BUS 375 Week 2 Discussion 1 & 2

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Chapter 4 (D)esigning Effective Training

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Develop effective training objectives. Choose the appropriate training setting and delivery method. List individual trainee differences. Explain sequence training. Prepare a lesson plan. Create learning assessment questions.

Training objectives focus in on the trainee and training goals focus in on the training.

—Piskurich, 2010

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Introduction This chapter discusses the second phase of ADDIE and how fundamental to training design developing effective training objectives is. Design is accomplished, in part, by �irst considering the behavior, conditions, and standards of a training objective. Another training design technique discussed is the SMART approach.

Food for Thought: Interpreting Instructions: "As Soon as Possible" Training and performance objectives can vary when left up to interpretation by the employee. Consider, for example, how you might interpret the meaning of ASAP (as soon as possible) in these scenarios:

Someone from another department calls. He needs some detailed information ASAP; but you are already busy. In this situation, you might interpret "ASAP" as "when I have �inished all of my own work and have a chance to get to it. It might be tomorrow or the next day." A coworker comes to you for help with an assignment. She needs you ASAP, but you have another job to �inish before lunch. In this situation, you might interpret "ASAP" as "after I have �inished my own work, I will help out after lunch." Your immediate supervisor asks you to type a memo for her ASAP, but you already have a stack of other jobs to �inish. In this situation, you might interpret "ASAP" as "I'll do this now and �inish my other work afterward."

Source: Adapted from Harris-Small, E. (2013, March). Communicate to persuade. Conference presentation at Rutgers University. Retrieved from http://www.prodevmedia.com/conferences/bursars/presentations/2013/14_Communicate_to_Persuade.pdf (http://www.prodevmedia.com/conferences/bursars/presentations/2013/14_Communicate_to_Persuade.pdf)

Consider This

1. How would aspects of performance concepts like quality, leadership, and team be impacted by varied interpretations by the receiver? 2. How you can protect against performance actions varying as a function of the sender (that is, the person who is asking). 3. Is there a context in which varied interpretation of meaning is advantageous in a workplace performance setting?

Indeed, objectivity of objectives is key to training, so read on to learn how to create effective training and performance objectives within ADDIE's design phase.

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The second step in the ADDIE process is design. During this phase, training objectives are developed and a training delivery method is chosen.

4.1 Developing Training Objectives As discussed in Chapter 3, if a needs assessment con�irms what we need to train in, then design, the next step in the ADDIE process, is how we are going to train to close any of the identi�ied performance gaps from that needs assessment (see Figure 4.1). The design phase of ADDIE includes the processes of de�ining the scope of the training, setting goals, performing trainee analysis, and establishing time requirements. Also in the design phase, decisions are made about the type of training content and materials needed, the training delivery methods, the training venue, and the individuals who will be speci�ically involved.

Figure 4.1: ADDIE model: Design

The �irst step in the design phase is that of designing effective training objectives. These describe the intent and desired results of the training (Gagné, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005). Overall, training objectives must:

meet trainee needs, cover content requirements; and be ef�icient.

However, as you will come to appreciate, creating effective training objectives is a skill unto itself.

Consider any of the following training objectives taken from training workshops:

"Be better in customer service."

"Improve your communication skills."

"Understand web design."

"Operate your smart phone."

If you suspect that these training objectives are lacking, your instincts are correct. All of the training objectives suffer from being too vague, overly subjective, and not measurable.

To make the objectives of training more tangible and suitable for operations, Robert Mager, a renowned expert in training, suggested breaking performance objectives into smaller learning dimensions. Speci�ically, according to Mager (1988), training objectives must have three components:

Behavior. The behaviors should be speci�ic and observable. Conditions. The conditions under which the behavior is to be completed should be documented, including what tools are to be provided. Standards. The level of desired performance should be stated, including an acceptable range of answers to be considered correct.

So, for example, using this approach, we can convert the training objective of

"Be better in customer service"

"By the next �iscal quarter, Sandra will be able to achieve a 90% customer service satisfaction by incorporating the voice in�lection techniques during her normal work shift."

This training objective becomes immediately more effective because observable behavior (use of voice in�lection techniques) is measurable, occurs under conditions (during her normal shift), and has a standard (90% customer service satisfaction rating).

Another popular technique to ensure that training objectives are targeted and focused is the SMART approach. SMART is an acronym we can use to ensure that our training objectives are speci�ic, measurable, attainable, realistic, and time bound (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977; Prokopenko, 1998; Wake�ield, 2011). Here are the details of SMART:

Speci�ic. What exactly should be done? Speci�icity makes the objective concrete, detailed, focused, and well de�ined. The objective states a speci�ic outcome or a precise action to be accomplished and can be stated in numbers, percentages, frequency, or scienti�ic �indings. Measurable. Is the objective measurable? If the objective is measurable, it means that the measurement source is identi�ied and you are able to track the actions toward the objective. Measurement enables us to compare results. Achievable. Can the employee get the goal accomplished in the proposed time frame, in the existing culture, or at his or her current level of competency? Objectives need to be achievable. The objective may stretch the employee, but not so far that he or she becomes frustrated and loses motivation.

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Realistic. Will this goal lead to the desired results? Achievable objectives may not be realistic. If an objective is realistic, it means that you have the resources (such as skills, money, and equipment) to get it done. Also, whether an objective is realistic or not many times depends on if it has ever been done before. Time bound. When or how often does the employee need to meet a particular goal? Being time bound means setting deadlines for the achievement of the objective. Deadlines need to be achievable and realistic, but the lack of a deadline may reduce the motivation and urgency required to execute the tasks.

Here is an example of a SMART objective:

"Rachel will increase her number of widgets by 10% by the end of the year."

Why is this SMART?

S—number of widgets

M—by 10%

A—increase her output

R—this output is realistic

T—by the end of the year

It is important to note, too, that since SMART was originally developed in the early 1980s, many have revised it to accommodate the ever-changing work environment. Speci�ically, you may �ind that SMART has gone to SMARTER, where (E)valuate and (R)eevaluate are added to ensure, for example, that goals are realistic and achievable in light of new technologies, global competition, and a more sophisticated economy.

And, �inally, we can evaluate training objectives both strategically and tactically. That is, like needs assessments, training objectives are considered at different levels. As Chapter 7 will further discuss, with Kirkpatrick's (2009) four-level hierarchy, we can use the following perspectives (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010) to consider whether the training objectives were met:

Level 1, trainee reaction objectives. Simply put, "Did they like the training session?" Did the training meet the attitudinal and subjective expectations of the trainee? Using a questionnaire about why they are attending training and what they hope to accomplish can con�irm these types of objectives (Snell & Bohlander, 2011). Level 2, learning. "Did they learn anything in the training session?" The training has measures that will indicate if a suf�icient level of learning occurred. Comparing a pretraining test with a posttraining test can con�irm this level. For example, if there was a training session on blood-borne pathogens, the trainer might start the session by �irst asking, "If you have a bloody nose at work, what do you do with the tissue afterward?" Prior to the training, participants may say, "Throw it away, of course!" However, after the training, they know that it must go in a hazardous materials (HazMat) bag for disposal. Level 3, behavior. "Will they apply what they've learned in the training?" The training must be transferred from the training to application on the job. Chapter 7 will discuss the challenges of training transfer. Snell and Bohlander (2011) assert that goal-oriented trainees are more likely to perceive a link between effort they put into training and higher performance on the job. The complexity of level 3 is that myriad reasons might explain why an employee is able to apply the training, but is not willing—"Oh, I know how to do, but I am not doing for you!" Level 4, results. In the �inal analysis, the training should ultimately lead to positive organizational outcomes. For example, due to effective training, an organization could see improvements such as lower error rates, fewer workplace injuries, or better customer satisfaction survey scores.

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4.2 Setting and Delivery Method Considerations Two important aspects to training design are the training setting and the training delivery method. In fact, many times the training delivery method will be dictated by the training setting. For example, consider the questions, "Where would on-the-job training take place? Where would instructor-led training be held?" Also, training setting and delivery sometimes are constrained by the expense or how quickly the training needs to take place. If training content requires a computer, for example, e-learning or computer-based training may be most appropriate. Likewise, if travel expenses must be kept to a minimum, then teleconferencing or self-directed instruction may be necessary. Consider, too, that even current events may help dictate training setting, delivery, and content. For example, following Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami in Japan, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention implemented new disaster response training to cover stress and fatigue: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/�lood.html (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/�lood.html) .

Another consideration, especially as it relates to the use of technology and e-learning, is which generation the trainee belongs to. In a white paper on overcoming the generational gap in the workplace (United Nations, 2013), the United Nations Talent Management Division pointed out the workplace preferences of each generation that must be considered when training employees (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Generational workplace preferences

Preference category Traditionalist Baby boomers Generation X Generation Y/Z

Attire Formal Business casual (high end) Business casual (low end) Whatever feels comfortable

Work environment Of�ice only Long hours—of�ice only Of�ice, home, desires �lexible schedule

Of�ice, home—desires �lexible schedule

Motivators Self-worth Salary Security Maintain personal life

Mentoring Not necessary Does not handle negative feedback well

Not necessary to receive feedback

Constant feedback needed

Retention Loyalty Salary Security and salary Personal relationships

Client orientation Personal contact Telephone E-mail E-mail, instant messaging, and text

Technology Dictates documents, e-mail only in the of�ice, use of library instead of web, limited phone use

Documents prepared by the associates, e-mail primarily in the of�ice, uses web to use Google

Creates own documents; uses mobile and laptop; uses web to research, review, etc.; e-mail and mobile 24/7

Creates own documents; creates databases; uses web to research and network; use of e-mail, instant messaging, and texting 24/7

Career goals Build a legacy, a lifetime career with one company

Build a perfect career, excel Build a transferable career, variety of skills and experiences

Build several parallel careers, have several jobs simultaneously

Source: Reprinted with permisison from the United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund from Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y (and Generation Z) Working Together. What Matters and How They Learn? How they are different? Fact and �iction.

The style of the trainer, too, or his or her preference, may indicate a preferred setting. (Many interesting stories from the �ield can be found in Wacker's and Silverman's Stories Trainers Tell (Wacker & Silverman, 2005). However, ultimately, the decision about which delivery method—and therefore which setting—to use should be substantially guided by the objectives of the training itself and which KSAs are to be practiced.

Let us say the objective of the training was to improve interpersonal skills; in this case in-class training would be more appropriate than OJT or job aids. Yet OJT and job aids would be appropriate if knowledge retention were the objective. Table 4.2 outlines the preferred delivery method, depending on the trainee KSA objectives.

Table 4.2: Delivery method per KSA objective

KSA objective Preferred delivery method Adequate delivery method

Knowledge acquisition Classroom Self-instruction Technology-based training

On-the-job training

Problem solving Classroom Technology-based training Job aids

On-the-job training Self-instruction

Changing attitudes Classroom On-the-job training Technology-based training

Interpersonal skills Classroom Technology-based training

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/flood.html

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Knowledge retention On-the-job training Self-instruction Technology-based training Job aids

Rote learning, or learning by repetition

Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Additionally, as Table 4.3 illustrates, when it comes to training design, the venue itself will be dictated where the domains of time and place meet.

Table 4.3: Training venue: Time and place

Time Place In classroom lecture

Same time Different place Teleconferencing or virtual lab

Different time Same place Library or training lab

Different time Different place CD or correspondence course

Food for Thought: The Two-Dimensional Trainer Versus the Three-Dimensional Trainer —Is There a Difference? If you cannot smell or touch your trainer, does it matter?

As silly as this might sound, it raises an issue about what, if anything, is lost when your trainer is in the same room with you versus in a different room, being beamed to you from 1,000 miles away.

Consider This

1. Does effective learning require that all the senses be engaged?

Table 4.4 presents some potential delivery methods and their advantages and disadvantages.

Table 4.4: Training methods: Advantages and disadvantages

Training method Type of training Advantages Disadvantages

Instructor-led training Classroom lecture Revised easily Developed quickly Face-to-face contact

Dif�icult to schedule Travel costs Differences from class to class

On-the-job training One-on-one Face-to-face contact Low cost No travel Related to trainee's job

Bad habits May be inconsistent May be incomplete Differences from mentor to mentor and session to session

Online self-directed training All online training Consistent training content High development costs

Mobile learning apps Convenient access to training Trainee sets own pace Reuse does not require trainer participation

Lengthy development time Requires computer equipment

Web-based training Easy to modify Slow download times from limited bandwidth, for example

CD-ROM and DVD Supports complex multimedia

Dif�icult to modify

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Effective training is dependent in no small part on the training venue itself. From proper lighting to adequate sound and a comfortable room temperature, trainee opinions about the training venue can dictate the trainees' initial reaction to the training.

Webinars Easily distributed Trainee sets own pace

Can be costly to develop May need faster Internet speed and bandwidth to reduce buffering

Of�line self-directed training Printed material Portable Trainee sets own pace Developed quickly

Less interesting Dif�icult to modify

Video DVD, MP3s, or audio CD Consistent training content Can share copies Trainee sets own pace

Requires playback equipment Can be costly to develop Dif�icult to modify

Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Did You Know? Training with Technology

Some employers use the iPod for workplace training. See the advantages and disadvantages here:

http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/technology/advantages_and_disadvantages_of_using_ipods_in_the_workplace_024544.html (http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/technology/advantages_and_disadvantages_of_using_ipods_in_the_workplace_024544.html)

Train the Trainer

Another training method is known as train the trainer. With this type of delivery method, an experienced trainer—sometimes as an external consultant—trains a less experienced trainer to deliver the training (Lawson, 1998; Pike, Pike, Arch, & Solem, 2000). Usually, the new trainer will �irst observe a training led by the course designer or subject matter expert.

Rather than just a single one-on-one event, some train-the-trainer workshops build a pool of competent instructors who can then teach training material to others as needed (Pike et al., 2000). As a result, instead of just one instructor teaching the same course over and over, multiple instructors teach the same course at the same time. This approach ensures that employees get timely training should a needs assessment determine that training is required.

Preparing Your Training Environment Room

Beyond all the analyses and theories, there is also a practicality associated with training; that is, you should prepare your training environment so it will be conducive to learning—from the lighting in the room to the colors of the �loors and walls. According to training expert Elaine Biech (2011), establishing an environment for learning is a critical aspect of starting a training session off on the right foot. Simply put, trainees need to walk in to a relaxed atmosphere, an environment that is welcoming and ready. Although a welcoming training room does not guarantee the training session will go well, a poorly set up training room almost always is linked to poor training outcomes.

Biech (2011) suggests that several key questions must be answered before establishing an environment for a training session:

When. When is the training? What day, date, and time? Also, do you have enough time to prepare? Is the amount of time allotted adequate for the content? Where. Where is the session? On-site or off-site? If off-site, is it easy to travel to the location? How do you get there? What is the address? Telephone number? Will you need to make travel arrangements? Is public transportation available? How do you get materials to the site? What. What kind of training is expected? What resources are required? What facilities are available? What will you need (for example, Internet connection, speakers for the computer, whiteboard, a room with electrical outlets for trainee laptops)? Who. Who is the key planner? Who are the participants? How many? What is their background? Why were you chosen to deliver the training? Who is the contact person at the training site? How do you reach that person on-site and off-site?

Similarly, Finkel and Finkel (2007) created a questionnaire that rates the quality of a training room (see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Rating the quality of the training room

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Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/{�igures}�igure4.2.pdf) to download a pdf of the training quality questionnaire. Open with Adobe Acrobat to access an editable �ile.

Source: Finkel, C., & Finkel, A. D. Facilities Planning: Managing the Training Function in Info-line, Issue 8504, p. 9. Copyright © 1985, 2000 by The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). All Rights Reserved. For use by permission only.

Training methods review

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Incorporating the principles of adult learning (andragogy) in training design can increase the relevance of training for the trainees, and also improve its effectiveness for the organization.

1. How, speci�ically, would a training program incorporate the principle of andragogy that states adults are generally intrinsically motivated?

2. Given the above, would it still be recommended to include extrinsic rewards as part of training program outcomes?

4.3 Individual Trainee Differences Naturally, trainers do not always have the time or resources to design training to accommodate individual trainee learning styles or career aspirations. However, trainers can make certain considerations and accommodations for adult learners, in general. As discussed in Chapter 2, according to Wlodkowski (1993), a trainer can make certain assumptions about adult trainees. For example, trainees want:

Success. They want to be successful learners. Volition. They want to have a say or sense of choice in their learning. Value. They want to learn something of value. Enjoyment. They want to have some level of enjoyment while they are being trained.

Likewise, to optimize the relationship between the trainer and trainee, a trainer must possess the skill set of EEEC; that is, trainees relate better to the trainer when he or she is:

expert, enthusiastic, empathic, and clear.

The late educator Malcolm Knowles—considered the father of adult learning principles—also proposed assumptions about the adult learner that are incorporated in training design today. The implication to training design is that the trainer must consider the training relevant and useful on the job (Knowles, 1973; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012).

Andragogy: Adult learning principles

Critical Thinking Questions

Table 4.5 outlines all of Knowles's adult learning principles and how trainers might use the principles in training practice.

Table 4.5 Adult learning principles

Principle Practices

1. Autonomous and self-directed Ask what they would like to get out of the training before beginning class and adjust lesson plan. Discuss what they think they need to accomplish: the objectives or do their jobs. Allow them to skip material they already understand. Present in a way that caters to a variety of learning styles.

2. Experienced Ask them to share an example from their life experiences to help clarify the lesson. Approach unlearning of old information gently before facilitating learning of new information.

3. Goal-oriented Explain the reasons why competing the training is important. Use real-world problems or case studies that call on expertise of group members. Focus on doing something with the information, rather than simply knowing the information.

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4. Require relevance Provide them with the objectives for the class. Ask them to re�lect on how they may use what they have learned in the future.

5. Practical Explain how the training will be useful on the job.

6. Need to be shown respect Encourage them to express their thoughts, opinions, and reasoning on the subject. Treat them as equals in the subject you are training. Appeal to intrinsic motivation by providing feedback that increases self-esteem, satisfaction, or quality of life.

Source: Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012.

Rothwell and Kazanas (2011) suggested that trainees' learning characteristics could be assessed for the design phase using a derived approach or a contrived approach. That is, the derived approach could be used when instructional designers are able to identify relevant learner characteristics of obvious importance based on a given performance problem, instructional need, or organizational constraint. A contrived approach should be used by the designer when the learner characteristics of the trainees cannot be identi�ied as easily; in this case the designer creates a list of trainee learning characteristics to be considered.

Two particular trainee characteristics that instructional designers must consider are the trainees' readiness and motivation (Snell & Bohlander, 2011). According to Snell and Bohlander (2011), trainee readiness refers to "both maturity and experience factors in the trainee's background" (p. 302). The premise is that training should be designed with assumptions about the prospective trainee's starting point. The entry behaviors the trainees will need are useful in prescreening the prospective trainees for these prerequisite KSAs necessary to absorb what will be presented to them in the training.

The other trainee characteristic to consider in training design is trainee motivation. That is, training should be designed in a way that motivates trainees to learn the new material (Kozlowski & Salas, 2009; Krishnaveni, 2008). First, the design must clearly link the training objectives to the trainee's workplace needs in order to increase the motivation to succeed in training programs. For example, if a trainee sees a new training as a sought-after competency for advancement in his or her career path, he or she will be more motivated to learn the new material (Snell & Bohlander, 2011).

Frequently, the state of the trainee's motivation will also be based on not only his or her perception of the new learning, but also the trainee's experiences in using prior training. As a result, if a trainee, for example, had a bad experience with learning new software last time, it is likely that the trainee will come to the new training with a negative attitude; contrast this to another trainee who had success in learning the prior software (Knowles, 1973; Knowles et al., 2012). Speci�ically, a trainee's motivation toward the new training will be impacted if the training is perceived by the trainees as making them more effective at their jobs. In fact, according to 19th-century philosopher and psychologist William James (as cited in Baldwin et al., 1906), even a person's self-esteem would be linked to successes over pretensions what we today would call "achievements over attempts." Is the training assisting in making the employee con�ident he or she could do the task well to accomplish work goals?

Consider how the relationship between tasks attempted and tasks achieved could affect an employee's self-esteem in the long run:

Workplace self-esteem = Achievements ÷ Attempt

Employee Mario was interviewed and asked how his �iscal year had gone...

"Well, it was a tough year, and we had a couple hiccups, but all-and-all, I accomplished 8 of the 10 major projects this year."

Now compare that to employee Michele; we also asked her how her �iscal year went...

"To be honest, everything that could've gone wrong this year ... did! I, maybe, accomplished 2 of the 10 major projects we had this year."

Using the performance formula from Chapter 2, we would have to determine if Michele's poor performance was due to her ability, poor training, lack of motivation, or something in the environment. But, you can see that if this became a chronic outcome of successes versus failures for Michele, we would expect to see a discernible difference between Mario's (8/10) and Michele's (2/10) (organizational) self-esteem. In sum, training design must consider these scenarios of training's utility.

Self-Directed Trainees

One aspect of how ef�iciently training will become learning is how self-directed the trainee is (Durr & Guglielmino (1996)). Speci�ically, self-directed learning (SDL) is a learning process whereby individuals take the initiative in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate strategies, and evaluating outcomes (Candy, 1991). Though one assumption about adult learners is that they are self-directed (Knowles, 1973), like other personal characteristics, the level of self-direction varies from trainee to trainee. Guglielmino (1977) developed the self-directed learning readiness scale, which can actually measure one's level of self-direction.

SDL has two dimensions—self-teaching and autonomy—and one does not necessarily mean the other. Although self-direction can mean self-teaching, being self- directed also means that an employee can choose (exercise autonomy) to be taught.

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SDL is a trait that seemingly can become stronger with certain in�luences (Guglielmino, 1977). In fact, although teaching self-directed learning seems like a contradiction in terms, it is not. According to Guglielmino (1977) and Brook�ield (1984), trainers can offer speci�ic tactics for developing SDL competence within employees:

Offer training and workshops in speci�ic skill competence like goal setting, time management, and self-evaluation. Ensure that your employee has access to adequate, comprehensive, and readily available learning resources such as computer-assisted instruction, trade publications, and access to experts. Give your employees enough personal space and discretionary power to act on their own behalf. Some experts suggest that enhancing SDL competency within an individual may speci�ically lie in increasing the component of personal autonomy. Underscore the importance of teams and the virtues of collaboration. This is an important tip because SDL is not an isolated, solitary endeavor but is inevitably tied to and affected by others in the organization.

Locus of Control

Another concept that a trainer should be mindful of is locus of control. The concept was �irst introduced by Rotter (1954) and considers where a person gets his or her energies from. That is, does a person believe he can control his destiny (internal) or believe that his decisions and life are controlled by environmental factors that he cannot in�luence (external)? Issues of locus of control are important because a trainee might be more dependent or less dependent on the trainer.

Although it might not be practical for trainers to customize every training session to each and every trainee's learning style or personality type, designing training to recognize and appreciate learner characteristics such as level of self-direction, self-ef�icacy, and locus of control go a long way in making the training relevant and enabling it to resonate with each trainee.

Food for Thought: Locus of Control If you want to do some quick analysis, go around a room and ask people to draw a capital E on their foreheads with their �ingers. As they do, observe whether they are drawing the E with respect to their audience or themselves (it would look backward to a viewer).

If they draw the E with respect to you, they have an external locus of control. If they draw the E with respect to themselves, they have an internal locus of control (Hass, 1984).

Consider This

1. How could you incorporate an employee's locus of control into training design? 2. What type of advantages might there be in pairing a trainer who has an external locus of control with a trainee who has an internal locus of control, or vice-versa?

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4.4 Training Design Sequencing Part of training design includes decisions about the sequencing of the training topics, including how you �irst present the concepts that will be covered to trainees. There are many choices for sequencing, including chronological, problem solution, known to unknown, and unknown to known (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011). Here is an overview of some of those design sequence strategies.

Chronological. With chronological sequencing, the training objectives can be introduced with a history of the training content sequenced from past to present. So, for example, if we were training newly hired employees at Hewlett-Packard during orientation, we might use this sequencing by starting with how the company was founded: "Hewlett Packard was started in a garage by Stanford University classmates Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard in 1939." Problem solution. Introduce the training by explaining how this training is the solution to a particular problem. The trainer might start the session by explaining that ineffective communication in the workplace has resulted in an increase in con�lict, confusion, and dissatisfaction within the organization, and then explain that these are the reasons for holding today's effective communication workshop. Known to unknown. Trainees are introduced to what they already know and are gradually led through the training into what they do not know. In a computer training, for example, the trainer might start out with some familiar software and then delve into more complex aspects within that software: "I

know all of you currently use and are familiar with Excel® for your spreadsheets, but today we are going to learn how to create macros." Unknown to known. Trainees are deliberately disoriented at the outset of the training. Trainers are strategically ambiguous and attempt to have all trainees starting at a consciously incompetent realm, as discussed in Chapter 2. For example, at the onset of a training session, the trainer treats the trainees rudely and dismissively for the �irst 10 minutes, until he reveals that it was a role-play to show them how customers feel when customer representatives treat them rudely!

WPW Learning Model in Training Design

Another important design sequence strategy is the whole-part-whole (WPW) model. The model is meant to mirror the natural whole-part-whole rhythm in adult learning (Knowles, 1973; Knowles et al., 2012; Swanson, 1995; Swanson & Holton, 2001).

In the WPW model, learning is introduced in a way that the �irst major overarching concept (�irst whole) is built on by integrating new learning segments (parts), resulting in a more knowledgeable learning framework (second whole). Trainees would be �irst exposed to the �irst "whole" concept in which they then prepare for new training with mental scaffolding (Wlodkowski, 1993); that is, the learning objectives and building-block concepts placed within the larger framework of the topic.

The training then focuses back onto the "parts," the details of the KSAs that are required, including speci�ic expertise and activity. Knowles and colleagues (2012) described the process this way:

After learners have mastered the speci�ic, structured material, it is time to return to the "whole." The second "whole" helps learners place their newly- mastered skills in context. The model is effective because it encourages training or instruction that gives learners an overview of what they are about to learn, details the speci�ics, and then integrates the new knowledge or skills into a broader framework. (pp. 247–249)

Here is an example of how WPW could work when incorporated into the training design for a printing press operator, for example:

First whole: introduction and overview of systems and press equipment

Part: How to start up printer Part: Operation of printer Part: Checking for printing defects Part: Troubleshooting Part: Shutting down printer

Second whole: competent solo performance of printing press equipment

The premise of the second whole in WPW is that the trainee is wiser having gone through not only critical re�lection of the processes, but also what leadership consultant Robert Staub (2002) called the walking through the weeds of details.

Did You Know? Perspectives on Employee Training

You will also experience a similar WPW effect regarding employee training. Consider what you thought about employee training before this course. Of course, you understood the term employee training at an intellectual level; that is, you knew it meant "how you train employees." However, once you have completed this course, the term will take on a deeper, richer meaning for you because you will have conceptually stretched and critically re�lected, having gone through and been challenged with the details of training and its systems. This learning process will necessarily lead to you holding a different perspective on the concept of employee training from now on.

Now, consider these examples of design-sequencing "hooks" for new hires at the Kopp Dry Erase Marker company:

Chronological. "Good morning, and welcome to our organization. Many people don't realize that the very �irst dry erase marker was manufactured in Portugal in 1926 by Dominican monks. Now, back then, they did not have our Ariastar 120 to �ill the felt with ink, but we do."

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Chronological Problem solution Known to unknown

Unknown to known Whole part whole

Unknown to known. "Good morning, and welcome (the trainer is standing in front of two barrels, one �illed with small black pellets, the other with white cloth stuf�ing). These barrels may look strange to you, but believe it or not, these raw materials are exactly how we make our dry erase markers (trainer pulls out a brand-new dry erase marker from the package). Speci�ically using the Ariastar 120, we...." Problem solution. "Good morning. One of the biggest criticisms of chalk and blackboards was that chalk was messy, chronically breaking, and got 'stubby,' and the blackboard was a pain to clean up after use. So, in 1982 our company invented a system of markers that could be used for instruction for recording temporary information. No longer were there just permanent markers; now there were markers of more than 16 different colors, whose marks could easily be cleaned away when complete! The era of the dry erase marker began, and we...."

Food for Thought: Design Hook Take an ordinary item such as a soda can, TV remote control, or mouse pad and create your own design hook from the list in this box. Imagine you have new trainees who have to learn how to manufacture that item.

Consider This

1. Choose one ordinary item and compare two of the design hook approaches that could be used. Explain the reasons why each would or would not suit trainees.

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4.5 Preparing Lesson Plan As part of the training design, a lesson plan is created that will outline the activities of the day's training; this is the training script. Many of the items, or end products, of the lesson plan will be produced in the next phase of ADDIE— development, which will be discussed in Chapter 5.

The training lesson plan should have activities that introduce and allow for practice of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for the new training outcomes. Table 4.6 outlines instructional methods to be included in training design, according to the National Training and Education Division (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2012).

Speci�ically, the lesson plan is the organization of the material and learning activities based on your goals and objectives for the training (Charney & Conway, 2005; Hannum & Hansen, 1989; McArdle, 1999; Piskurich, 2010; Reed & Signorelli, 2011; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011). The lesson plan should include:

topics you choose to cover (to accomplish your goals and objectives), goals and objectives, types of teaching techniques and learning activities you will use, training aids and materials you will use, length of the training to accomplish your goals and objectives, and ways you will check for understanding and get feedback from employees.

Table 4.6: Instructional methods included in training design

Training dimension Instructional method

Knowledge Lecture, guided discussion, practical application, self-study, television, debate, interview, symposium, panel, group interview, colloquy, motion picture, slide �ilm, recording, book-based discussion, reading

Skills Demonstration, practical application, role-playing, in-basket exercise, games, action mazes, participative cases, nonverbal skill practice exercises, drills, coaching

Attitudes Guided discussion, demonstration, television, lecture, debate, symposium, colloquy, motion picture, dramatization, guided discussion, experience-sharing discussion, role-playing, critical incident, process, games

Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2014.

There are different types of lesson plan formats. A popular format is the two-column format, with one side showing content and containing items such as trainer notes, activities, and anything else that the trainer might use to get the content across (Piskurich, 2010); other formats get more complex. For example, the four- column format includes the following columns: time, media, content, and testing. According to Reed and Signorelli (2011), the following components should be included in a lesson plan outline:

Introduction—provides an overview of the course, to include – The course goal – A target audience description – A high-level view of the structure Modules—possibly the largest unit of instruction within a course, usually containing multiple learning objectives and consisting of – Module introduction – Objectives – Lessons – Module summary Lessons—a unit of instruction within a course, consisting of – Lesson introduction – Objectives – Topics – Content – Lesson summary

A sample two-column lesson plan appears in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Sample lesson plan

Time Activity

Saturday

7:00–8:00 a.m. BREAKFAST

8:00–9:00 a.m. Program introduction and completion of pre-questionnaires.

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Initial activities—the napkin game. Participants form groups of equal size. Each group gets a napkin, and the task is to fold the napkin as small as possible, but still large enough for each group member to place a toe on the napkin.

Discuss what happened during the activity and how the group handled the issues it encountered.

Present Kirkpatrick's learning model; group or team members should ideally enjoy the activity and learn something from it that they can apply and that will improve results.

9:00–10:00 a.m.

Brainstorming session: Have each group work on group goal setting. Groups will share the problems that they encounter at work and generate an initial discussion of how to deal with those issues by working as a team.

Icebreaker activity—toilet paper go-round. Direct the group to pass along a roll of toilet paper within 1 minute and each group member to tear off as many sheets as possible. When the time is up, each person must tell a number of facts about themselves, and the number of facts must equal the number of sheets of toilet paper the person holds.

10:00–10:30 a.m. BREAK

10:30 a.m.–12:00 p.m.

Discuss the earlier task before the break, what problems they encountered, and how they solved problems. A focus can be how competitiveness can back�ire unless you know what you are competing for, and on the fact that making assumptions carries risks. Discussion can continue on how to solve some of these problems they encounter at work.

GROUP ACTIVITIES

Best day at work. Start out by having every team member take 20 minutes to write out what their best day at work was and why. Once the group has �inished, start asking for volunteers to describe the circumstances of the best day and start writing the themes on the board. This appreciative inquiry exercise focuses the group on what is valued within the group. Group members might be surprised to �ind that monetary issues are NOT part of their best day, but intrinsic themes like recognition, appreciation, and feeling they made a difference were themes.

Managing change. Form groups of four to �ive people from different divisions or departments. Ask them to discuss the following questions with their group members:

1. A recent situation in which some type of change was introduced. 2. Whether this change was resisted. 3. Why or why not. 4. What could have been done to make the change easier.

Ask one representative of each group to present the discussion.

Have the groups try each of the activities and do their own planning for subsequent activities.

12:00–1:00 p.m. LUNCH

1:00–2:00 p.m. Discuss the morning activities and what needs to be done to make the afternoon successful.

2:00–3:30 p.m.

More group activities:

Sneak a peak. The instructor will build a small sculpture with some of the building blocks and hide it in an area that is an equal distance from each group. While group members try to duplicate the structure, one member from each group can come up at the same time to look at the sculpture for 10 seconds and try to memorize it before returning to his or her group. After members return to their group, they have 25 seconds to instruct their group about how to build an exact replica of the instructor's sculpture. After 1 minute of trying to re-create the sculpture, another member from each group can come up to "sneak a peek" before returning to his or her team and trying to recreate the sculpture. The game should be continued in this pattern until one of the groups successfully duplicates the original sculpture. This game will teach participants how to problem solve in a group and communicate effectively.

Day colors. Explore how mental associations can color our worlds differently. Have members close their eyes and imagine the days of the week, then write down the color of each day. Let the group share and compare people's different color associations and—where people consciously know and are willing to share their reasons and associations—review these differences, too.

3:30–4:00 p.m. BREAK

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4:00–5:00 p.m. Review and discuss the concept of teamwork and how the activities of the day have helped the group members learn how effective teams work by acknowledging individual perspectives, emotional triggers, empathy, and respecting personal differences. Brie�ly introduce Johari window.

5:00–7:00 p.m. DINNER

7:00–9:00 p.m.

AFTER-DINNER ACTIVITY Final activity to sum up the concept of teamwork; working in two large groups.

The great egg drop. (The groups experience working together and communicating for the common goal of both winning and successfully creating an egg package.) Split the room into two large groups with the task of building an egg package that can sustain an 8-foot drop. A variety of tools and other materials should be provided to the teams. After the packages have been built, each team must also present a 30- second advertisement for their package, highlighting why it is unique and how it works. For the conclusion of the presentations, each group will have to drop their egg using their package to see if it really works.

Sunday Morning

8:00–9:00 a.m. BREAKFAST

9:00–10:00 a.m. Review and discuss the egg drop activity, reviewing the program concepts especially on building teamwork and communication, and how the activity was accomplished using the concepts learned.

10:00–12:00 p.m. Closing: Final discussion of teamwork, focusing on speci�ic issues of the organization. While the trainer facilitates the discussion, management can be the leader in developing the issues.

A key part of the lesson plan includes some pretraining activities such as icebreakers; these are intended to help trainees and the trainer get to know each other and become more comfortable so they can communicate and work together during the training. The HRD in Practice feature box titled "Two Truths and a Lie" contains an example of an icebreaker.

HRD in Practice: Icebreakers—Two Truths and a Lie Two truths and a lie is a classic get-to-know-you icebreaker. Trainees tell two truths and one lie. The object of the game is to determine which statement is the false one.

Ask trainees to arrange themselves in a circle. Instruct each to think of three statements about themselves. Two must be true statements, and one must be false. For each person, he or she shares the three statements (in any order) to the group. The goal of the icebreaker game is to determine which statement is false. The group members vote on which statement they think is a lie, and at the end of each round, the person reveals which one was the lie.

I recently used this exercise in my class. Can you guess which of the following was the lie?*

I have a tattoo you cannot see. I had dinner with Yoko Ono. I wrote jokes for The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.

Looking for more icebreakers? http://www.icebreakers.ws (http://www.icebreakers.ws)

Source: Thiagarajan, S. (2012). More jolts! Activities to wake up and engage your participants. New York: Wiley.

Consider This

1. Why is breaking the ice with trainees important? 2. Is there a certain training subject matter for which an icebreaker would be inappropriate? 3. What should you consider in the selection process in deciding to use one icebreaker over another?

* Answer at end of chapter.

http://www.icebreakers.ws/

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4.6 Designing Learning Assessment The design phase not only assists in de�ining what content will be taught, but also in de�ining how the learning of that content will be measured after the training. The training design should include an assessment that tests changes in trainees in the learning posttraining, what Donald Kirkpatrick (2009) called a level 2 assessment. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

Speci�ically, you can incorporate testing to measure any dimension—knowledge, skills, and attitudes—of learning (Dick et al., 2009; FEMA, 2012; Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, & Wilde, 2011). The following are different types of tests that indicate achievement with regard to knowledge, skill, or attitudinal objective (Table 4.8).

Table 4.8: Types of testing methods

Learning outcome Best method of testing Activities

Knowledge

Discriminations Multiple choice and true or false Detect similarities or differences

Concrete concepts and de�ined concepts

Constructed response (labeling, sorting, matching) Recognize examples or nonexamples

Rule learning Performance of integrated tasks or constructed response (short answer)

Apply rule, principle, or procedure Solve problems Produce a product

Skills

Behaviorally based Performance tests Perform smooth, timely, coordinated action

Attitudes

Emotionally based Performance tests Display desired situated behavior

As previously discussed, in addition to pretests (used to measure prerequisite entry skills) and posttests (used after exposure to an instructional program to provide a measure of the changes that have occurred after training), other speci�ic types of tests can be incorporated into the design to measure other aspects of pre- and posttraining learning (Dick et al., 2009; Wick et al., 2011). These include:

Diagnostic tests. These are used to determine which knowledge and skills (enabling objectives) are necessary to master a �inal objective of the training. Survey testing. These are used to determine what prospective learners already know and can do before receiving training. Appraisals. These are used to informally assess retention and or comprehension to provide early identi�ication of trainees who may need individualized assistance and what the learners need to learn.

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Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

Chapter 4 showed how fundamental training design is to developing effective training objectives. To accomplish this step, we considered the behavior, conditions, and standards of a training objective. This chapter discussed choosing the appropriate training setting and delivery method. Sometimes the delivery method dictates the training setting, as is seen in on-the-job training. Attention needs to be given to the training room and what a room conducive to learning looks like. The chapter considered individual trainee differences, such as trainee readiness, trainee motivation, self-direction, and locus of control. Assumptions about trainees as adult learners should be incorporated into the design. The chapter also introduced design-sequencing options, which include chronological, problem solution, and whole part whole. After making design- sequencing decisions, a lesson plan must be developed that breaks down the time sequence of the day's training and includes icebreakers to encourage trainee participation and trainee group cohesion. Finally, the chapter explained that training design must include a learning assessment of how the learning of that content will be measured after the training. Speci�ically, the training design should include an assessment that tests changes in trainee in learning posttraining.

*The author has no tattoos.

Assess Your Learning: Critical Re�lection

1. Where conceptually does the ADDIE process �it into human resource development? 2. How might the characteristics of a job affect the employee's psychological state? 3. How can an organization's rating philosophy impact the individual assessment of performance? 4. Is self-directed learning a characteristic people are born with, or can it be taught? 5. Why might a subject matter expert not be the best person to train others on the subject? 6. Why is it important to prioritize training? 7. The goal of training is not only to get from competence to expertise, but sometimes from incompetence to competence. What does this mean?

Additional Resources

Web Resources

More info on adult learning principles and andragogy: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy.html (http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy.html) .

To explore more on design sequencing with multiple resources: http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/236/taking-an-overlapping-andsequenced-project-approach-to-training-development/page3 (http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/236/taking-an-overlapping-andsequenced-project-approach-to-training-development/page3) .

Actus Consulting has a helpful video on SMART objective setting: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyxox_amuDY (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyxox_amuDY) .