BUS 375 Week 2 Discussion 1 & 2

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Chapter 3 Introduction to ADDIE: (A)nalyzing Training Needs

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain the ADDIE process and how it �its into the HRD system. Carry out a needs analysis. Distinguish between organizational, task, and individual levels of needs analysis. Use various data collection methods. Prioritize training using a criticality analysis.

Then the weed asked the �lower, "Must you always get pollinated?" The �lower replied, "Only if needs bee."

—David M. Kopp

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Introduction To start this chapter, ask yourself the following questions:

Do you know what all of your trainees' needs are? Do you know whether your trainees learned what they needed to learn? Do you always create the most cost-effective training? Is your training being applied back at the job? Can you design materials that are exactly what the content and trainees require?

It is likely that you answered most of these questions no. This chapter, along with the subsequent chapters, will enable you to answer yes to all those questions, and more. Let us begin.

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Though not without its critics, the ADDIE training design model has been the principal framework used in the training and development �ield for decades.

ADDIE is considered a subsystem within the HRD's open system of input-process-output. Collapsing ADDIE into HRD, we regard the input as the analysis of the training needs, the processes as the design, development, and implementation of the training, and the output as the outcomes of the training to be evaluated.

3.1 Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation Effectively designed training programs need to improve employee performance, but they must also align with the organization's business and performance needs (Jones, 1993; Kirkpatrick, 2009; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Robinson & Robinson, 1996; Rummler & Brache, 1990). Programs must also align with speci�ic work processes and tasks, as well as with the employees' understanding of the big picture.

Aligning training programs with the company's strategies is more dif�icult than you may think. Consider this: According to Kaplan and Norton (2001), only 7% of employees fully understand their company's business strategies and know what the company expects of them to achieve its goals. Therefore, not only is a well- thought-out, well-designed training program essential, it can also limit these risks:

incorrectly assuming that training is always the solution to a performance problem, needlessly expending funds on training programs that do not align with the business strategy, having training programs with incorrect or irrelevant content, and adopting training programs just because of what Clark (2010) called "training fads and �iction" (p. 7).

Fortunately, a systematic process is available to ensure that a training program not only improves workplace performance but also aligns with organizational goals—this training or instructional design process is known as ADDIE.

ADDIE is an acronym that stands for "analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation." This model has been used in workplace training and development for decades. It was originally created in 1975 by the Center for Educational Technology at Florida State University and ultimately was adapted by all the U.S. armed forces (Mayo & DuBois, 1987).

Today ADDIE is not without its critics, however. (See Figure 3.1.) Some practitioners argue that the ADDIE process can be a very time-consuming, cumbersome, and expensive (Hodell, 2011). Because ADDIE tends to be a linear process, others assert that ADDIE limits creativity and what Piskurich (2010) called design artistry with its opportunities for the �lexibility to think outside the instructional design box. As a result, a proliferation of alternative instructional development models has emerged (Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth, 1996), including the successive approximation model (Allen & Sites, 2012) and Dick, Carey, and Carey's systematic instructional design model (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2009).

However, these other models tend to be distinctions without a real difference to the ADDIE methodology, and more often than not, failed training programs were usually due to malpractice in the use of the ADDIE model, not the model itself.

Figure 3.1: ADDIE model: Analyze

Where Is ADDIE in the HRD System?

As Section 1.1 discussed, the framework for human resource development Gilley, Eggland, and Gilley (2002) proposed considered two important dimensions: time frame (short term versus long term) and focus (individual versus organizational). As we detail the ADDIE process here and in subsequent chapters, we will explore the process starting from the training domain, or the short term, individual domain. In subsequent chapters, we will see how the other domains of HRD, those of performance management, career development, and organizational development, are impacted by and linked to ADDIE, as well.

The ADDIE process can be represented as a subsystem of the HRD open systems model of input-process-output, as �irst proposed by Swanson (1995) and as depicted by Figure 3.2 (adapted from Quang & Dung, 1998).

1. Here, inputs are the triggers or performance gaps—the analysis being the assessment of the differences between expected performance and actual performance—as seen, for example, in the performance level of unskilled employees or those attempting new skill sets the job now requires.

2. The process becomes the design, development, and implementation of the new training. 3. Finally, the output includes evaluating the success of the new training outcomes as re�lected in willing and able employees who, in theory, will now have improved or new skills that result in an increase in the likelihood the organization can meet its goals.

Figure 3.2: ADDIE and HRD processes

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Source: Adapted from Quang, T., & Dung, H. K. (1998). Human resource development in state-owned enterprises in Vietnam. Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 6(1), 85–103.

So, let us start by looking at ADDIE's �irst step, analysis.

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Typically, performance gaps occur due to de�iciencies in the employee's ability, willingness, or something in the work environment that is impeding employee performance.

3.2 Analysis—De�ining the Needs In many ways the analysis phase of ADDIE is a deeper variation of root cause analysis (Basarab, 2011; Fee, 2011; Rothwell, 2005a; Watkins, Meiers, & Visser, 2012; Wysocki, 2004), discussed in Chapter 2. As you will remember, in root cause analysis, we try to pinpoint the reasons for performance problems to see if the job performance gaps are due to:

1. the employee (for example, lack of willingness or ability); 2. the work environment (for example, roadblocks, such as a supervisor's poor communication skills); or 3. a systemic organizational practice (for example, weak human resources recruiting practices).

Speci�ically, using the performance formula of P = f (KSAs × motivation × environment) from Chapter 2, a performance gap can be conceptually broken down by asking where the performance breakdown is, as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Breakdown of a performance gap

Source: Adapted from McArdle, G. (2010). Instructional design for action learning. New York: AMACOM.

In the analysis phase of ADDIE, we perform what is known as a needs assessment, a systematic and detailed analysis to determine what is needed to resolve a performance gap (Brown, 2012; Kaufman, Rojas, & Mayer, 1993). In particular, a needs assessment can answer some important questions, such as:

Why is there a difference between the expected performance and the actual performance, what Blanchard and Thacker (2010) call the trigger? What are the reasons for the performance gap, and what is the risk of ignoring it? At what level of the organization does the performance gap occur? How do we prioritize any training interventions? What data do we need to collect, and how do we collect it? Do we create or purchase the training?

Perhaps the most valuable question a needs assessment can answer is whether to continue with the ADDIE or not! The needs assessment will also answer the question of whether training is the most effective remedy for the performance discrepancy. Additionally, a needs assessment may uncover that organizational inef�iciencies may remain even after the ADDIE process is complete. As a result, there are times when training may be necessary, but not suf�icient to meet the organizational goals. Other nontraining systems also in�luence organizational outcomes. Kaplan and Norton (2001), for example, developed the balanced scorecard to illustrate how, in addition to human resource systems, organizational effectiveness is also in�luenced by the overall effectiveness of the organization's �inancial systems, customer service, and internal business processes. Although effective training and development is necessary to meet and sustain organizational needs and goals, training alone is not suf�icient and should never be thought of as a panacea.

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Using the performance formula, we can frame our needs assessment to evaluate the tasks, individuals, and organization to determine the area where the performance gap resides.

3.3 Levels of Needs Assessment The trigger of a performance gap is why you perform a needs assessment; however, we also need to know where, what, and who needs training. Therefore, keeping in mind our systemic view of HRD, we assess the organizational, task, and individual levels of performance processes; these different perspectives enable us to consider both the strategic and tactical performance levels.

To get a frame of reference, we can �irst see where each level of assessment would be located in our performance formula (Figure 3.4), discussed in Chapter 2. For example, as we will discuss, an organizational assessment analyzes the environmental variables that affect performance, individual analysis investigates the status of the employee's current KSAs, and task analysis evaluates the performance that is expected from the job.

Figure 3.4: Pinpointing the performance gap

Let us begin by detailing each level of needs assessment.

Organizational Analysis

An organizational analysis evaluates current or projected organizational performance gaps. In an organizational assessment, we would ask strategic questions such as:

How important is training to achieve business objectives? Do we want to spend money on training and, if so, how much? Do we have a legal duty to train? Are we growing our workforce's skill sets to meet upcoming changes? Do we want to outsource or design the training in-house? Is it more ef�icient to hire workers who already possess the needed skills versus training current employees who do not?

Here we focus on performance not only in relation to alignment with the organization's culture and strategic goals, but also in relation to how performance can be affected by external variables such as available resources, changing workforce demographics, consumer preferences, political trends, obsolete technology, or the economy. Chiu, Thompson, Mak, and Lo (1999) called this a demand-led training needs assessment. In this context the organization modi�ies performance standards due to new legal mandates, changes in industry standards, or what the competition is doing. For example, consider that upon the arrival of the Ford Model T in 1908, it no longer mattered if a horse buggy manufacturer had the best-trained employees (Levitt, 2008).

A modern example of a demand-led training need is the recent federal mandate called the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, abbreviated HITECH Act, which requires all Medicare-eligible health care providers to convert to all electronic medical records by 2015 or risk �inancial penalties. Because of this mandate, health care staff must be trained on new electronic medical record software. Until this new training is complete, these new requirements might result in a performance gap.

Table 3.1 provides recommendations for traditional sources of data for an organizational needs assessment, modi�ied from an approach �irst suggested by Moore and Dutton (1978). In a more recent study, Md.Som and Nam (2009) found that, in addition to an organization's goals and objectives, competitor's training practices such as e-learning and shared accountability for applying the training also ranked high in data sources that companies use for organizational needs assessments. In addition, many companies also use a SWOT analysis speci�ically as an organizational assessment data–gathering technique. SWOT stands for "strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats" (Chiu et al., 1999; Dealtry, 1992). Strengths and weaknesses typically assess the organization's internal capability; opportunities and threats refer to how the external environment affects the organization and its competitive environment.

Table 3.1: Sources of data for organizational needs assessment

Data sources recommended Training need implication

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Organizational goals and objectives Where training emphasis can and should be placed; these provide normative standards of both direction and expected impact, which can highlight deviations from objectives and performance problems.

Manpower and labor inventory Where training is needed to �ill gaps caused by retirement, turnover, age, etc.; this provides an important database regarding possible scope of training needs.

Skills inventory Number of employees in each skill group, knowledge and skill levels, training time per job, etc.; this provides an estimate of the magnitude of speci�ic training needs and is useful in cost–bene�it analysis of training projects.

Organizational climate indices (e.g., labor management data, grievances, turnover, absenteeisms, suggestions, productivity, accidents, short-term sickness, observation of employee behavior, attitude surveys, and customer complaints)

These quality-of-working-life indicators at the organization level may help focus on problems that have training components.

Analysis of ef�iciency indices (e.g., cost of labor, cost of materials, quality of product, late deliveries, and repairs)

Cost-accounting concepts may represent a ratio between actual performance and desired or standard performance.

Changes in system or subsystem New or changed equipment may present a training problem.

Management requests or management interrogation This is one of the most common techniques of training needs determination.

Source: Moore & Dutton, 1978.

HRD in Practice: SWOT Analysis "I conduct a SWOT analysis in my business annually to assess our situation. From time to time, I have asked a valued client to spend half an hour with me identifying what he or she feels are the strengths and weaknesses of our business, as well."

Here is Kristina's example of the SWOT analysis she used for an organizational needs assessment.

Strengths

Our brand and reputation in our markets are strong. We are recognized as being professional, reliable, and quality driven. We have excellent employees who are currently well trained, customer oriented, and ef�icient.

Weaknesses

We are not the low-cost or low-price supplier in the market. We need to build stronger relationships with our top �ive customers, perhaps introducing a new customer service program.

Opportunities

We have opportunities for growth in new locations. The cost of marketing is less in this digital age; we could capitalize on the lowered cost with a stronger program.

Threats

The impact of global economy on local businesses is a threat to us. Foreign currency exchange rate variations are problematic. For example, the U.S.-Canadian dollar exchange rate �luctuations can impact our business.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Bovay, K. (n.d.). More for small business owners and managers. Retrieved from More for Small Business.com website: www.more- for-small-business.com (http://www.more-for-small-business.com/)

Consider This

1. How would this organizational assessment impact training and development decisions? 2. Speci�ically, how might the implementation of a new organizational strategy be linked to the strengths and weaknesses of the workforce? Training delivery mechanisms? New training policies?

Food for Thought: SWOT Analysis Conduct a SWOT analysis of your organization; if you do not work for an organization, do a personal SWOT inventory for yourself as a career development tool. Write down the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the organization as you see them. Keep in mind what the organization's vision is. Where does the organization want to be in 3 to 5 years?

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Job descriptions include the tasks, functions, and responsibilities of the job; these are informed by the job task analysis and include essential duties as well as the physical demands of the job.

Consider This

1. What does this analysis say about the training that may be necessary for your organization's employees? 2. As a training consultant, what training that re�lects the organization's strategic plan would you suggest?

Job-Task Analysis

Job-task analyses (JTAs), sometimes called operational assessments, are the most common type of assessment. They examine the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform the job at the optimal or expected levels. Through a JTA, employers can create a detailed list of required tasks and then evaluate them. As the name suggests, a JTA has two levels to it—the job analysis and the task analysis (Kandula, 2013; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2005)—as follows:

1. Level 1: job analysis (what work you do). This is used for job design, position advertising, and career planning. 2. Level 2: task analysis (how you do your work). This is used to determine what an employee must know—specify the equipment used—and to establish the minimum performance standards.

Typically, we begin a JTA by �irst evaluating the job description itself. A job description lists the major activities involved in performing a job and the conditions under which the employee performs them (Werner & DeSimone, 2011). See Figure 3.5 for a sample job description. It is bene�icial for the job description to break down the necessary versus desirable functions of the job, as well.

Figure 3.5: Executive assistant job description sample

Source: Executive assistant job description sample. (2013). Retrieved from Docstoc website: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/603784/Executive-Assistant-Job-Description-Sample (http://www.docstoc.com/docs/603784/Executive-Assistant-Job-Description-Sample)

Reviewing job descriptions is a good way to evaluate the tasks of a job. Job descriptions memorialize the major activities of the job, including those tasks that are necessary versus desirable, as well as the work conditions in which the worker operates.

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Not surprisingly, well-written job descriptions follow the premises of Bloom's taxonomy (Anderson, Krathwohl, & Bloom, 2001; Bloom, 1956), discussed in Chapter 1. Bloom's taxonomy classi�ies the depth and breadth of job-learning objectives from cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills), and affective (attitudinal) perspectives—what we call today the KSAs of the job. Table 3.2 outlines the action verbs of KSAs.

Table 3.2: KSA action verbs of job descriptions

Learning type Related action words

Knowledge development cite compare contrast de�ine describe detect differentiate distinguish enumerate explain

identify list name quote recite recognize relate repeat reproduce

Skill development assemble compute construct copy count demonstrate design develop draw measure operate

prepare process prove record repair solve speak transcribe type write

Attitude development adjust analyze assess choose criticize

decide evaluate pick select

Source: Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley. Copyright © 2009, John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with permission.

So, for example, as with a tire installer, the worker's KSAs in performing the following tasks could be (Piskurich, 2010):

Identify appropriate brand Detect the correct tread size Prepare tire for installation Measure for excess rubber Inspect and evaluate for proper seal

Job-Task Analyses Con�irm KSAs of the Job

With a job-task analysis, you not only determine the KSAs needed to perform a job effectively and ef�iciently, but speci�ically the level of competence required for that job. It is the JTA that helps ensure training is developed with respect to the job function and content.

Knowledge. The job analysis should provide a list of tasks that will verify the knowledge requirements necessary for job success. This list should include declarative and procedural knowledge, which includes a need to recall speci�ic facts, principles, trends, criteria, and ways of organizing events, as well as explanations on how to do things (Silber & Foshay, 2009). In the tire-installing example, knowledge requirements might include a need to recall appropriate tire brand or knowledge on how to inspect and con�irm a proper seal.

Skills. The job analysis will also con�irm the list of skills required to perform the job optimally. So, for example, someone who �ills a customer service representative position may need higher order skills such as con�lict management (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010). In the tire-installing example, successful workers may need more of a basic psychomotor skill like detecting the correct tread size, preparing the tire for installation, and measuring for excess rubber.

Attitudes. The job analysis also generates attitudinal outcomes. Speci�ically, the job analysis should con�irm what attitudes or feelings might be present that would facilitate or inhibit an employee from doing any part of the job well. For example, does the job require a worker to be helpful, professional, and friendly, or just to be open to new learning? In the tire-installation example, an employee may have to be open to new ways to trim excess rubber from a tire due to new technology, for example.

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Job Characteristics Model

Another way to analyze a job is to break it down into its individual task behaviors. Using the job characteristics model originally developed by Hackman and Oldham (1980), we can break down any job function into its smaller parts; this enables us not only to see the requirements needed to perform at component levels, but also to identify which part of the job may be responsible for less-than-expected performance. In other words, the job characteristics model helps us �ind the weakest performance link in the expected behaviors of performance. Task behaviors of a job are broken down as follows:

Skill variety—the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities or the use of several different skills and talents to carry out the work. For example, a car mechanic may �ix �lat tires, rebuild carburetors, and check �luids, as well as interact with customers. Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identi�iable piece of work; that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome. An example here could be of a cabinetmaker who, prior to producing the �inished product, must select and re�ine raw wood, stain panels, and install hardware. Task signi�icance—the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people, either in the immediate organization or the external environment. A health care provider is an example of someone whose every job task has an immediate impact on the recipients. Autonomy—the degree to which the job provides the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used to perform it. University professors have a high degree of autonomy in their jobs. Feedback—the degree to which carrying out job-required work activities causes the employee to obtain direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her personal performance. A massage therapist is a good example of a worker who receives immediate feedback from clients after the session.

Did You Know? The Men of Texaco and Skill Variety

For most of us, going to a gas station involves little more than swiping our debit or credit card at the pump. However, in the 1950s it was much more of a "full-service experience," in which gas station attendants took pride in giving customers the best service they could. Watch this video to hear the gas attendants, these "men of Texaco," sing about their skill variety.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BML01zMlqQ (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BML01zMlqQ)

The Job's Impact on the Employee's Psychological State

Finally, a comprehensive job characteristics model evaluates not only each job component, but also the attitudinal potentialities, or the job holder's psychological state. For example, the state or quality of the job's skill variety, task identity, and task signi�icance impact the worker's perceptions regarding meaningfulness of work; autonomy in�luences how empowered (or not) an employee feels; and feedback is associated with the employee's perceptions of the actual impact he or she is making on the job (Snyder & Lopez, 2001).

Subject Matter Experts

Another technique for analyzing a job is to use a subject matter expert (SME). Subject matter experts are just that: Experts on how the job should be performed. According to Clark (2010), subject matter experts:

validate the job tasks, including the order of the performance steps; know the technical jargon; know the acceptable performance levels; and con�irm the performance objectives.

Did You Know? Subject Matter Experts

Subject matter experts are relatively easy to �ind per industry. In fact, the website LinkedIn has a section just for SMEs.

http://www.linkedin.com/job/q-subject-matter-expert-jobs (http://www.linkedin.com/job/q-subject-matter-expert-jobs)

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3.4 Other Data Collection Methods Other methods of data collection for job-task analysis—varying in time and expense—include questionnaires, surveys, interviews, focus groups, and archival records (Beebe, Mottet, & Roach, 2012). Consultants in the �ield �ind the data collection methods listed in Table 3.3 effective.

Observation is another data gathering technique. According to Noe and Hollenbeck (2010), direct observation of the jobs provides �irsthand knowledge and data about the job. Job observations are most appropriate for jobs that consist of observable behaviors, such as �ieldwork, manual labor, or interpersonal communication.

Some examples of jobs where the observation method would be particularly successful would be machine operators, construction workers, police of�icers, �light attendants, bus drivers, janitors, and tire installers.

Table 3.3: Outline of the pros and cons of each type of data collection method

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Observations Can be technical, functional, or behavioral. Can yield qualitative or quantitative feedback. May be unstructured.

Minimize interruption of routine work �low or group activity. Generate real-life data.

Requires a highly skilled observer with process and content knowledge. Allow data collection only in the work setting. May cause "spied on" feelings.

Tests Can be functionally oriented to test a board, staff, or committee member's understanding. Can be administered in a monitored setting or "take home."

Can be helpful in determining de�iciencies in terms of knowledge, skills, or attitudes. Easily quanti�iable and comparable.

Must be constructed for the audience, and validity can be questionable. Do not indicate if measured knowledge and skills are actually being used on the job.

Surveys and questionnaires

May be in the form of surveys or polls of a random or strati�ied sample or an entire population. Can use a variety of question formats: open ended, projective, forced choice, priority ranking.

Can reach a large number of people in a short time. Are inexpensive. Give opportunity of response without fear of embarrassment. Yield data easily summarized and reported.

Make little provision for free response. Require substantial time for development of effective survey or questionnaire. Do not effectively get at causes of problems or possible solutions.

Interviews Can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured. May be used with a representative sample or whole group. Can be done in person, by phone, at the work site, or away from it.

Uncover attitudes, causes of problems, and possible solutions. Gather feedback: yield of data is rich. Allow for spontaneous feedback.

Are usually time-consuming. Can be dif�icult to analyze and quantify results. Require a skillful interviewer who can generate data without making interviewee self- conscious or suspicious.

Assessment centers For management development. Require participants to complete a battery of exercises to determine areas of strength that need development. Assess potential by having people work in simulated management situations.

Can provide early identi�ication of people with potential for advancement. More accurate than "intuition." Reduce bias and increase objectivity in selection process.

Selecting people to be included in the high-potential process dif�icult with no hard criteria available. Are time-consuming and costly to administer. May be used to diagnose developmental needs rather than high potential.

Focus groups and group discussion

Can be formal or informal. Widely used method. Can be focused on a speci�ic problem, goal, task, or theme.

Allow interaction between viewpoints. Enhance buy-in; focus on consensus. Help group members become better listeners, analyzers, and problem solvers.

Are time-consuming for both consultants and group members. Can produce data that is dif�icult to quantify.

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Document reviews Organizational charts, planning documents, policy manuals, audits, and budget reports. Include employee records (accidents, grievances, attendance, etc.). Also include meeting minutes, program reports, and memos.

Provide clues to trouble spots. Provide objective evidence or results. Can easily be collected and compiled.

Often do not indicate causes of problems or solutions. Re�lect the past rather than the current situation. Must be interpreted by skilled data analysis.

Source: Adapted from McArdle, G. (2010). Instructional design for action learning. New York: AMACOM.

Remember, all of these methods attempt to con�irm the expected performance of a given job. That is, we are trying to validate the requisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for optimal performance.

In sum, the selection of a particular organizational data source depends on many factors, including the following:

Cost-effectiveness. What bene�its will these data hold? Will it be worth the resources expended? Persons to be involved. Will certain personnel need to be available to collect or interpret data? Con�identiality. Will you have permission to access all required data? Ease of use. Once the data is collected, will it be easily interpretable? Time required. As a practical matter, will it take too much time to collect the needed data? Top management's preference. And, with all the other factors considered, even then leadership may want you to collect certain data in particular ways.

Individual or Person Analysis

The �inal assessment—the individual employee—delves into an employee's actual performance (that is, the state of the employee's willingness and ability). Individual assessment tests pinpoint which employees need training and at what level, including any remedial skills or assessing the entry behaviors (Hannum & Hansen, 1989).

Individual Performance Terminology

Let us take a moment to clarify the terms of performance. As discussed in Chapter 2, when we assess an employee's ability, we are describing the present state of an employee's knowledge, skills, and attitudes in totality as they relate to performing a speci�ic job. This should not be confused with achievement, which is an assessment of what an employee has accomplished in the past, or aptitude, which is how quickly or easily an employee will be able to learn and be trained in the future (Salkind & Rasmussen, 2008). These terms are also differentiated from the term competency, which typically is a broader term that includes an employee's developmental and motivational dimensions. Examples of competencies would be teamwork, commitment, innovation, and customer orientation (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010). One way to think about it is that competencies belong to the worker, and KSAs are required for the job (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010; Piskurich, 2010).

Performance Appraisals

A good place to start to evaluate actual performance is to look to the performance appraisal to determine if and by how much an employee's performance deviates from expected performance; this would have been con�irmed by our earlier job-task analysis.

Many types of performance appraisal instruments exist. If you type "performance appraisal forms" in Google, you will get well over 174,000 hits. Today's organizations tend to use some standard performance appraisal instruments. Here is a sample listing, with brief descriptions from Murphy and Cleveland (1995):

Critical incidents. The supervisor's attention is focused on speci�ic or critical behaviors that separate effective from ineffective performance. Graphic rating scale. This method lists a set of performance factors, such as job knowledge, work quality, and cooperation; the supervisor uses these to rate employee performance using an incremental scale. Behaviorally anchored rating scales. These combine elements from critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. The supervisor rates employees according to items on a numerical scale. Management by objectives. These evaluate how well an employee has accomplished objectives determined to be critical in job performance. 360-degree feedback. This multisource feedback method provides a comprehensive perspective of employee performance by using feedback from the full circle of people with whom the employee interacts: supervisors, subordinates, and coworkers. It is effective for career coaching and identifying strengths and weaknesses.

Regardless of the actual performance appraisal tool used, what is clear is that the performance appraisal should appraise the actual behaviors of the expected performance. That is, you must ensure that the instrument captures all the tasks and duties necessary to make a judgment on the quality of the employee's performance. Unfortunately, this is not always the case; a good example of the performance appraisal instrument not being properly aligned with the actual job duties required was found in my study of certi�ied diabetes educators (CDEs). (See the HRD in Practice feature box titled "Effective CDE or Ineffective CDE?")

HRD in Practice: Effective CDE or Ineffective CDE?

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Leniency and severity bias are two rater errors in employee performance evaluation. Over time, without accurate ratings, the employee can suffer by receiving no or ineffective development because true performance gaps are concealed or obscured.

Currently, diabetes education lacks a performance appraisal mechanism for the successful transfer of the requisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes from the educator to the patient.

Effective diabetes education is vital to diabetes care. It offers the promise of patient empowerment and independence by teaching self-care behaviors that can contribute greatly to maintaining the patient's overall long-term health. Unfortunately, the �ield currently lacks a standard in the performance appraisal instrument itself that contains line items speci�ic to the educator's success (or failure) in diabetes education transfer. Performance appraisal instruments used for CDEs are little more than adaptations of those used for other jobs, such as for nurse practitioners or registered nurses. No assessment for diabetes education transfer, arguably a CDE's most important job task, is available. A fundamental component of any learning performance system contains transfer of learning accountability for those who have job descriptions surrounding training and learning.

Because diabetes education ultimately empowers the patient by helping promote effective self-care behaviors, the earlier the successful transfer of diabetes education occurs, the earlier the patient can begin those essential self-care behaviors. Modi�ications to the performance appraisal instrument used for diabetes educators may in�luence the rate of diabetes education transfer to the patient.

Source: Kopp, D. M. (2005). Effective CDE, ineffective CDE: What's the difference? Diabetes Educator, 31(5), 641–647. Retrieved from http://tde.sagepub.com/content/31/5/641.extract (http://tde.sagepub.com/content/31/5/641.extract)

Consider This

1. What would be the biggest problem in having a performance appraisal instrument that evaluates only some, but not all, of the job tasks? 2. How can you better align the performance appraisal instruments with the actual duties of the job?

On Rating Philosophy

Before analyzing employees' actual performance, learn the organization's rating philosophy. Speci�ically, in your organization, what is considered effective versus outstanding performance? It is important to investigate this distinction because in the absence of a forced rating system—where, similar to a bell curve, only so many outstanding ratings are given out—there may be inaccuracies due to manager rating in�lation or de�lation or to ratings being lazily and uncritically awarded (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995).

Consider, for example, in a Likert scale–type of performance appraisal, what a rating of 5 out of 5 really means. Likewise, what does a rating of 3 out of 5 represent? A rater also must be wary of leniency bias and severity bias in performance evaluations. (See Figure 3.6.) For instance, a rater may be too soft or too generous when rating the employee's performance, due to manager discomfort with giving an honest rating (Armstrong & Appelbaum, 2003); this is known as the leniency bias. In contrast, the severity bias occurs when a leader is too harsh in rating an employee's performance (Armstrong & Appelbaum, 2003).

Figure 3.6: Leniency bias and severity bias examples

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The challenge here is that potential rating in�lation or de�lation may conceal true performance problems the leaders should address. Therefore, consider the following when assessing the state of actual employee performance, as documented in the performance appraisals:

What is the philosophical starting place for employee performance? Does the organization distinguish between competent performance and effective performance? Does expert performance mean outstanding performance? Does inter-rater agreement occur among different raters? Are raters trained in how to perform evaluations?

Other Evaluator Errors

When evaluating individual performance, raters must be careful not to fall into other rating traps that may distort the reality of the employee's actual performance (Armstrong & Appelbaum, 2003). The following sections offer a summary of other potential evaluator errors (Dreher & Dougherty, 2005; Lussier & Hendon, 2012; Noe & Hollenbeck, 2010).

The Halo Effect The halo effect occurs when a rater tends to judge all aspects of an individual using a general impression based on only one or a few of the individual's characteristics. An example might be when a manager observes an employee providing excellent service to a customer and then uses this particular positive view of the employee to assess all areas of the employee's performance favorably. A negative halo effect may also occur, where a rater has formed an early negative view of the employee's customer service capabilities and then assesses other areas of the employee's performance negatively. To reduce the risk of this error, raters should look at the job performance holistically; that is, they should ensure that all aspects of the job performance are evaluated and that the assessment is not just linked to one aspect of the job.

Contrast Errors The contrast error occurs when a rater compares subordinates with one another instead of against individual performance standards. This method may result in an average employee being rated as a high performer when compared to underperforming peers, or in a good performer unfairly being rated as a poor performer when compared to high-performing peers. To reduce the risk of this error, raters should evaluate each employee objectively according to the job requirements, not other employees' performance.

Similar-to-Me Error A similar-to-me error, also called a similarity error, is giving an unwarranted favorable rating to an employee due to his or her personal or professional similarity to the interviewer or evaluator. To reduce the risk of this error, raters should put personal biases aside and review only the behaviors of the employee on the job, rather than traits that are not job related.

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Review the different types of performance appraisals.

Recency Bias The recency bias occurs when a rater assigns ratings based only on the employee's most recent performance, rather than the employee's performance over the entire rating period. This can even occur independently of performance issues. For example, if the employee brings in doughnuts on his or her evaluation day, a hungry manager might be appreciative—and in�luenced. To reduce the risk of this error, raters should ideally review notes throughout the whole year or rating period to ensure an objective rating, rather than just focus on performance the day or week of evaluation.

Why Are Needs Assessments Not Done More Often?

We hope you are convinced that needs assessments are fundamental to creating effective training programs; however, it may surprise you that, many times, organizations adopt and implement training programs without having done any level of needs assessments whatsoever. Werner and DeSimone (2011) provide insight with quotes from the �ield that explain why and how training programs begin without a needs assessment:

"Look at all the big companies that are using this program. It's got to be right for us." "Professor Z is going to do our program. Everyone is talking about how great she is!" "The Purchasing Department just asked for management training in two weeks. Here's a �irm that will do it." "A consulting �irm told us if we pay them a lot of money, they will tailor their program to us." (p.107)

Hopefully, these quotes have not rung true for you and your organization. Other more speci�ic, yet erroneous, rationales explain why organizations and those who would train fail to do a needs assessment. Table 3.4 describes some of the rationales.

Table 3.4: Why organizations do not do needs assessments

Reason Explanation

They are afraid. A needs assessment may uncover that someone is not doing his or her job or is not doing it as effectively as others may think

They lack know-how. Needs assessments can be complex and cannot be done casually. You must know the techniques and methods, as we have described.

They think they already know. Those in charge may think they themselves already know what is needed, but only 60% of the time does that assumption hold true.

No one asked for it. The number one reason for organizations not doing a needs assessment before designing and implementing training is that no one asked for one to be done.

Source: Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2009.

Performance appraisals quiz show

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3.5 Prioritizing the Training Needs As discussed is Chapter 1, the basis of every job's expected performance begins with the job-speci�ic knowledge, skills, and attitudes, collectively known as the job ability. Many times, the prioritization of KSAs within the job is found in a well-written job description that �irst breaks down the necessary versus desirable

job functions. For example, in a given job, it may be necessary to be pro�icient in Microsoft Word® and desirable to be pro�icient in speaking Spanish. By the way, a good rule of thumb is, "If it's not on the job description, you shouldn't have to train on it."

Yet people sometimes do have to prioritize or evaluate the criticality of tasks in a job, especially given limited organizational resources and time. One mechanism that can be used is to evaluate the frequency, dif�iculty, and importance (FDI) (Piskurich, 2010; Romiszowski, 1984) of a job. To illustrate how an FDI analysis is done, let us take a simple example of an of�ice receptionist. After reviewing the job description and interviewing the current receptionist, we come up with a list of job tasks, as follows:

Receptionist

1. Wear employee identi�ication. 2. Punch in. 3. Communicate with supervisor. 4. Greet vendors, customers, and other guests. 5. Determine the needs of vendors, customers, and other guests. 6. Announce vendors, customers, and guests to the person they are visiting. 7. Provide directions for vendors, customers, and guests. 8. Answer telephone. 9. Handle messages. 10. Sort incoming mail. 11. Collect employees' outgoing mail. 12. Complete log sheet. 13. Communicate with security personnel. 14. Punch out.

Next, from this list, let us say that because of limited time and resources, we have to prioritize (for example, using a 1 to 5 Likert scale rating, with 5 being the highest) the key functions of this job. The list might look something like the FDI analysis shown in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Example of FDI analysis

Receptionist F D I Total

Communicate with supervisor 4 2 4 10

Greet vendors, customers and guests 4 3 5 12

Answer telephone 5 3 5 13

Handle messages 5 2 5 12

Sort incoming mail 5 2 2 9

F = Frequency (How often is the task done?) D = Dif�iculty (How dif�icult is the task to perform and therefore train for?) I = Importance (How important is the task to the job or organization, as a whole?)

After performing this FDI analysis for the receptionist position, we could correctly conclude that the three most critical functions of this position (highest totaled) are answering the phone, greeting visitors, and handling messages. Tasks not critical to the job itself score lower. We would prioritize training dollars to the highest scoring functions, at least. By the way, if some FDI totals were tied and you had to eliminate one function for training, the importance (I) subtotal breaks the tie.

By evaluating the tasks within a job—speci�ically their frequency, dif�iculty, and importance—organizations, especially those with limited training budgets, are better able to focus their training efforts between and among jobs to prioritize the training that may be needed, thus saving training time and expense.

Food for Thought: Create Your Own FDI Choose a job from this database of the American Job Center and create your own FDI: http://jobcenter.usa.gov (http://jobcenter.usa.gov/)

Interview a subject matter expert in your �ield. Use the article titled "SMEs Are From Mars, Instructional Designers Are From Venus," by Tara Denton Holwegner, which discusses SME interviewing techniques: http://www.lce.com/SMEs_are_from_Mars_Instructional_Designers_are_from_ Venus_514-item.html (http://www.lce.com/SMEs_are_from_Mars_Instructional_Designers_are_from_Venus_514-item.html)

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Consider This

1. Do you agree with the premise that not all SMEs make good trainers? Why would this be so? 2. When it comes to subject matter expertise, re�lect on the notion that an expert is never done. What does this mean?

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Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced the analysis phase of ADDIE, a systematic process to ensure that a training program not only improve workplace performance, but also be aligned with the organization's goals. In this �irst phase, we evaluate any performance gaps by assessing any or all of the three levels: organizational, job task, and individual. Many ways are available to collect data to evaluate for performance gaps. Different data collection techniques have their advantages and disadvantages, and the selection of which particular organizational data source depends on many factors, including cost-effectiveness, which personnel need to be involved, aspects of con�identiality, and time constraints. We discussed prioritizing training using a criticality analysis. One mechanism that can be used is FDI, evaluating the frequency, dif�iculty, and importance of a particular job. In sum, a good rule of thumb is, "If it is not on the task list, you do not need to train on it!"

Assess Your Learning: Critical Re�lection

1. Where conceptually does the ADDIE process �it into human resource development? 2. How might the characteristics of a job affect the employee's psychological state? 3. Why can an organization's rating philosophy impact the individual assessment of performance? 4. Explain why a job description might not always be the best tool to evaluate an expected job performance. 5. Why might a subject matter expert not be the best person to train on the subject? 6. Why is it important to prioritize training? 7. The goal of training is not only to get from competence to expertise, but sometimes from incompetence to competence. What does this mean?

Additional Resources

Web Resources

For more information on how HITECH Act affects a performance gap: http://www.chcf.org/publications/2010/03/ehr-deployment-techniques (http://www.chcf.org/publications/2010/03/ehr-deployment-techniques)

List of potential evaluator errors: http://www.whatmakesagoodleader.com/Job-Performance-Appraisal.html (http://www.whatmakesagoodleader.com/Job-Performance-Appraisal.html)

Practice creating FDI criticality analyses here: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/occupation-�inder.htm (http://www.bls.gov/ooh/occupation-�inder.htm)

Websites with information and diagrams on SWOT analysis: http://www.planware.org/strategicplanner.htm (http://www.planware.org/strategicplanner.htm) http://www.mplans.com/articles/how-to-perform-a-swot-analysis (http://www.mplans.com/articles/how-to-perform-a-swot-analysis/) http://www.mplans.com/articles/customer-relationship-management-crm (http://www.mplans.com/articles/customer-relationship-management-crm/) http://www.whatmakesagoodleader.com/swot_analysis.html (http://www.whatmakesagoodleader.com/swot_analysis.html)

Further Reading

Clark, R. C. (2010). Evidence-based training methods: A guide for training professionals. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.

Hodell, C. (2011). ISD from the ground up: A no-nonsense approach to instructional design. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.

McArdle, G. (2010). Instructional design for action learning. New York: AMACOM.

Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

achievement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

What an employee has accomplished in the past.

ADDIE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A training or instructional design process; it is an acronym that stands for "analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation."

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analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The �irst phase of ADDIE; it is a deeper variation of the root cause analysis. A needs assessment is performed to resolve a variety of performance discrepancies, as well as to determine whether or not to continue with ADDIE.

aptitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

An employee's ability in terms of how quickly or easily he or she will be able to learn and be trained in the future.

assessment tests (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A test that measures what a worker knows and what he or she can do before any training. These can be very helpful in establishing benchmarks and identifying the weakness and/or skills already possessed by the worker.

autonomy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion of the employee in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

behaviorally anchored rating scales (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One of several standard performance appraisal instruments used by combining elements from critical incident and graphic rating scale approaches. Employees are rated according to items on a numerical scale.

competency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A broader and more general sense, it includes developmental and motivational dimensions of an employee; for example, teamwork, commitment, innovation, and customer orientation.

contrast error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One of the errors a performance evaluator can make; it occurs when a rater compares subordinates with one another instead of against performance standards.

critical incidents (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A performance appraisal method in which the supervisor's attention is focused on speci�ic or critical behaviors that separate effective from ineffective performance.

criticality analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

An analysis that determines which tasks are most critical and thus require the most training resources; it is done for each task during the job analysis.

entry behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

What a worker knows and what he or she can do before any training.

feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The degree to which carrying out work activities required by the job results in an employee obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her personal performance.

focus group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

Small gatherings of people usually guided by a moderator who keeps the topic on track and asks open-ended questions. These can be time-consuming, and sometimes it can be hard to get people together in one setting for very long.

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forced rating system (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A rating system in which each team is required to have an equal number of high, middle, and low performers.

frequency, dif�iculty, and importance (FDI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One of the mechanisms used to prioritize or evaluate the criticality of tasks in a job, especially under limited organizational resources and time.

graphic rating scale (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A performance appraisal method that lists a set of performance factors that the supervisor uses to rate an employee's performance using an incremental scale.

halo effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The tendency of the rater to judge all aspects of an individual using a general impression that was formed on only one or a few of the individual's characteristics.

HITECH Act (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A federal law that mandates all Medicare-eligible health care providers must convert to all electronic medical records by 2015 or risk penalties; the act has resulted in the training of health care staff on new electronic medical record software.

individual analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

An individual assessment of the employee's actual performance in order to pinpoint which employees need training and what kind.

job characteristics model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One way to analyze a job by breaking down any job function into smaller parts, or its individual task behaviors; task behaviors of a job are broken down as skill variety, task identity, task signi�icance, autonomy, and feedback.

job description (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A description of the major activities involved in performing a job and the conditions under which these activities are performed.

job-task analysis (JTA) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The most common type of assessment; it examines the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform the job at the optimal or expected levels; also called operational assessment.

leniency bias (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

Any bias that occurs where a leader is too soft or too generous when rating the employee's performance.

Likert scale (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One of the most widely used scales to measure attitudes; it assumes that the strength or intensity of experience is linear, so it allows individuals to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The Likert scale is a 5- or 7-point scale.

management by objectives (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A performance appraisal instrument that evaluates how well an employee has accomplished objectives determined to be critical in job performance.

meaningfulness of work (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

Any amounts of signi�icance produced by mechanisms and processes related to perceptions of meaningfulness of work; this is sometimes called employee satisfaction.

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needs assessment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A systematic and detailed analysis to determine what is needed to resolve a performance discrepancy in ADDIE.

organizational analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A needs assessment that evaluates the current or projected organizational performance gaps.

performance appraisal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

An evaluation of if and by how much an employee's actual performance deviates from expected performance.

performance gap (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The difference between expected performance and actual performance.

psychological state (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The attitudinal potentialities of the job holder.

rating philosophy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

Speci�ically, in your organization, what is considered effective versus outstanding performance.

recency bias (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

One of the errors a performance evaluator can make; it occurs when a rater assigns ratings based only on the employee's most recent performance rather than the employee's performance over the entire period being rated.

severity bias (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A bias that occurs when a leader is too hard or harsh when rating an employee's performance.

similar-to-me error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

When an employee receives an unwarranted favorable rating on a performance appraisal because of personal or professional characteristics shared with the evaluator.

skill variety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities or the use of a number of different skills and talents to carry out the work.

subject matter expert (SME) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

Experts on how a particular job should be performed.

SWOT analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The acronym stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats; it is an organizational assessment data–gathering technique that evaluates strengths and weaknesses to assess an organization's internal capability, and opportunities and threats to assess external environments that affect the organization.

task identity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identi�iable piece of work; in other words, doing a job from beginning to end, with a visible outcome.

12/28/2017 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUBUS375.14.1?sections=ch03,ch03intro,sec3.1,sec3.2,sec3.3,sec3.4,sec3.5,ch03summary&content=all&clientTo… 23/23

task signi�icance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people, either in the immediate organization or to the external environment.

360-degree feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section

A multisource feedback method that provides a comprehensive perspective of employee performance by using feedback from the full circle of people with whom the employee interacts; this is effective for career coaching and identifying strengths and weakness.