employees. Center for Entrepreneurial Studies and Development, Inc., p. 4. Reprinted with permission.

Self-Directed Training

As discussed in Chapter 4, self-directed training refers to the form of training in which the learner takes responsibility for managing his or her own training, from the content selected to timing and delivery. Many organizational training programs have components of trainee self-study.

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 10/21

The attraction of self-directed training for organizations is that this form of training:

complements and reinforces other, more formal development activities, increasing retention and reducing the falloff of learning; can be carried out continuously, as an integral part of day-to-day working activity; and places greater responsibility on the individual to empower themselves and take the initiative in planning their own personal development (Guglielmino, 2001).

Self-directed training, or self-directed learning, typically has two dimensions: self-teaching and autonomy (for example, instead of self-study, an employee may autonomously choose to be taught). However, when SDL equates to self-study, it typically is supported by materials, including:

1. explicit instructions that indicate what the required learning is, why the knowledge is important, the expected path through the learning materials, and the expectations and next steps when the training concludes;

2. self-paced lessons intended to convey the required knowledge; these may be available online or on paper; and 3. a series of self-tests that, although graded, usually are not recorded. The purpose is only to give trainees an idea of whether they are successfully learning the materials according to their employer's expectation.

Also, before beginning the self-study, an effective tool especially for self-directed training is the learning contract. A learning contract (Knowles, 1973; Knowles et al., 2012) typically speci�ies for the employee:

1. the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner will acquire (learning objectives); 2. how the learner will accomplish these objectives (learning resources and strategies); 3. the target date for the accomplishment of the learning objectives; 4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the learner has mastered the objectives; and 5. how the employer will judge or validate the evidence.

Figure 5.5 is a sample learning contract from Train to Gain (http://www.traintogain.gov.uk (http://www.traintogain.gov.uk) ). Train to Gain is a UK government– funded initiative to deliver vocational training to employ individuals.

Figure 5.5: Sample learning contract

http://www.traintogain.gov.uk/

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 11/21

One way to facilitate a trainee's self-directed learning is to create a learning contract that not only memorializes the training objectives but also gives a timeline and means to evaluate accomplishment.

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 12/21

Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/{�igures}�igure5.5.pdf) to download a pdf of the learning contract. Open with Adobe Acrobat to access an editable �ile.

Source: http://www.traintogain.gov.uk (http://www.traintogain.gov.uk)

E-learning

Type the phrase "e-learning in training" into Google and the search will produce no fewer than 75,000 hits! The extraordinary growth of information technologies in today's world now requires that a trainer also make decisions about how to develop and use electronic support related to the training (Dobbs, 2006; United Nations, 2013; Onguko, Jepchumba, & Gaceri, 2013) and especially when e-learning is used to supplement traditional face-to-face training delivery, known as blended learning (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng, 2005).

The allure of e-learning in training is based on two primary issues: speed and savings (Allen, 2013; ASTD, 2012; Jochems, Koper, & Van Merrienboer, 2013; Pelet, 2013). Well-researched organizational examples of this idea include the Dow Chemical Company, which reduced average spending from $95 per learner per course on classroom training to only $11 per learner per course with electronic delivery; this reduction translated into an annual savings of $34 million (Shepherd, 2003). Ernst & Young cut training costs 35% by condensing 2,900 hours of classroom training into 700 hours of web-based learning, 200 hours of distance learning, and 500 hours of classroom instruction—a cut of 52% (LiveOps Receives Brandon Hall Group Excellence in Learning Award, 2013). Speci�ically, e-learning, especially when used to supplement traditionally face-to-face methods, can accomplish the same amount of instruction or information as in a classroom 25% to 60% of the time (Jochems et al., 2013; Rosenberg, 2001).

According to the Brandon Hall Group ("LiveOps Receives," 2013), there are several reasons e-learning can reduce the time it takes to train people:

Learners can go at their own pace, not at the pace of the slowest member of a group. Time in classrooms can be spent on questions or topics other learners introduce that are irrelevant to the needs of the individual learner. There is less social interaction time. It takes less time to start and wind up a learning session. There is less travel time to and from a training event. Learners learn what they need to learn, and they can skip elements of a program.

But What Is E-learning?

E-learning is any technology-enhanced learning, computer-based instruction, Internet-based training, or virtual instruction (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Pelet, 2013; Vijayasamundeeswari, 2013; Wan, 2013). Speci�ically, e-learning includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and streaming video. It includes technology applications as well as local intranet/extranet, smart phone apps, and web-based learning (Wan, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011).

E-learning is unique because it is both a delivery method and a medium; it can be self-paced and asynchronous learning; that is, not in real time, such as with

the use of a YouTube® video or podcast. Or, with an instructor, it can be synchronous; that is, in real-time, such as that seen on platforms like Skype® or

FaceTime® (Allen, 2006; Driscoll, 2010). E-learning is usually blended in conjunction with other delivery methods, such as instructor led (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010; Dobbs, 2006). In other words, when it comes to e-learning, it is not necessarily an either–or approach, but could include both. However, e-learning has issues other delivery methods may not have. According to Lin (2007), when developing e-training tools, particularly, issues of copyright, learner privacy, and accessibility must be considered.

However, as technology becomes more pervasive in the workplace, e-learning still must be developed with adult learning principles in mind (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Wan, 2013). That is, e-learning, too, must be interactive, problem oriented, and relevant to real-world issues, and it must lead the learner toward intrinsic motivation (Dobbs, 2006; Knowles, 1973; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011). With this in mind, e-learning seems to be effective, according to Allen (2013); a 9-year survey of the research literature in training published by Tobias and Fletcher (2000) and commissioned by the American Psychological Society says: "Learners learn more using computer-based instruction than they do with conventional ways of teaching, as measured by higher post-treatment test scores" (p. 414).

HRD in Practice: How E-learning Becomes Less Expensive Than Traditional Training: A Detailed Example of a Healthcare Organization

A healthcare customer had a requirement to train 500 learners. The training would require 25 weeks to cycle the learners through a traditional classroom or 1 week to train all of the learners using custom online training. After calculating a total cost savings of $1,294,000, the company decided to choose an online learning delivery strategy to save money and train the employees in a shorter time frame.

Table 5.3 by consulting �irm SyberWorks (2014) gives an example of the typical components that make up training expenses and then compares the classroom setting with custom online training. The return-on-investment for e-learning can be 50% to 60% greater than for traditional training, which itself can have a fourfold ROI, if done properly. Table 5.3 assumes a traditional classroom training plan that includes 500 trainees who each experience a week of training, travel for half of them (250 employees), the time constraint of a 3-month rollout (5 trainers, 10

https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/%7Bfigures%7Dfigure5.5.pdf

http://www.traintogain.gov.uk/

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 13/21

locations)—all compared to an equivalent e-learning scenario using very conservative assumptions, including an opportunity cost rate of $400 per day.

Table 5.3: Example of ROI calculations

Training expense Classroom training E-learning

Wages of trainees ($20/hour, burdened) $400,000 $240,000

Travel costs (50% of people traveling) $250,000 $ —

Trainer wages $47,500 $11,400

Trainer Travel $20,000 $ —

Development costs (custom training) $160,000 $400,000

Delivery systems (�irst year amortized) $ — $35,000

Totals $877,500 $686,400

Source: SyberWorks. (2014). E-Learning bene�its and ROI comparison of e-learning vs. traditional training, from http://www.syberworks.com/articles/e- learningROI.htm (http://www.syberworks.com/articles/e-learningROI.htm) . Used with permission of SyberWorks, Inc. Copyright 2014 SyberWorks, Inc.

These �igures indicate that the e-learning approach, given conservative assumptions, saves approximately 30% in the �irst year of implementation; in the second and later years, when development costs are not a factor for this course, the savings for e-learning grows to nearly 50%. In addition, the computer-based training or web-based training can be rolled out in half the time, once developed.

Consider This

1. The expenses outlined by SyberWorks summarize tangible costs; what could be some intangible costs of e-learning, if any? 2. What assumptions does the ROI calculation make about the organization's capability (for example, infrastructure) for e-learning? 3. Explain why trainer wages would be less in an e-learning scenario.

Selecting Training Media

According to Piskurich (2010), certain training media are recommended over other types depending, on the key variables of use and audience size (see Table 5.4).

Table 5.4: Selecting training media

Purpose

Type of media

Most desirable Alternative Least desirable

Explain and clarify Handouts Slideshow presentation Video(s)

Board Flip chart

No media used; just lecture

Basis for discussion Video(s) Handouts Flip chart Slideshow presentation

Board

Organize discussion Handouts Flip chart

Board Slideshow presentation

Video(s)

Summarize Handouts Slideshow presentation Video(s)

Board Flip chart

Educate Handouts Board Flip chart Video(s)

Slideshow presentation

Audience size

http://www.syberworks.com/articles/e-learningROI.htm

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 14/21

Small Handouts Board Flip chart Video(s)

Slideshow presentation

Large Handouts Slideshow presentation

Video(s) Board Flip chart

Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

For example, although PowerPoint® is desirable for explanation and clari�ication, it is not meant to educate the trainees; handouts or a (black)board are more

appropriate to educate. Also, a PowerPoint® presentation might be too formal and stilted for a small training session. Likewise, �lip charts and whiteboards are not appropriate media for audiences.

In their study of the use of certain training media (see Table 5.5), Hirumi, Bradford, and Rutherford (2011) found that the minimum and maximum development hours of training materials was a function of course material stability. That is, if the training materials and media are considered very stable (with no signi�icant changes predicted for more than 3 years), then the course materials are considered more stable.

Table 5.5: Comparison of minimum and maximum development hours for training materials

Medium Minimum development hours per training hour Maximum development hours per training hour

Print 10 150

Audio 20 200

Video 50 500

Videoconferencing 10 250

Simulation or virtual reality 200 2,000

While use and audience size drive media selection, course developers should keep in mind a list of media tools that range from high development costs for very

stable content to low development costs for changing content. For example, although the Second Life® virtual reality software ultimately may be effective, it may take longer to recoup the initial training investment due to up to 2,000 hours of development time.

HRD in Practice: IBM Uses Second Life® Virtual Software for Training and Team Building

Second Life® is an online virtual world developed by Linden Lab. It was launched on June 23, 2003, and recently celebrated 10 years as the

Internet's largest 3-D environment software. The power of Second Life® is that remote users interact with each other through avatars (also called residents) who can meet other residents, socialize, participate in individual and group activities, and create and trade virtual property and services with one another. Companies like Cisco Systems and the Intel Corporation use the online world for meetings, interviews, guest speaker events, and training for other employees. And now, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is embracing the virtual world it

created for its employees. Chuck Hamilton, the virtual learning leader at IBM's Center for Advanced Learning, claims that Second Life® is ideal for the company. Hamilton recently told Hypergrid Business, "At IBM, we have over 400,000 employees and 70 percent or so are outside the Americas and 44 percent of the population works outside a traditional of�ice—we are virtual by nature."

Source: IBM dives into Second Life. (n.d.). Retrieved from IBM website: http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-social-secondlife (http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-social-secondlife)

Consider This

1. Why would software such as Second Life® encourage team building among the users? 2. How might a virtual environment encourage trainer participation?

3. Does virtual software like Second Life® diminish the challenges of diversity in the workplace?

Other Factors That Affect Development Time

A recent study from the ASTD (Kapp & Defelice, 2009) suggests that development times may vary widely as a function of the scope of work, technology, and review time. Speci�ically, it was noted that factors that affected development time included:

lack of understanding of one's responsibility to the project; this factor included not allotting enough time to review work, SME unavailability, and lack of provision of materials in a timely manner; organizational changes; changes impacting either resources for the project or the overall project; and

http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-social-secondlife

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 15/21

incompatible technology and/or lack of knowledge of a technology. It was noted several times that the clients' technology was incompatible and/or there was a learning curve to using the new tools.

Training materials review

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 16/21

5.3 Training Setting As discussed, most of the time, training will take the form of instructor-led training, what we call the "same time, same place" classroom setting. As a result, considerations to the training room itself are essential, although if the content and trainer are well developed and appropriate, they can easily rise above the room conditions (poor OJT conditions with good training outcomes prove this assumption). Yet room layout in�luences not only whether the trainee will enjoy the training (level 1), but also whether he or she will learn something from the session (level 2). In fact, it is not unreasonable to conclude that as the training room setting goes, so goes the training itself.

Speci�ic training room considerations include (ASTD, 2006):

the distance from the screen to the last row of seats should not exceed six screen widths (a typical pull-down white screen is 84 inches diagonally); the distance from the screen to the front row of seats should be at least twice the width of the screen; the proper width of the viewing area is three screen widths; and the room's ceiling should be high enough—a minimum of 9 feet—to permit people seated in the last row to see the bottom of the screen over the heads of those in front of them.

Seating Arrangements Conducive to Learning

There are many room con�igurations, speci�ically seating arrangements that encourage participation and improve trainee learning, including the U shape, theater, chevron, and circle (see Table 5.6).

Remember, if the goal of the training session is for the employee to apply the training, a classroom that is more conducive to transfer of the training makes sense; training room con�iguration is part of optimizing training transfer (Coates, 2008).

Table 5.6: Suggestions of when each con�iguration is appropriate

Seating con�iguration

Space Uses and limitations

Theater Fits the most number of people

Not a lot of space between people High attendance Makes it dif�icult for audience to take notes

Classroom Accommodates a lot of people

A little more space between people than theater seating Has a table

High attendance Allows people to take notes or receive handout material

Chevron Accommodates a lot of people

Provides more space between people Tables are optional

High attendance Fosters interaction for large groups Allows people to take notes or receive handout material

Modi�ied chevron Accommodates a lot of people

Less space between people than chevron seating Tables are optional

High attendance Speaker's visibility of audience improves Can make note taking dif�icult

Square or rectangle

Accommodates a smaller group of people than theater, classroom, or chevron seating Tables provided

Good for meetings where hierarchy is not an issue Great for facilitator-led meetings Promotes audience participation Allows note taking Can make it dif�icult to present visuals

Boardroom Accommodates 6 to 15 people

Table provided Suggests hierarchy Those seated further away from speaker can feel disconnected from group Allows note taking

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 17/21

Perpendicular Can accommodate more people by placing seats on both

sides of the table Allows speaker or instructor to watch audience Facilitates communication between speaker and audience Space between tables allows for visuals or demonstrations Allows note taking

U-shape Speaker table is optional Fosters collaboration

Space in the center allows for visuals such as simulations and role-plays Allows note taking

Semicircle or circle

Tables are optional Minimizes speaker's role Good visibility and interaction among audience Excellent for emotional sessions

Cluster Tables can be round or small rectangles Good for presentations with group activities

Arrangement allows for food and beverages

Source: Adapted from Wallace, M. (2002). Guide on the side—room setups for presentations & training—one size does NOT �it all. Retrieved from LLRX.com website: http://www.llrx.com/columns/guide59.htm (http://www.llrx.com/columns/guide59.htm)

http://www.llrx.com/columns/guide59.htm

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 18/21

5.4 Editorial Process and Technical Review Before implementing the training, trainers must review the process of the training documentation and materials one more time. This includes content review, design review, organizational review, and editorial review (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Wan, 2013).

Content Review

In a content review of the materials, a subject matter expert typically should be involved to verify that the training is linked to the scope of the learning objectives. Furthermore, an SME also can advise if the training session needs to have more speci�ic information, such as including a more detailed history of the subject matter to link more clearly to the learning outcomes.

Design Review

In a design review, an experienced instructional designer reviews not only the learning objectives and whether they are SMART, for example, but also whether the training methods and media selected are appropriate.

Organizational Review

An organizational review is done anytime top management will help sell the training and create trainee buy-in; this review helps make the training more legitimate. For example, trainees might not feel there is a need for a particular training until the CEO comes to the start of the session to voice his or her support.

Editorial Review

Finally, an editorial review ensures the material includes no misspelled words, incomplete sentences, or even inappropriate images. These items can be distracters in the learning process and affect the integrity of the training. Support staff can perform this task. One good way to catch misspellings is to read the content backward. This helps focus more on the words than on the ideas presented.

1/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch05,ch05intro,sec5.1,sec5.2,sec5.3,sec5.4,ch05summary&content=all&clientToken=b7… 19/21

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

The focus in the development phase is the creation of training materials, including production, procurement, and quality assurance. In this phase we convert the theory of instructional design into practice. The training media and method also are chosen during the development phase. Selection of the training media is usually guided by the learner activity, audience size, and development time. Training methods include instructor led, on the job, self-instruction, and e-learning. The training setting is then optimized. Within instructor-led training, effective room con�iguration is required—speci�ically, seating arrangements that encourage participation and improve trainee learning (including the U-shape, theater, chevron, and circle). Finally, it is important to review and edit training materials for accuracy.

Assess Your Learning: Critical Re�lection Questions

1. Beyond being unprofessional, discuss what other message typos and other grammatical errors may convey to the trainees. 2. Training sometimes requires self-directed study by the trainee. If a trainee is not naturally self-directed, can he or she be taught to be self-directed? 3. Discuss how e-learning is both a delivery method and a medium. 4. Training materials take on a certain tone. Give a training example in which the tone of the material would need to be persuasive. 5. Although on-the-job training is effective for learning retention, what may be some disadvantages of on-the-job training?

Additional Resources

Web Resources

For additional info on training evaluation: http://www.businessballs.com/trainingprogramevaluation.htm (http://www.businessballs.com/trainingprogramevaluation.htm)

Workplace safety videos using YouTube®: http://www.youtube.com/user/vocamsafetytv?feature=watch (http://www.youtube.com/user/vocamsafetytv?feature=watch)

Many e-learning training tools—including podcast production, using social media, and learning management systems—can be found here: http://theelearningcoach.com/elearning2-0/100-elearning-freebies (http://theelearningcoach.com/elearning2-0/100-elearning-freebies)

For more information on effective training room arrangement: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/seating.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/seating.html)

Blogger Cathy Moore details and demonstrates more than 50 examples of the different types of e-learning (such as simulations, tutorials, drill and practice): http://blog.cathy-moore.com/resources/elearning-samples (http://blog.cathy-moore.com/resources/elearning-samples)