Bus 370 wk4

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe learning and development interventions, including re�lective practice; T-groups; training, education, and development; and action learning.

Identify when management and leadership development is indicated and discuss values clari�ication and coaching interventions.

Distinguish three types of assessments and explain why it is essential that they be administered by certi�ied professionals, effectively debriefed, and used ethically.

Discuss various ways individual careers can be supported through performance management, career plan development, assessments, and developmental relationships.

Explain how jobs can be better developed with the use of job design, job descriptions, and policy development.

Lindsey was laid off from her job in a �inancial institution during an economic downturn. Although it was dif�icult for her to be without an income, she had not liked her work; she was often unful�illed and unchallenged. The layoff gave her an opportunity to think hard about what she wanted to do next. She had no dependents, little debt, and enough savings to cover the transition, so she had some �lexibility in her next steps.

To begin exploring her options, Lindsey made an appointment with a consultant, Jennifer, who specialized in career counseling. Prior to their �irst meeting, the consultant gave her a couple of assessments to identify her personality preferences and key interests. During their �irst meeting, Jennifer shared the results of the assessments and asked Lindsey several challenging questions, such as “Where do you want to be in 5 years?” What excites you?” and “What is your biggest challenge?” They also worked on a values clari�ication exercise to identify Lindsey’s key values. After each counseling session, Lindsey was given homework that prompted her to explore what opportunities might interest her.

After much soul searching, Lindsey decided to return to school for an accelerated master’s degree in instructional design; this would merge her interests in technology and education. Upon graduation, she was hired by a consumer products company to develop learning and development programs.

When Lindsey started her new position, she underwent an intensive training program that included an orientation and an introduction to the organization’s training and technology platforms. Her direct supervisor worked with her to develop a career plan within the company. Lindsey joined a national professional organization that had a regional chapter in her metropolitan area. She began attending meetings and developed relationships with several of her peers and seniors in her �ield. She struck up a conversation with the keynote speaker, Jo, at one of the events. Jo was a vice president of learning and development at a technology company. They continued corresponding after the meeting and developed an informal mentoring relationship.

Individual Interventions 7

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Lindsey attends a training session for her new position.

Jo became a mentor to Lindsey, and she was a good sounding board not only for some of the technical problems she encountered, but also for political issues. Jo recommended books, conferences, and other people from whom to seek advice about issues and opportunities. Jo also helped Lindsey make decisions about which opportunities and positions to pursue within her company. Lindsey received high marks during her performance evaluations and continued to evolve her career plan. Eventually, Jo recommended Lindsey to another company, which recruited and hired her into a managerial position.

This book has focused on accomplishing OD using the action research model. It has moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to pro�iling several interventions that might be appropriate at the individual level of analysis. For the purposes of this chapter, it is assumed you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client.

Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 de�ined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start.

The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. We could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD interventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, we will present the most common individual interventions with descriptions of their de�inition, why consultants use them, and how to implement them.

The three intervention chapters in this book have organized interventions according to the levels of individual, group or team, and organization. Although these interventions have been categorized by level for ease of understanding their scope, some interventions, such as leadership development interventions, may fall under more than one category. A leadership development program similar to the one described in the Leadership Academy vignette crosses all three of these levels, because potential leaders receive individual development that affects their interactions with groups and the whole organization.

Another example of interventions that cross all levels would be the implementation of a performance management system. Individual development and change is usually affected when performance is appraised, and this in turn affects other people, groups, and the organization itself. See Table 7.1 for examples of interventions according to level of analysis.

Table 7.1: Levels of OD interventions

Individual-level interventions Group-level interventions Organization-level interventions

Learning and development Leadership or management development Career development Assessment Job development

Group or team process and development Diversity and inclusion Con�lict management Problem solving and decision making

Vision and mission development Strategic planning Organization design Culture Talent management Large-scale interactive events (LSIEs)

The purpose of this chapter is to pro�ile selected interventions according to the individual level. Individual interventions usually accomplish one or more of the following: learning and development, leadership and management development, assessment, career development, and job development (see Table 7.2).

Table 7.2: Categories of individual OD intervention

Category Intervention

Learning and development Re�lective practice Laboratory training (T-group) Training, education, and development Action learning

Leadership or management development Values clari�ication and integration Coaching

Assessment Values clari�ication and integration Coaching

Career development Performance management Career plan development Assessments Developmental relationships

Job development Job design Job descriptions Responsibility charting Policies

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Re�lection helps us learn from our experiences. How would you encourage re�lective practice as an OD consultant?

7.1 Learning and Development

Learning and development interventions ensure organization members have the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to do their jobs effectively and help the organization perform optimally. These activities af�irm not only that employees are fully trained but also that they remain engaged in ongoing learning, which helps create and sustain the organization’s culture, enables the organization to remain competitive, and promotes employee retention. As we have already discussed, learning and change are intricately related, and this category of interventions helps employees implement change. Learning and development interventions also help new knowledge be shared throughout the organization. Key interventions in this area include re�lective practice; laboratory training, or T-groups; training, education, and development activities; and action learning.

Re�lective Practice

When was the last time you stopped and gave thoughtful consideration to a decision, experience, or idea? Or had a deep, engaging, and thoughtful conversation with another person? When you engage in these pauses to contemplate, you are engaging in re�lective practice.

What Is Re�lective Practice? Whenever you think critically about your experiences and actions, you are engaged in re�lective practice. Donald Schön introduced re�lective practice in his books The Re�lective Practitioner (1983) and Educating the Re�lective Practitioner (1987). Schön distinguished two types of re�lective practice according to when they occur. Lindsey, who lost her job in the vignette, engaged in re�lective practice with her career counselor, who asked her to think about what she wanted in the next chapter of her life.

Suppose Sarah facilitates a meeting. During the meeting, she might think, “I need to be more pragmatic about keeping everyone focused and on point,” “I didn’t manage the disagreement between team members about the best solution to the problem,” or “Maybe if I restate the issue, we can solve this problem.” These musings about an experience while it is happening are re�lection in action. That is, Sarah assesses an experience, her thoughts about the experience, actions she has taken, or actions she might take, in the moment. Perhaps as a result, she adjusts her actions in the moment. Once the meeting is �inished and Sarah thinks about what happened and imagines how she could have handled things better or what she will do next time, she is engaging in what Schön (1983) called re�lection on action. Sarah is using what she learned from the experience to shape future thoughts and actions.

Consider This

Think about instances when you engaged in re�lection in action and re�lection on action. How has taking a re�lective pause helped you learn and engage with your colleagues?

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Re�lective Practice? When OD consultants ask an organization member to change, they are putting that person into a learning situation. A learner’s ability to critically re�lect on and in action signals their adeptness at learning. Re�lective practice is one of the hallmarks of adult learning (Brook�ield, 1987; Merriam & Bierema, 2014) and helps individuals adopt change more effectively and permanently.

In the opening vignette, Lindsey engaged in re�lective practice activities under the guidance of her career counselor. This helped her assess her situation, interests, and opportunities. Unfortunately, time to re�lect is largely lacking in the contemporary workplace, because organizations tend to be focused on action at its expense. Your clients may have a dif�icult time slowing down to re�lect; they may feel it is a waste of time. On the contrary, re�lection can help clients accept change and be more mindful as they implement it. The more consultants can help their clients think critically, avoid error, and learn from experience, the more effective the intervention.

How Is Re�lective Practice Done? Brook�ield (1987) pointed out how critical re�lection is used in strategic planning, effective decision making, creative problem solving, situational leadership, entrepreneurial risk taking, research and development activities, and organizational team building. OD consultants who foster re�lective practice in their clients on these and other organizational processes will more effectively help them understand the assumptions that underlie their own thoughts and actions.

A key way to get clients to re�lect is to help them recognize contradictions between thought and action. For example, a manager may claim to treat all employees fairly but show favoritism toward certain people. This behavior is what Argyris and Schön (1974) called espoused theory versus theory in use. The familiar adage “Do as I say, not as I do” aptly captures these kinds of inconsistencies, which are usually rampant in organizations. Helping clients recognize these discrepancies is the �irst step toward helping them make their behavior more consistent with their espoused values. See Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise to examine contradictions between what people say and what they do.

OD consultants might ask an individual to re�lect on the impending change, a career move, or feedback; they might also build in structured re�lection time when planning for other interventions such as training. Consultants can send clients on an individual retreat with re�lection assignments. Re�lection is also a key component of coaching and T-groups.

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Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise

Organization theorists Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (1974) developed the left-hand column (LHC) exercise as part of their work in action science (a process of action research that generates useful information about practical problems in organizations, usually by examining contradictions between what people say and what they actually do). Steps to creating an LHC include the following:

1. Pick an important conversation you have recently had. 2. Use the following worksheet to document the conversation. 3. Write down the actual words you and your conversant used in the right-hand column. 4. Write down what you were actually thinking and feeling during the conversation as the words were being said. 5. Compare both columns. 6. What differences, if any, exist between what you said and what you thought?

a. If there were discrepancies, how can you begin to productively raise some of your left-hand column thoughts? b. How can you prompt your conversant to be more forthright about some of their left-hand column thoughts?

LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said

I was hoping he wouldn’t notice we were late. YOUR BOSS: Let’s meet this week. We are behind with the budget and we need to get these items �inalized. Jim, I’d like to come down there next week. We’re a few weeks behind, and I think we might all bene�it from a meeting at your of�ice.

I need to make it clear that I’m willing to take responsibility for this, but some of this is out of my control.

ME: Yes, the deadlines are of concern. As you know, some of the estimates we need to complete the budget have not come in on a timely basis, although we are working as hard as we can to get them. When do you want to meet?

He always seems to offer help after the crisis has already occurred, not when I really need it. Now, it is too late to do anything but wait.

YOUR BOSS: It seems to me that we could have better communication and coordination between the two of us as we establish the budget. I might be able to help.

The changes he keeps making to the renovation plans are the real reason we’re late. Getting estimates takes time.

ME: I’m always open to better ways to build the mousetrap. YOUR BOSS: I hope you have some better ideas about what we can do here.

I wish I could just level with him that he’s the reason we are delayed. If we can just get him to hold off a bit longer, we should be able to get the estimates.

ME: If we can push off our meeting until next week, I think we can have the budget by then and also brainstorm improved processes.

Your Turn . . .

Download this assessment as a worksheet (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/{pdfs}lefthandc olumn_form.pdf) .

LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said

Laboratory Training and T-Groups

Laboratory training, or T-groups, provides opportunities for individuals to re�lect on their own behavior and how it affects the group.

What Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups? We introduced T-groups in Chapter 1. Also known as laboratory training or training groups, T-groups are small groups of organization members that provide in-depth feedback to one another about perceptions and how individual behaviors affect the group. Recall that T-groups stimulated the creation of OD and grew in popularity through the 1960s and 1970s. They are less popular today because of the risk of being unable to maintain amicable work relationships after signi�icant self-disclosure and sharing. Also, their results can be dif�icult to transfer back to the work context. Frank disclosure may also put employees at risk with their organizations if management were to retaliate. Refer back to Chapter 1 for a full description of T-groups.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Laboratory Training and T-Groups? T-groups are bene�icial interventions because they provide fodder for re�lective practice, as discussed in the previous section. Speci�ically, they help group members re�lect on their interpersonal interactions and thereby deepen their self-awareness. Often, individuals fail to consider where their assumptions come from or how their behaviors and comments affect others. T-groups provide a platform for re�lection and disclosure that leads to deeper levels of consciousness.

How Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups Done?

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A T-group is rather �luid, usually lacking an explicit agenda beyond enhanced awareness and understanding. The goals of a T-group include increasing members’ self-awareness and improving their understanding of how their individual interactions affect the group. T-groups usually yield useful insights about oneself, others, and the group. T-groups may use the conversation to solve problems, share feedback, or role-play.

T-groups require eight to 15 participants. The consultant’s role is to guide the group and encourage participants to share emotional reactions (e.g., anger, fear, warmth, or envy) to the other participants’ actions and statements. The group should focus on sharing emotions rather than making judgments or drawing conclusions. The T-group helps participants see how their words and actions trigger emotional responses in the other individuals and ideally makes participants more mindful of how they behave in group settings.

T-groups can be uncomfortable for members because signi�icant self-disclosure and openness are required. Moreover, participants’ feelings may be hurt because of the feedback’s highly personal nature. Experienced facilitators help mitigate these risky dynamics.

Training, Education, and Development

A key individual intervention is to ensure that employees have the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively do their jobs. Training, education, and development make that possible.

What Are Training, Education, and Development? Training, education, and development are appropriate interventions when new skills, knowledge, or attitudes are needed in areas such as new technology implementation, diversity and inclusion initiatives, machine operation, product safety, and new employee orientation. In the opening vignette, Lindsey pursued all three of these. In this text, these three interventions will be referred to as training. You will recall that Lindsey elected to pursue higher education training and then received further training when she joined her new company.

Davis and Davis (1998) offered a comprehensive de�inition of training. Among their key points are the following:

Training is always a process, rather than a program to be completed. Training develops skills, shares information, and nurtures attitudes. Training helps the organization. Training usually contributes to workers’ overall development. Training helps workers qualify for a job, do the job, or advance to a new job. Training is essential for enhancing and transforming a job. Training facilitates learning. Learning is not only a formal activity; it is also a universal activity, and many types of people facilitate it formally and informally. Training should always hold forth the promise of maximizing learning.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Training, Education, and Development? It is easy to associate OD interventions exclusively with training programs, but not all OD problems require a training solution. When training programs are required, it is important that they be well designed and facilitated in ways that meet the intended goals. Training is most effective when it is explicitly linked to organizational strategy and when it targets a problem that can be resolved by training. Thus, training may be used to improve current employee job performance, such as by teaching employees new skills, software, or processes that help them do their jobs with more speed and accuracy. Or it may be a means of orienting new employees to the policies and expectations of the company. In the opening vignette, Lindsey went through extensive orientation training. Training may also be used to prepare employees for advancement. For instance, leadership training may be offered to develop management potential, or tuition reimbursement programs may be provided to help employees build technical and administrative skills. See Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training.

Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training

As well as promoting both professional and personal growth, training helps the organization enhance its performance. To learn more about training, see Caffarella and Daffron’s (2013) Planning Programs for Adult Learners: A Practical Guide, Lawson’s (2016) The Trainer’s Handbook, or Silberman and Biech’s (2015) Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case Examples, and Tips. You can access multiple training resources by joining the Association for Talent Development (ATD) at the following website: https://www.td.org/ (https://www.td.org/) .

How Are Training, Education, and Development Done? Training, education, and development are achieved through formal knowledge-building efforts (McLean, 2006; Nadler, 1970):

OD consultants provide or arrange for training via on-site demonstrations, classes, courses, and programs that help employees accrue job-related knowledge. For example, you may have attended computer class or con�lict resolution training. New technical and interpersonal skills help you do your job more effectively. Consultants get asked to provide training most often, as it is often selected as an intervention. When you learn how to become an analytic problem solver and use reasoning, you are receiving education. Education is not necessarily job related. Learning how to critique classic texts, for example, may not be speci�ic to your job in health care or manufacturing, but it may be helpful in carrying out your job because it sharpens your reasoning and writing skills. Consultants do less work in this area, although they may refer clients to higher education programs or offer programs in their own area of expertise. For example, if a consultant were an expert writer, she might help the client’s employees develop in this area. When you cultivate your interests, perhaps by taking martial arts or a cooking course, you are engaged in development. Development is sometimes considered more personal and less job related, but like education, it enhances your ability to do your job and makes you more well rounded. Consultants might recommend development programs as part of an intervention, especially ones that are focused on organization learning and employee satisfaction.

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Consider This

Identify the types of training, education, and development you have experienced. How have they differed? What did you take away from each of these activities?

Action Learning

Action learning arose in the 1990s as a reaction to formal learning interventions (such as training) that were viewed as ineffective because of the dif�iculty of transferring knowledge back to the workplace and their lack of relevance or support to use the new learning.

What Is Action Learning? Action learning deliberately accelerates people’s education about real work problems and/or desired outcomes within the actual work context. It is a continuous cycle of learning by doing, followed by re�lecting on the doing. Action learning involves getting relevant people together to work on organizational issues in a fashion that leads to learning throughout the process. For example, suppose a new product is launched and a group of relevant stakeholders comes together to ask questions raised by the launch, re�lect on problems and solutions that arise in the launch, share assumptions about the project, make necessary changes, re�lect on how the changes worked, and consider the learning that transpired in the launch process. Action learning creates a structure for re�lective practice among individuals or groups.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Action Learning? Consultants favor action learning because, rather than taking people to an unnatural location to teach them unnatural acts about abstract concepts (as training often does), it involves the real people working with the real problem in its real setting. In other words, action learning involves getting people who have a particular problem together in the workplace to undergo cycles of learning and action. This makes the process relevant, timely, and completed by the people who own the problem.

Lawrence (1991) observed that action learning not only is learning by doing, but also involves re�lection with the explicit goal of learning from experience. According to Lawrence, there are three essential characteristics of action learning:

1. Real work: Suppose a certain scheduling process creates problems for multiple workers—there is too much overlap at times and not enough coverage at others.

2. Questioning process: The team gets together and begins to question how the schedule is being made; the team members suggest changes. 3. Implementation: New scheduling procedures are put in place, and the group reconvenes to evaluate how the changes are working and what was

learned.

Lawrence (1991) recognized that action learning has the following outcomes: visible progress on solving problems, individual development, and change. Unlike some process-improvement tools, action learning is open ended, dynamic, and �luid. Although the purpose of engaging in action learning may be clear, the results are often unexpected. Action learning helps participants understand their internal decision and action processes and makes them aware of how these patterns affect their environment.

How Is Action Learning Done? Action learning is accomplished by six to eight people who come together to work on a problem. This group is known as an action learning set. There are several variations on steps taken, but generally the process is as follows:

1. Establish an action learning set. 2. Identify a project, task, or problem the set intends to work on. 3. Engage in a process of questioning, re�lection, and inquiry into the problem. 4. Decide on and implement a course of action. 5. Reconvene to evaluate whether the action resulted in a satisfactory outcome and to identify key learning.

Action learning tends to favor asking questions that prompt new thinking, learning, and solutions. For more information on action learning, see Marquardt, Banks, Cauweiler, and Choon (2018) or Revans (2017).

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Leadership and management development programs help individuals take steps to ensure effectiveness in their roles.

7.2 Leadership and Management Development

Learning and development interventions are common across all levels of the organization. They affect not only individuals, but also teams and the organization itself. A more specialized type of development is targeted at current and potential leaders and managers of the organization and is therefore known as leadership and management development.

An Overview of Leadership and Management Development

Both leaders and managers are needed to effectively run an organization. Different approaches are taken for developing each skill type:

Leadership development involves helping people to guide the organization, create long-term vision, develop strategy, staff the organization, communicate, and motivate people toward the vision (French & Bell, 1999). Leadership development is applicable across levels (McLean, 2006). It is fairly common to send potential leaders off to leadership development programs such as those offered by the Center for Creative Leadership (http:// www.ccl.org/Leadership (http://www.ccl.org/Leadership) ). Management development involves equipping people to execute day-to-day practices of organizing, staf�ing, planning, budgeting, controlling, directing, and problem solving. Management development tends to be position speci�ic. For example, the general manager of an automotive company might need to learn very different skills than a city planning manager.

Management and leadership development programs are key ways consultants help individuals and organizations become more effective in day-to-day activities and problem solving. Organizations that lack strong managers and leaders will underperform and have dif�iculty responding to the challenges that continually arise both inside and outside the organization.

Management and leadership development can be accomplished in multiple ways at levels ranging from the individual to the team to the organization. Individual development involves targeting individuals who show management and/or leadership potential or people who are challenged in their current leadership role. These individuals might be sent to leadership development programs, which are usually offered by consulting �irms. Organizations sometimes provide a group of individuals with a more formal leadership development program, similar to the example in the Leadership Academy vignette. The organization may also take on management and leadership development on a large scale and roll out various activities across multiple locations. Such activities could include mentoring, formal training programs, and so forth.

Two interventions—values clari�ication and integration, and executive coaching—are common in management and leadership development. They are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

Values Clari�ication and Integration

Values drive thought and action and in�luence the decisions people make. Providing individuals the opportunity to re�lect on what they value and why can help them clarify their life and career goals and identify areas of potential con�lict with others who might prioritize different values. In the vignette, Lindsey worked with her career counselor to clarify her own values as she planned her next career steps.

Exercises that help individuals articulate their key values and incorporate them into their thoughts and actions are known as values clari�ication and integration. Such exercises are helpful at all organizational levels.

Engaging in values clari�ication can help leaders gain clarity around why they make certain decisions. It can also help them understand why they experience con�lict with others whose values differ. Values clari�ication is particularly helpful for managers and leaders to engage in before they have to communicate the organization vision to employees. It can help them clarify what is important about the vision, which makes it easier for them to motivate employees.

Values activities can also help build stronger teams by revealing which values are shared by team members. Values clari�ication and integration can help tie individual values to organization values.

Consultants can also help individuals explore mismatches between what they value and what the organization values. For example, if a client highly values autonomy but works in a highly structured environment that has little autonomy, the consultant might help the client explore this contradiction and �ind ways to cope.

Values clari�ication can be undertaken with individuals, groups, or organizations. An example is pro�iled in Assessment: Values Clari�ication—What Is Important? Visit your e-book to access an interactive version of the assessment.

Assessment: Values Clari�ication—What Is Important?

The following exercise takes 15 minutes to 1 hour to complete, depending on the size of the group and how much discussion the experience yields. The OD consultant should provide a list of values the participant can choose from, as well as spaces for additional values to be added. Time should be built in for the participant to talk about the values identi�ied and why they are signi�icant.

Use the following interaction to clarify your values.

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After the exercise, ask the client the following questions to stimulate re�lection and conversation:

What did you learn about yourself ? About others? Was it hard to express disagreement with another person’s values? Why or why not? Were there times when you felt uncomfortable or unsafe? What helped you stand by your values at that time? Were there any times you felt unable to stand up for your values? Why do you think that was so? What would support people at times when they feel unable to stand up for a value they believe in?

Executive Coaching

Coaching is becoming increasingly popular, not just in organizations, but in multiple facets of life. Although business-related coaching such as executive coaching is relatively well known, there are also career coaches, life coaches, spiritual coaches, health and wellness coaches, transition coaches, grief coaches, renovation coaches, team coaches, and relationship coaches. This section focuses on the business realm and examines executive coaching.

What Is Executive Coaching? Coaching has been de�ined as “a personal and frequent one-on-one meeting designed to produce speci�ic, positive changes in business behavior within a �ixed time frame” (Corbett & Colemon, 2006, p. 1). Roberts (2000) described it as “the act of being directly concerned with the immediate improvement of performance and development of a skill by a form of tutoring or instruction” (p. 159). See Tips and Wisdom: Coaching Programs for more information about coaching competencies and programs.

Tips and Wisdom: Coaching Programs

The International Coach Federation (ICF) started in 1995 as a nonpro�it organization to support coaches and grow the profession. The ICF created core coaching competencies and a code of ethics. The ICF also de�ined curriculum standards to ensure consistency in coach training and developed a credentialing system for coaches. Today, the organization is global, with membership exceeding 25,000. You can �ind reputable information on coaching programs and much more at the following link: http://www.coachfederation.org (http://www.coachfederation.org) .

Why Do OD Consultants Recommend Executive Coaching? OD consultants who work as coaches take on the daunting task of integrating individual and organization goals. That is, they help the coachee connect his or her individual work with that of the broader organization (values clari�ication can also help make this connection). Consultants who are not trained as executive coaches would be responsible for hiring a reputable one.

Values Clarification What Is Important?

Identify your top 10 values from the list of 20. Then, narrow them down to your top 5.

BEGINBEGIN

Adapted from The Sherpa Guide: Process-Driven Executive Coaching (pp. 96–98), by B. Corbett and J. Colemon, 2006. © Cengage Learning.

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Corbett and Colemon (2006) identi�ied speci�ic times when individuals might need a coach. These include when (a) a promotion is involved, (b) a job is at stake, or (c) a new perspective is needed. Complete Assessment: Do You Need a Coach? to see if you need a coach.

Assessment: Do You Need a Coach?

The following questions can help you (or your client) determine if coaching is the right intervention at this time.

I need expert consulting services to help me solve a complicated business problem.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire a business consultant.

NO Continue

I need to discuss a deeply personal matter about my sense of well-being.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, locate a licensed psychologist, psychiatrist, or counselor.

NO Continue

I need to discuss the internal politics of my organization and how it affects my career path.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, �ind a trusted person who is familiar with your organization who is willing to serve as a mentor.

NO Continue

I need to learn and practice speci�ic new skills that I lack.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, �ind an appropriate skill development course that offers many opportunities to practice the new skills, perhaps using videotaped feedback.

NO Continue

I need to acquire a speci�ic type of knowledge.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, consider your own learning style and purchase the information in the form of books, tapes, or classes. Set aside time to study and internalize the information.

NO Continue

I need to evaluate whether I am in the right career and explore options for changing my career or profession.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire an expert in career counseling who can administer aptitude and interest testing and who will assist you in this transition.

NO Continue

I need structured planning and support to help in the accomplishment of a new way of leading or managing others.

YES Hire a coach!

Source: Adapted from Riddle, D. Leadership Coaching: When It’s Right and When You’re Ready. Copyright © 2008, Center for Creative Leadership. All rights reserved.

How Is Executive Coaching Done? Coaches should be certi�ied by a reputable coaching institution. In addition to having credentials, the coach should also follow a process that has a beginning, middle, and end. It is important to research a coach’s training and process before you hire him or her. You may also want to check references. A reputable coach will do the following:

1. Establish entry. A coach should offer a contract of services that details the cost, number of meetings, and other expectations. 2. Set expectations and describe the process initially. The �irst meeting between a coach and coachee should focus on sharing information about the

process, setting expectations, and agreeing on ground rules for the encounters. 3. Establish accountability. If an organization has hired a coach to work with an employee, the coach should regularly communicate with the person’s

boss (or other stakeholder, like a mentor) about the areas needed for development and the progress being made. Usually, this contact would occur at the beginning, midpoint, and endpoint. If an individual has hired a coach independently, it is up to the coach and coachee to determine how accountability will be held for progress.

4. Establish a baseline. Coaches need to understand information about their coachees’ behavior, values, interests, and performance. Most coaches use assessments, conduct values clari�ication, and seek feedback from other organization members in order to get a full picture of their coachee at the beginning of the process.

5. Identify areas to improve. Once the baseline is established, the coach and coachee mutually agree on an area for improvement. The coach helps the coachee develop strategies and new behaviors to make the agreed-upon improvement.

6. Help the coachee solve his or her problems. Effective coaches rarely give advice. Rather, they use questioning and re�lection exercises to help their clients solve their own problems and build con�idence and capacity in their own skill set.

7. Share blunt and direct feedback. Good coaches do not mince words and will serve as a mirror to re�lect the coachees’ behavior and challenge them. Good coaches hold their coachees accountable.

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8. End the coaching when the coachee has met the goal. Once the coachee has made the agreed-upon improvements, the coach should move toward ending the coaching engagement and ensure the coachee has the capacity to maintain the change. The coach should remain available for future issues and occasionally check in with the coachee to see that the changes have been maintained.

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Assessments help individuals gain perspective on a large range of issues, from behavioral style to learning style to con�lict style and more.

7.3 Assessments

Instruments that measure myriad aspects of individual attributes are known as assessments. Assessments are useful for helping individuals gain new insights about themselves but can also be helpful when working with groups and teams. Assessments have great potential to stimulate individual re�lection and change when used appropriately and ethically. There are dozens of assessments available for almost any topic. This section pro�iles some popular ones and their uses.

Before you use assessments, you should be aware of the research behind them, or if any exists. Many assessments were developed using White male college students in the 1960s and may not be representative of the diverse ways of knowing and being in the world. Others are not validated. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (https://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/factemployment_procedures.html (https://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/fac temployment_procedures.html) ) has provided guidelines for the use of assessments in employment decisions. Finally, you should keep in mind that although useful, assessments have a very narrow focus and the results should not be used to make assumptions or result in discrimination.

Here is a summary of the guidelines for using assessment from the EEOC:

Assessments should be administered without regard to race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age (40 or older), or disability. Employers should ensure that assessments are job related and properly validated for the positions and purposes for which they are used. If an assessment screens out a protected group, the employer should determine whether there is an equally effective alternative assessment that has less adverse impact and, if so, adopt the alternative procedure. To ensure that an assessment remains predictive of success in a job, employers should keep abreast of changes in job requirements and should update the assessment speci�ications or selection procedures accordingly. Employers should ensure that assessments are not adopted casually by managers who know little about these processes.

An assessment attempts to quantify certain aspects of individual personality or behavior, from learning styles to ethical orientation to leadership style. Assessments measure what energizes you, how you behave in certain situations, what your colleagues think of you, how you learn, what side of the brain you favor, and what strengths you possess. Hundreds of assessments exist, as evidenced by the numerous results that appear from an online search for “free personality assessment,” for example.

Consultants juggle multiple variables in their efforts to implement change. Human beings are complex and require different approaches. Assessments yield rich data with regard to how individuals and teams interact. They provide information on how people will engage interpersonally, where they get their drive and motivation, what type of style they employ in multiple situations, how they problem solve and make decisions, how they manage pressure and stress, and how they handle and accept change.

When you ask organization members to learn and change, they need pertinent information. There is nothing more timely and relevant than an assessment to help bridge understanding or point out opportunities for learning and growth. That is why consultants reach for them readily.

We have included assessments in every chapter of this book precisely because they provide immediate feedback or insight into preferences, traits, or behaviors in a way that helps people understand themselves in relation to others. Assessments can be taken with pencil and paper, scanned by computers, or completed electronically.

Although assessment tools can help both the client and the consultant develop insights, they should be administered only by a trained or certi�ied professional. In addition, their limitations need to be fully disclosed and their results not taken as a de�initive statement on the person. Assessments are more helpful when used in conjunction with other interventions such as training, feedback, coaching, and leadership development.

This section will pro�ile three commonly used assessments in OD: 360-degree feedback, DiSC (dominant, in�luential, steady, and conscientious), and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Like all assessments, they have limitations but offer an additional tool that may be useful as you go about the work of OD on an individual level. Additional links to assessments are included at the end of this chapter. In the opening vignette, Lindsey’s career counselor helped her take several assessments.

360-Degree Feedback

In simple, geometric terms, 360 degrees means “full circle.” A 360-degree feedback assessment, then, is one that seeks input from everyone in the leader’s circle. That includes direct supervisors, mentors, peers, subordinates, customers, suppliers, and any other stakeholders who can provide relevant input.

What Is 360-Degree Feedback? During a 360-degree feedback process, an OD consultant seeks feedback about an individual from multiple sources and levels, such as peers, subordinates, supervisors, self, and customers (McLean, Sytsma, & Kerwin-Ryberg, 1995). The technique is also known as multirater feedback. The feedback gained is usually used to cultivate an organization’s leaders and managers.

Several companies, such as Hogan Assessments and the Center for Creative Leadership, administer electronic assessments and provide extensive documented feedback to the individual. These assessments can cost hundreds of dollars. To save money, OD consultants may design their own 360-degree evaluation or �ind software that runs these analyses, such as 15Five, one of the most highly rated programs of 2019 (https://www.15�ive.com/ (http://�ive.com/) ).

Why Do OD Consultants Use 360-Degree Feedback? A consultant may use 360-degree feedback because it helps validate what the consultant has already observed and is trying to convey to the client. When feedback is con�irmed in multiple ways, it receives greater validity. For example, imagine you are working with a client who does not listen. You repeatedly observe this behavior and share this feedback with the client, who brushes it off. When lack of listening shows up in a 360-degree evaluation and is mentioned by almost everyone, it usually gives the leader pause and reason to take the feedback more seriously.

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How Is 360-Degree Feedback Done? There are at least two approaches to 360-degree feedback. The �irst is low budget, although it requires time and experience. In this method, the consultant and client identify key informants whom the consultant interviews about the client’s performance. A consultant must be skilled and experienced enough both to identify good interview questions and to manage the interview session so that it yields rich, constructive data. This typically involves identifying three or four people and determining questions in advance that will give the client useful feedback. It is not useful to ask, “What are this person’s main strengths and weaknesses?” Better questions might be, “What is the key thing this person could do to really take it to the next level?” or “How does this person derail?”

The second approach is to use a validated instrument that sends con�idential questionnaires to participants identi�ied by the client. The instrument is scored to show how groups—such as subordinates and peers—rate the client. Also, feedback from the client’s boss is identi�ied. To use these instruments, a consultant should be certi�ied, or a certi�ied vendor should be used to provide feedback to ensure that the product is legitimate and that there has been training in how to share feedback. The consultant should be trained in facilitating the session, interpreting the formal feedback, and framing the feedback in a constructive manner. As noted already, the organization may opt for a software program that produces generic 360-degree feedback. Still, the administrator should be trained in and skilled at using such tools.

DiSC

The DiSC is a popular assessment that measures behavioral tendencies. It is useful for understanding how you or others will typically behave.

What Is DiSC? Understanding the motives behind behavior can offer valuable insight into both individuals and teams, improving the ability to work together and resolve con�lict. The DiSC assesses a subject’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors and identi�ies a behavioral style as dominant, in�luential, steady, or conscientious.

1. Dominant: Tends to be a direct, driving, demanding, determined, decisive doer. This style is �iercely independent and persistent about tasks. Dominant individuals tend to focus more on the goal or task than the people.

2. In�luential: Tends to be relational, interactive, imaginative, energetic, inspiring, and friendly. This style is highly social and relational and can be persuasive. In�luential individuals tend to focus more on the people than the task, which can cause them to be poor time managers.

3. Steady: Tends to be submissive, stable, supportive, shy, accommodating, and peace seeking. This style is a helper and will provide listening and support. Steady individuals may sacri�ice their wishes for the good of the whole.

4. Conscientious: Tends to be cautious, compliant, careful, contemplative, and a critical thinker. This style prefers logic, facts, and step-by-step procedures. Conscientious individuals are very private and unemotional.

Why Do OD Consultants Use DiSC? The DiSC is appropriate when examining behavior, especially during coaching, leadership development, or team-building exercises. Understanding behavior helps depersonalize reactions as individuals or groups go about problem solving, decision making, and implementing change.

How Is DiSC Done? You can take the DiSC free here: http://www.123test.com/disc-personality-test (http://www.123test.com/disc-personality-test) . You can also administer a longer, more expensive test or become a certi�ied vendor through Inscape (http://www.internalchange.com (http://www.internalchange.com) ), which is a provider of the original instrument.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The MBTI is a very popular assessment of personality preferences based on Jungian psychology. It is used worldwide.

What Is MBTI? Understanding personality preferences is useful for self-introspection and interpersonal dynamics. The MBTI measures personality preferences according to four areas, as outlined in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3: MBTI preferences

Description Preference Description

E: Extroversion This preference draws essential stimulation from the environment: the outer world of people and things.

How you accumulate energy I: Introversion This preference draws essential stimulation from within: the inner world of thoughts and re�lections.

S: Sensing The sensing function takes in information by way of the �ive senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

How you gather data N: Intuition The intuiting function processes information by way of a “sixth sense” or hunch: a few pieces of data, then, a quantum leap.

T: Thinking The thinking function decides on the basis of logic and objective considerations. Usually dispassionate.

How you make decisions F: Feeling The feeling function decides on the basis of personal, subjective values. Logic is used, but the impact of the decision on others is added.

J: Judging A judging lifestyle is decisive, planned, orderly, and structured, with a strong need for closure.

How you order life P: Perceiving A perceptive lifestyle is �lexible, adaptable, and spontaneous. It is free and �lowing.

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Why Do OD Consultants Use MBTI? Consultants use MBTI to understand how clients prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make decisions, and order their lives. The MBTI also helps individuals see how they are similar to and different from other colleagues. The MBTI is often used for team building, so it is a common intervention at both individual and team levels.

As with any assessment, the administrator should be trained and certi�ied in the use of the MBTI. Clients should also be cautioned about the instrument’s limitations. The MBTI has been widely critiqued. Psychologists question its validity. Another problem with the MBTI is that people tend to read too much into the results and dichotomizing types, rather than stay mindful of its limitations and applicability. This is in part due to the MBTI’s use of binaries to type people —that is, identifying someone as either introverted or extroverted. The MBTI has also been critiqued for its use in hiring decisions. This is considered an abuse of the instrument, because it has also been criticized for having a short test–retest interval, meaning that the result of the personality type might change over time, depending on the life circumstances of the test taker. Additionally, it violates the EEOC guidelines presented earlier in this chapter. This misuse would render its application in hiring decisions questionable at best. It can also be inappropriately applied to work teams when types become overused to explain behavior and enforce stereotypes about colleagues (Burnett, 2013).

How Is MBTI Done? There are several versions of the MBTI. Of�icial instruments cost money to administer and will be more thorough and valid. You can access a free assessment at the following link: http://www.16personalities.com/free-personality-test (http://www.16personalities.com/free-personality-test) .

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Career development involves helping clients be more effective in their current jobs or preparing them for advancement opportunities.

7.4 Career Development

Many of the individual interventions discussed in this chapter facilitate clients’ career progress by helping them be more effective in their current job or preparing them for advancement opportunities.

Brown and Lent (2013) de�ined career development as a process that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood in terms of choices and how a career progresses across the life span as people determine their talents, interests, and values and navigate career challenges, transitions, and ultimately retirement. They suggested that managing one’s career demands both self-awareness and understanding of the occupational context. Career development is heavily in�luenced by values and role models. This in�luence is visible in how people make career decisions, how they prepare for careers, how their careers unfold, how careers in�luence identity, and how people integrate their careers with their lives. Career development interventions are intended to help people set career-related goals and make choices. Such interventions might include developing self- and occupational awareness, re�ining job-searching skills, adjusting to occupational choices, and coping with job stress or loss.

People are an organization’s most important resource. Organizations that are not focused on hiring, developing, and retaining a talented work force will have dif�iculty competing. Career development practices help ensure that people in organizations are prepared to perform at high levels. In Career Development Interventions for the 21st Century, Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2017) suggested that clients need to develop the following competencies to be most effective at planning for and managing their careers:

1. using both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making; 2. being clear about the importance attached to each life role and the values one seeks to express through participating in these roles; 3. coping with ambiguity, change, and transition; 4. developing and maintaining self-awareness; 5. developing and maintaining occupational and career awareness; 6. developing and keeping one’s occupationally relevant skills and knowledge current; 7. engaging in lifelong learning; 8. searching for jobs effectively, even when one is not job seeking; 9. providing and receiving career mentoring; and

10. developing and maintaining skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

This section will pro�ile some common career development interventions such as performance management, career plan development, and developmental relationships.

Performance Management

Lipman (2014) reported on a study by Towers Watson, “Tracking People Priorities and Trends in High-Performance Companies,” which explored trends in employee opinions over a 5-year period. The high-performing group, which was a cross-section of diverse industry sectors, included 26 organizations that outperformed peers in “�inancial performance” and “employee opinion scores.” Lipman described the �indings this way:

Loyalty. Long-term career opportunities. Corporate cultures that allow employees to speak their mind. Senior leaders who lead by example. A study of how high-performing companies motivate their people shows that some old values—as in sound management practices—never go out of style. Because they work. (2014, para. 1)

The study showed that four speci�ic areas contributed to these organizations’ success:

1. Career development: Particularly companies that put an emphasis and value on talent development and providing long-term career development opportunities and training

2. Empowerment: Providing open, supportive cultures that cultivate innovation and empower staff 3. Rewards and recognition: Offering compensation packages that satisfy employees, including bene�its and nonmonetary recognition. Of high

importance was having a supervisor who values employee contributions. 4. Leadership: Delivering leadership that satis�ies employees, particularly with regard to communication and making decisions that are consistent with

company values

The importance of feedback was underscored in a new study of more than 5,000 professionals across several industries. The Predictive Index (2018) found that 44% of managers do not give enough feedback. Employees indicated that they valued feedback but were not receiving enough; managers failing to share feedback were rated signi�icantly lower in effectiveness. The study also found that people rated as “bad managers” were viewed as self-centered and lacking in awareness of employee needs by not communicating clear expectations, playing favorites, and lacking concern for career and personal development. Top organizations are high performing on multiple levels, including how they manage and develop people, as shown by these studies.

What Is Performance Management? Performance management is the process of aligning organization resources, systems, and people with business goals and strategy. Performance management can involve parts of the organization, such as departments, people, or even products. This chapter is concerned with performance management as it relates to individuals. It focuses on individual goal setting and performance appraisal systems and how they are aligned with reward systems. For example, an organization that takes a strategic approach to performance management would articulate its key goals and ask employees to identify ways they can link achieving them to their own goals.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Performance Management?

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“Errors in managing people always add to the cost of a product or service” (Daniels, 1985, pp. 225–226), which is why companies use performance management to help identify performance problems, determine a baseline, make an intervention, and evaluate results. OD consultants commonly encounter performance issues; helping organizations address them can signi�icantly improve organization outcomes. Aubrey Daniels originated modern performance management, and his ideas are still relevant today. Current trends in performance management include thinking holistically about employees across their career span using the concept of employee lifetime value, or the total net value an employee brings to the organization across his or her lifetime (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). The labor market is currently characterized by low unemployment, which puts pressure on organizations to compete for talent. Organization cultures built around employee engagement—the emotional connection and care workers feel about their work and organization—will be more successful at recruiting and retaining talent (Shuck, 2011). Performance management is becoming more of a continuous, individualized process, instead of an annual discussion about job performance (Deloitte Trends, 2017).

Daniels (1985) observed that performance can be changed when you change the consequences of what happens to employees based on their performance. In other words, create penalties when desired performance is not achieved and rewards for when it is. He criticized organizations for too rarely tying performance to consequences that directly affect performance, such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, pro�it sharing, or recognition. Instead, most organizations fall into the trap of giving nonconsequential rewards that may seem related to performance but rarely are. These include cost-of-living adjustments, seniority-based pay and experience, and whims of the boss.

How Is Performance Management Done? Aubrey Daniels is credited with developing the concept of performance management in the 1970s. He wrote that approaches to employee productivity need to answer the following questions: “What should employees be doing? And precisely how can they be motivated to do it?” (Daniels, 1985, p. 225). Performance management has three components: positive reinforcement, measurement, and feedback (Daniels, 1985).

Positive reinforcement helps employees achieve maximum performance. Daniels (1985) considered it the opposite of the “do it or else” mentality that threatens negative consequences when employees fail to perform, and instead advocated a “do it and else!” philosophy, where the employee performs well and then something “distinctly pleasant” (p. 228) happens to him or her. Positive reinforcement has proved more effective at eliciting high performance than other methods. Organizations need to be clear about what the positive consequences are and ensure they are awarded soon after the positive performance.

Measurement is the second aspect of facilitating performance management. Daniels (1985) believed that any behavior could be measured according to its frequency and quality. A problem with creating behavioral measurements in most organizations is that employees expect negative consequences when they do not make their numbers. Instead, Daniels advocated measurement as a tool “not to justify punishment, but to recognize improvement” (p. 231). Measurement is important, because it is the only accurate way to gauge whether desirable behaviors are occurring.

See Tips and Wisdom: Performance Appraisal Resources.

Tips and Wisdom: Performance Appraisal Resources

Check out performance appraisal examples and tips at the following website: http://www.businessballs.com/performanceappraisals.htm (http://w ww.businessballs.com/performanceappraisals.htm) .

There, you will �ind a plethora of information on performance appraisals, such as examples and templates of appraisals, tips for making them easier and more effective, resources for engaging in your own self-appraisal, and more.

The third element of performance management is feedback. Feedback provides information about the employee’s performance that helps improve future performance. As Daniels (1985) put it, “The sole purpose of measurement and feedback is to create opportunities for positive reinforcement” (p. 232).

Deming (1982, 1986), father of the total quality management movement discussed in chapters 1 and 8, opposed individual performance appraisals, arguing they only encourage short-term goals and undermine teamwork. They also tend to focus on negative reinforcement and fail to account for issues beyond the control of individual employees, such as systemic organization problems (problematic equipment, processes, and management). Performance management offers an alternative to ineffective feedback and appraisal. Read about an example of a performance appraisal process in Case Study: Piloting and Evaluating a New Performance Appraisal Process.

Case Study: Piloting and Evaluating a New Performance Appraisal Process

The Health Defender Insurance Company of Georgia is in trouble. The company’s salespeople spend most of their time �ielding complaints about poor customer service. As one sales rep complained, “All we hear about is how slow our claims processing is and how we don’t respond to the customer.” Sales of new contracts have dropped dramatically over the past few years, and something has to be done.

The company’s new president, Julie Goodrow, is distressed at the company’s state. Dwindling accounts, stressed employees, and frustrated management seem to be the norm. She explains the predicament to an OD consultant, Dan Rock, with whom she worked at her former institution. She and Dan work through the action research process to develop an OD intervention. A year later, Health Defender is in a completely different place. Its new contracts are at their highest rate ever, and Health Defender is outperforming every other state division of the company in the United States.

What was behind Health Defender’s turnaround? The company made a fundamental change to how it managed its frontline employees by implementing a performance management process that incorporated Daniels’s (1985) key elements of positive reinforcement, measurement, and feedback. The results were dramatic and included not only new accounts but also higher-quality customer service and a restored corporate image. Internally, the company also improved morale, decreased absenteeism, and improved employee relations.

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The intervention involved training 180 managers and 15 executives, including Julie herself, in performance management. The change was met with the skepticism and resistance that most changes induce in organizations. Health Defender had to overcome previous failed productivity improvement initiatives and efforts to measure performance that were viewed as punitive and threatening.

Health Defender spent a year implementing the performance management process by incorporating regular feedback and positive reinforcement with rewards for improving. It took some time, but eventually this new feedback-driven process became second nature to managers. A walk through their of�ices reveals graphs of performance data at work stations and a culture that is driven by measurement and healthy competition between departments to see who has the best performance.

Health Defender’s results are impressive. The time to process health claims dropped dramatically, backlogged claims dropped by half, and overall productivity increased. Employee attitudes and morale also improved. People are happier, more responsive to customers, and more satis�ied with their jobs and with management.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What types of positive reinforcement do you think would be effective for Health Defender? 2. How would you manage resistance to a performance management implementation?

Career Plan Development

Plato (trans. 2000) said, “The beginning is the most important part of any work” (p. 365). Indeed, good beginnings usually involve good plans. It is dif�icult to accomplish big goals if you do not have a vision of what you want to do or how to get there. Career plans serve this function, and consultants work with clients on an individual level to develop them.

What Is Career Plan Development? A simple yet powerful intervention for individual career development is to ask the client to complete a written plan for his or her immediate, midterm, and long-term career, including developmental needs. This is known as career plan development. Often, it is helpful to work in 5-year increments with shorter or longer increments, depending on the person and his or her role. A typical career plan might include ideal job descriptions, assessments, work locations, and necessary training and higher education requirements.

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Career Plan Development? Consultants use career paths because they help clients focus on what they want to do and create a road map for how to get there. Career plans are developed by doing a thorough self-assessment, often using some of the assessments we have discussed in this book. It is also useful to research various career paths that are desirable. Articulating goals and plans is a very powerful activity that helps clients imagine a desired future and create the steps they need to achieve it. Career goals can also help clients set priorities, identify needed resources, target potential mentors, and make changes in their current positions to become better aligned for the future.

How Is Career Plan Development Done? Here are some steps for writing a career plan:

1. Identify goal(s). 2. Outline key action steps for the immediate and longer term. 3. Determine the developmental requirements needed to meet the goal(s):

a. Skills b. Abilities c. Interests d. Education e. Experiences

4. Update your résumé. 5. Outline next steps.

Once the plan is written, it should be shared with a supervisor or mentor and assessed and revised as necessary.

Have you ever written a career plan? It is a very powerful exercise that helps you visualize your future and determine how to make it a reality.

See Tips and Wisdom: Career Resources.

Tips and Wisdom: Career Resources

There are dozens of assessments and resources available related to careers. O*NET is a U.S. Department of Labor resource (http://www.onetonline.o rg (http://www.onetonline.org) ) that brings access to current job information, assessments, and salary information together in one place for more than 900 occupations. O*NET provides a valuable resource to both organizations and job seekers and was created to provide the general public broad access to a variety of search options and resources for job searches. O*NET has information on skills, abilities, knowledge, work activities, and interests associated with occupations in one place.

Other assessments that may be useful in career planning include the Strong Interest Inventory, the Skills Con�idence Inventory, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Self-Directed Search, and Career Key (Brown, 2007).

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Mentoring is a developmental relationship in which a senior person helps a more junior person navigate career issues, challenges, and opportunities.

Developmental Relationships

The adage “It isn’t what you know; it’s who you know” is often used to describe the way in which opportunities and advancement may be less a function of specialized training and more a matter of networks that connect us to people who can help us advance. These relationships are known as developmental relationships.

What Is a Developmental Relationship? A relationship that helps advance someone’s career is likely a developmental relationship. This term encompasses a range of relationships that “contribute to individual growth and career advancement” (Crosby, 1999, p. 7). These include mentoring as well as less intense relationships such as sponsorship, networks, and peer support:

When a senior person takes interest in the learning, advancement, and career development of a junior person, this relationship is mentoring. When someone supports you for a particular assignment, recognition, or promotion, this relationship is known as sponsorship. When you belong to a group that shares unique challenges—such as women, people of color, or LGBTQ—you belong to a network. When you provide mentoring or coaching to a person at your same rank or position, you are offering peer support.

If you are in a developmental relationship, how would you classify it?

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Developmental Relationships? Developmental relationships can be rich opportunities for learning, increased visibility, exposure to role models, developmental experiences, and promotional opportunities. Although developmental relationships depend on the right chemistry, consultants can encourage organization members to forge them.

How Are Developmental Relationships Developed? As a consultant, you may not be able to direct people to form developmental relationships,

because they depend on timing and chemistry. However, you can help individuals develop skills to build effective developmental relationships. In seeking a developmental relationship, you will want to follow these steps:

Observe how your colleagues and superiors interact and learn from them. a. What do they do well? b. How could they improve? c. What do you want to emulate? d. With whom do you want to build a relationship?

Talk about your career plan with your supervisor, colleagues, and others with whom you might like to develop a developmental relationship. Ask past and present colleagues, supervisors, professional contacts, mentors, coaches, family, or friends for feedback on your key strengths and growth areas. Reach out to people with whom you would like to build a developmental relationship. Share your career aspirations and ask for their help. Join professional associations and get involved. Thank the people who help you and pay it forward.

Tips for being in the more senior role in a developmental relationship include the following:

Be a positive role model. Conduct yourself in ways you want to see your protégés emulate—they are watching you. Show genuine interest and learn about your protégé. This means following through on your commitment to provide support and guidance when needed and making time for the person. Share your experiences, insights, and mistakes, and model re�lective practice. Listen. Be patient. Be open-minded and compassionate. Ask questions and avoid giving answers. Provide a fresh, objective perspective. Give constructive feedback and positive reinforcement. Help your protégé network. Celebrate your protégé’s achievements and give public recognition. Continue to seek mentoring yourself to keep your edge. Comentor with a peer—mentor each other.

You can see from this section that Lindsey, in the opening vignette, underwent several career development interventions, beginning with her career counselor. She also had training and experience (via higher education and corporate-sponsored programs) that boosted her career. She had a developmental relationship through her mentor, while her new work supervisor encouraged her to write a career plan and gave her feedback through performance appraisal.

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7.5 Job Development

Sometimes, the intervention is less about the individual and more about the job. For example, key responsibilities of a secretary once included tasks such as taking dictation, composing correspondence, and scheduling meetings. Today, technology makes it possible for most of us to do these things ourselves. Thus, the secretary of yesteryear is today’s administrative professional, whose duties have dramatically changed to roles such as partner, leader, facilitator, spokesperson, and advisor, an extension of the executive team with key insights into how the business works (International Association of Administrative Professionals, 2019). The evolution of the administrative professional role is but one example of how a job has changed. Organizations have the challenge of helping employees evolve with the changing needs of the job. This can be particularly challenging for workers who have been in a job for many years.

When we make interventions that are job speci�ic, we are undertaking job development. The interventions that may be used include redesigning jobs, writing job descriptions, and creating policy.

Consultants make job development interventions when certain jobs no longer meet the needs of the organization and must be restructured to better respond to organization needs, market shifts, or customer demands. For example, airport check-in areas today are peppered with self-service kiosks. Employees working the registration area need to be able to help customers troubleshoot as they check in for their �lights.

Job development can be accomplished through job redesign, job description writing, and policy development.

Redesigning a Job

A job design is the way a job is organized in terms of its tasks or overall purpose (McLean, 2006). Redesigning a job requires identifying the tasks of the job, how to do them, how many to do, and in what order. More broadly, it involves assessing the current work practices, conducting a task analysis, designing or redesigning the job, implementing the new design gradually, and evaluating the design on a regular basis (McLean, 2006).

OD consultants are frequently hired to redesign jobs in order to “heighten skill variety, task identity, task signi�icance, autonomy, and feedback from the job” (French & Bell, 1999, p. 236). Another common reason for job redesign is to accommodate advances in or problems arising from technology. The traditional secretarial job, for example, was redesigned to keep pace with advances in communication and information technology. A manufacturing process may be changed when repetitive hand movements begin to cause physical problems for workers, such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

McLean (2006) noted that a job redesign is more likely to succeed when the plan considers not only the individual job but also how it interacts within the complex context of the organization. If we return to the example of airline registration employees, they are required not just to help customers learn how to use the self-service kiosks, but also to negotiate an increasingly global, diverse traveling population and help travelers with any problems they encounter. Job redesign was also imperative as the work of secretaries shifted to that of administrative professionals. Steps for redesign of this entire profession occurred not just on an individual and organization level, but across the entire �ield.

Steps in job redesign include the following:

1. Assess the needs in terms of the job skills, abilities, and knowledge. 2. Design the job to conform to the needed skills, abilities, and knowledge. 3. Pilot the new job design. 4. Implement the job redesign broadly. 5. Evaluate the redesign and adjust accordingly.

Like any change, job redesign will be most effective when employees participate in the process. Employees know the precise details of the job as well as its challenges and stressors, making them best equipped to identify new designs.

Consider This

How would you follow the steps to redesign your job or a role you think needs to change with the times?

Job Descriptions

Job development can also be aided by having a clear, current job description, which is a document identifying the key aspects of the position. Essential elements of a job description include these:

Job title Start date Job location Contact information Number of available positions Number of hours per week Required years of experience Required education Required license, certi�icate, or registration Starting salary Bene�its (McLean, 2006, pp. 146–147)

Job descriptions exist in most organizations, although their quality and accuracy depend on the human resource function that is usually responsible for overseeing them. Accurate job descriptions serve several purposes. First, they identify the job’s key responsibilities and quali�ications. Prospective employees need this information to gauge whether they want to apply. Job descriptions can help managers set expectations for employees and determine key measures

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of performance. Job descriptions are also useful when evaluating employee performance. They help determine equity across positions in large organizations because they allow job characteristics and requirements to be compared. See Figure 7.1 for an example of a job description and check out Tips and Wisdom: Job Description Resources.

Figure 7.1: Job description and job speci�ication

A job description details key aspects of a position, such as its title, grade, payroll status, and expectations. Download a PDF of this job description (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/ {pdfs}samplejobdescription.pdf) .

Tips and Wisdom: Job Description Resources

There are several resources for writing effective job descriptions. Check out the following two:

U.S. Small Business Administration: Writing Effective Job Descriptions: https://www.sba.gov/node/2764 (https://www.sba.gov/node/2764)

O*NET OnLine (Occupational Network): http://www.onetonline.org (http://www.onetonline.org)

You can also easily �ind multiple examples and tips by searching for “writing job descriptions” in your computer browser.

Policies

Policies are rules according to which an organization and its members act. Corporate policy statements offer the organization a blueprint for operating. Many companies have policy statements that describe legal obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, and leave guidelines, to name a few. OD consultants might be hired to update policy statements when they are out of date, the company merges with another, or they do not exist. Most companies will involve legal counsel in this process to ensure they are in compliance with the law.

Policy can in�luence organizational culture, so it deserves ongoing attention. For example, an organization’s maternity/paternity policy can offer some insight into how supportive the organization is of parents and families. Organizations can also signal how inclusive and equitable they are by the types of policies they keep around governance and access to promotional opportunities. As we have discussed throughout this book, employees should be involved in policy development or change to promote buy-in.

Employee handbooks usually have information on the following organization policies:

Nondisclosure agreements and con�lict of interest statements Antidiscrimination policies in compliance with the equal employment opportunity laws prohibiting discrimination and harassment (e.g., the Americans with Disabilities Act)

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Compensation, including required deductions for federal and state taxes and any voluntary deductions for the company’s bene�its programs. Other compensation issues include

a. Overtime pay b. Pay schedules c. Performance reviews d. Salary increases e. Timekeeping records f. Breaks g. Bonuses

Wage and hour laws Employment taxes Workers’ compensation Work schedules Standards of conduct General employment information

a. Employment eligibility b. Job classi�ications c. Employee referrals d. Employee records e. Job postings f. Probationary periods g. Termination and resignation procedures h. Transfers and relocation i. Union information, if applicable

Grievance procedures Employment and labor laws Foreign workers, immigration, and employee eligibility Performing preemployment background checks Terminating employees Unions Safety and security Computers and technology Media relations Employee bene�its Leave policies

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Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary Re�lective practice helps clients re�lect critically on their thoughts and actions by considering re�lection in action, re�lection on action, and espoused theory versus theory in use. T-groups are small groups in which individuals receive feedback on how their behavior affected the other members of the group. When done effectively, T-groups facilitate deep critical re�lection and self-awareness. Training, education, and development help individual employees get the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform their jobs. Action learning engages employees in cycles of re�lection and action about real problems they encounter in their real workplace. Leadership and management development targets current and potential leaders to ensure they have the core skills to help the organization reach levels of high performance. Values clari�ication and integration helps leaders and managers articulate their key values and integrate them into the daily behaviors as they manage and lead employees. Coaching is an intense relationship between a coach and coachee that seeks to create positive changes in business behavior. Assessments help individuals gain insight and self-awareness, when used with clear objectives, trained facilitators, and legal, ethical administration. A 360-degree feedback approach provides the individual with full-circle feedback from supervisors, subordinates, peers, and other stakeholders. The DiSC measures behavioral tendencies according to dominance, in�luence, steadiness, or conscientiousness. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assesses personality preferences according to how individuals prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make decisions, and order their lives. Career development is a process of lifelong learning that in�luences individual career choices according to psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors. Performance management involves elements of positive reinforcement, measurements, and feedback to achieve optimal organization performance. Career plan development is the process of helping the client document career goals, values, and a road map for the immediate present and near- and long-term future. Developmental relationships are ones that help individuals advance their careers, such as mentoring, sponsorship, networking, peer support, or coaching. Job development makes interventions related to job redesign, job descriptions, and policy development. Job redesign is the reordering of the overall purpose or tasks of a job to ensure it meets the needs of the organization. Job descriptions document key aspects of a job in terms of its responsibilities and quali�ications. Policies ensure that organizations have a blueprint for operating that detail legal obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, leave guidelines, and so forth.

Think About It! Re�lective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning 1. Pick an assessment presented in this chapter (or book) and take it. What new insights did you gain? Are there contradictions? Con�irmations? What

implications do they have for your career? 2. When was the last time you sat down and deeply re�lected on where you are in your career and where you are going? Make some time for yourself to

do some careful thinking and determine if you are on track. 3. Have you been involved in a developmental relationship? How would you classify it? How helpful was it? 4. Review the tips for building developmental relationships. What do you need to work on to �ind a mentor or sponsor? How can you be a better mentor

or sponsor?

Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life 1. The chapter began with a vignette about Lindsey, who was in a career transition. Have you ever been in a career transition or known someone who

was? What types of interventions were applied? 2. Write a career plan as outlined in this chapter. 3. Identify a position that you aspire to. Do some research and document these aspects:

a. the education and training required b. salary c. a city you prefer to live in, in terms of cost of living, environment, and so forth

4. Talk with people in the position you aspire to and get their advice. 5. What training, education, and development have you done in the past year? Write down an inventory and see how well your learning has aligned with

your career plan. 6. Review the policies for your organization and note key likes and dislikes. 7. Review or write a job description for your position or desired positions. 8. Write or revise your résumé.

Additional Resources Media

360-Degree Feedback Humor https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXJkP13xACg (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXJkP13xACg)

Web Links

Learning, Training, and Development

The Association for Talent Development, a professional association of learning and development resources: https://www.td.org/ (https://www.td.org/)

Training, Development, and Education for Employees, a page that offers employee development resources, including on-the-job training, training transfer, internal training, and more:

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https://www.thebalancecareers.com/employee-training-4161676 (https://www.thebalancecareers.com/employee-training-4161676)

International Foundation for Action Learning, a charity that supports a network of action learning practitioners and enthusiasts: http://ifal.org.uk (http://ifal.org.uk)

Action Science, which aims to accurately describe and ef�iciently demonstrate the theory and practice of action science and to connect individuals and groups interested in working with action science. Read about the science behind action science: http://infed.org/mobi/chris-argyris-theories-of-action-double-loop-learning-and-organizational-learning/ (http://infed.org/mobi/chris-argyris-th eories-of-action-double-loop-learning-and-organizational-learning/)

Leadership Development

Performance, Learning, Leadership, and Knowledge, a window into learning, training, leadership, design, and all matters related to improving human performance: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/index.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/index.html)

Coaching tips to make you a more ef�icient coach: https://www.thebalancecareers.com/tips-for-effective-coaching-1917836 (https://www.thebalancecareers.com/tips-for-effective-coaching-1917836)

Career Development

National Career Development Association, which offers professional development, resources, standards, scienti�ic research, and advocacy: http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/home_page (http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/home_page)

Job Development

A free online course on job design: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/job-design-and-motivation/ (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless- management/chapter/job-design-and-motivation/)

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

360-degree feedback (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

An assessment method in which performance feedback is solicited from multiple sources at the levels surrounding the individual (self, subordinate, peers, and supervisor). This is also known as multirater feedback.

action learning set (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A group of six to eight people who come together to work on a problem using action learning.

assessments (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Instruments that measure myriad aspects of individual attributes such as personality, learning style, or cultural awareness.

career development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The lifelong process of balancing psychological, social, educational, economic, and physical variables in making career decisions.

career plan development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A written plan that identi�ies immediate, midterm, and long-term career goals and developmental needs.

coaching (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A one-on-one helping relationship focused on replacing the client’s ineffective business behaviors with positive ones.

development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The cultivation of interests, not necessarily related to work.

developmental relationship (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A relationship that helps advance an individual’s career, such as mentoring, sponsoring, or networks.

education (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

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The cultivation of reasoning and analytical problem solving.

employee lifetime value (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The total net value an employee brings to the organization across his or her lifetime.

espoused theory versus theory in use (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Inconsistency between your actions and what you profess you will do.

job description (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A document that details the key aspects of a position.

job design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The way a job is organized.

job development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Job-speci�ic interventions.

leadership development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Helping people guide the organization, create long-term vision, develop strategy, staff the organization, communicate, and motivate people toward the vision.

management development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Equipping people to execute day-to-day practices of organizing, staf�ing, planning, budgeting, controlling, directing, and problem solving.

mentoring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A helping relationship where a more senior individual provides career advice and support to a less senior individual.

peer support (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Mentoring and sponsorship provided to a person of similar rank.

performance management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The process of aligning individual employee performance with organization goals and strategy.

re�lection in action (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Re�lective practice about an experience and potential actions during the experience.

re�lection on action (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Re�lective practice about an experience and potential actions after the experience.

sponsorship (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Supporting and recommending individuals for career advancement experiences and opportunities.

training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The accrual of job-related knowledge.

values clari�ication and integration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Exercises that help individuals articulate their key values and incorporate them into their thoughts and actions.

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify interventions that OD consultants use to build highly functioning groups and teams.

Identify situations in which diversity and inclusion interventions are warranted and describe various interventions.

Recognize when individuals or teams are in con�lict and discuss different interventions for resolving the con�lict.

Explain how problem solving and decision making are handled in organizations.

AutoMark, an automotive parts maker, needed to radically change the sound system it had produced for years. Fast-changing technology and computer advances had made even relatively new vehicular sound systems obsolete. Producing a new sound system posed a host of challenges: designing the component, ensuring compatibility with other components and systems in the vehicle, and communicating across several functional areas, including design, manufacturing, engineering, and the union. AutoMark’s general manager, David, was new and had inherited a business with a long history of botching new system launches: They were chronically late, over budget, and under quality speci�ications. David had recently been exposed to OD in his evening MBA courses and was anxious to see if he could change AutoMark’s track record with the new sound system rollout.

David contacted the company’s internal OD person, Anne, to see what could be done about the anticipated sound system launch. After completing the action research steps to discover the problems, they determined that the team involved had to be more cross-functional and that the team members lacked the requisite skills to pull off a successful launch. They decided to put a new team in charge of the launch.

The new team was composed of representatives from design, manufacturing, engineering, and the union. The team’s �irst meeting consisted of a charge to alter the way AutoMark handled new system launches. The team members established roles, ground rules, and a clear purpose statement for their work. They agreed it would be bene�icial to build the team’s skills, and so, with Anne’s help, they planned a retreat to set themselves up for success.

The retreat was held the following month at an off-site location. Everyone on the team had taken a DiSC assessment (see Chapter 7); those results were shared with the team so individuals could begin to appreciate their differences and communicate effectively with each other. The team members engaged in activities to help build cohesion and understanding. They learned new skills for managing dif�icult conversations and for listening during disagreements. They also learned a new problem-solving model and reviewed quality standards to make sure these issues were consistently considered in their process. Finally, they revisited their original purpose, ground rules, and roles to see if these needed to be altered based on their work over the past month.

The retreat was a success, and the group dove into its work. The group was highly functioning, based on its upfront investment to establish a functional, collaborative team. During the �irst few meetings, there were some moments of confusion; people were not sure of the key goal, and at times roles and responsibilities were not clear. But the group was able to resolve each of these issues. So far, the team was ahead of schedule on making decisions and getting approvals on the new sound system’s design. As the launch date got closer, the team members were under increasing stress, and some began to experience con�lict.

Group Interventions 8

Gradyreese/E+/Getty Images Plus

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Ammit/iStock/Thinkstock

On its retreat, AutoMark engaged in activities that built teamwork and communication. What kinds of activities would you recommend for encouraging team cohesion?

Meetings were getting bogged down by disagreements; people argued over decisions, and some resorted to personal attacks. Two members in particular did not like each other and usually stirred things up for the rest of the team.

David became increasingly concerned that the disagreements were sapping too much time and energy from the team. He decided to intervene and called the two instigators into a meeting, where he could mediate the dispute. Anne facilitated the conversation, because she was a neutral party. The two team members aired their grievances and were eventually able to identify common ground and problem solve their issues.

The team went on to complete its work after the midpoint intervention. Using a deliberate team process helped the team turn the launch process around with an on-time, under-budget, and superior-quality product.

This book has focused on undertaking OD using the action research model. We have moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to pro�iling several doing interventions that might be appropriate at the group or team levels of analysis and assumes you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client (see Table 5.1).

Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 de�ined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start.

The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. This book could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD interventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, this chapter presents some of the most common group and team interventions (see Table 7.2).

Human interactions tend to be messy and unpredictable, and groups have fascinating dynamics as they negotiate roles, differences, work practices, power relations, and tasks. OD consultants commonly address the challenges that arise in groups with interventions to improve group or team processes and development, increase diversity and inclusion, manage con�lict, and solve problems and make decisions. The interventions within each of these categories are summarized in Table 8.1 and are pro�iled in this section.

Table 8.1: Categories of group or team OD intervention

Group or team process and development

Diversity and inclusion Con�lict management Problem solving and decision making

Dialogue Team life cycle Team start-up or transition Team building Team learning Virtual teams

Cultural awareness Cross-cultural development

Con�lict resolution Confrontation meetings Third-party intervention Appreciative inquiry

Work-Out Total quality management (TQM) Quality of work life (QWL) Problem-solving models

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You probably engage in true dialogue more often with friends than with coworkers. Why is dialogue important in OD?

8.1 Group or Team Process and Development

Although the terms group and team are often used interchangeably, they have different de�initions. Suppose a group of people gets on an elevator. A team emerges in the event the elevator gets stuck. A group usually consists of three or more people who may share common perceptions, motivations, goals, or organization membership. In the case of the elevator, the group shares the common goal of traveling to a different �loor. When the elevator becomes stuck, the group is suddenly transformed into a team. These team members not only share a common goal (getting out of the elevator) but must work together to achieve it. The difference is subtle but important for understanding group dynamics. Table 8.2 contrasts groups and teams.

Table 8.2: Contrasting groups and teams

Groups Teams

1. Compete against each other 2. Seek personal agendas 3. Are staid and stodgy 4. Make decisions independently 5. Are motivated by fear 6. Fail to connect teamwork with success 7. Operate dependently or independently 8. Tolerate each other and the work 9. Accept complacency with no sense of urgency

10. Avoid risk

1. Compete outwardly together 2. Share a team agenda 3. Value innovation and continuous improvement 4. Make decisions participatively 5. Are motivated by opportunity 6. Link team success to organization success 7. Work interdependently 8. Enjoy each other and the work 9. Embrace a sense of urgency

10. Thrive on challenge, take risks

Because an organization’s work is largely carried out by teams whose members have to cooperate, create, and collaborate, helping members build these interpersonal skills and the infrastructure in which they are supported can boost the organization’s ability to accomplish its mission. Building capacity in group or team processes and development is important to ensure that new groups or teams start off on the right foot. It also strengthens established groups or teams that are embroiled in con�lict, unproductive, or lacking focus. This section features some interventions that OD consultants use to build highly functioning groups and teams.

Dialogue

Can you recall a conversation in which each person aggressively advocated a point and tried to convince everyone to agree? What was the outcome? Such win–lose conversations do not usually result in constructive outcomes or new learning for the participants, yet they are dif�icult to avoid. Just turn on your television or radio, listen to politicians, or attend a meeting for numerous examples of such point–counterpoint discussion, which is often heated. This type of communication is a discussion, the dominant form of discourse in U.S. culture, which generally involves participants aggressively advocating their own point of view.

“The word discussion stems from the Latin discutere, which meant ‘to smash to pieces’” (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994, p. 353). The term is also related to the words percussion and concussion, with the general meaning of heaving back and forth to beat the opponent down and prove a point in a win– lose confrontation. Discussion promotes group fragmentation and wars of advocacy between members. Linguist Deborah Tannen (1999) referred to this conversational crisis as the “Argument Culture,” in which communication is focused on confrontational discourse; it is a win–lose proposition for individuals caught in this vicious conversational cycle.

Alternatively, you can probably recall really invigorating, exciting conversations in which each participant built on the points being made and people were open to questioning their viewpoints, learning from each other, and changing their minds. This type of inquiry-based discourse is known as dialogue. Dialogue is contrasted with discussion as its polar opposite and is recommended by Tannen (1999) and others (Ellinor & Gerard, 2014; Isaacs, 1999; Senge et al., 1994) as an alternative communication means that is focused on inquiry and learning, rather than advocacy of a certain point of view. Dialogue is a mutual exploration of a concept or viewpoint.

Dialogue is inquiry based; that is, you seek to be open, learn, and probe into the thinking of the speaker. Discussion, in contrast, focuses on advocating a point of view and convincing the listener to agree with the speaker. Journalist Celeste Headlee offered a wonderful summary of research and strategies for having better conversations in her 2017 book We Need to Talk: How to Have Conversations That Matter. An important concept she advanced was that people often engage in narcissistic conversation, that is, the tendency to make every conversation about yourself. Instead of providing support when a person says, “I am having a hard time meeting this deadline,” a narcissistic conversational response would shift the attention back to yourself by saying something like, “I am crushing my deadlines right now.” A more supportive reply would remain focused on the speaker, explore why he or she is having dif�iculty meeting deadlines, and engage him or her in an inquiry-based conversation or dialogue. You can avoid the trap of narcissistic conversation and shift to dialogue by asking questions. Although you may shift the conversation toward yourself by sharing your experience or opinions, you eventually shift it back to the listener by asking a question such as, “What have you tried so far to manage your deadlines?” or “What is one thing you could do next week to make progress on your deadlines?”

Dialogue is rooted in the Greek words dia (meaning “through” or “with each other”) and logos (meaning “the word”) (Senge et al., 1994, p. 353). Together, dia logos means “through meaning.” It can be thought of as meaning that �lows through a group of people, where new

understandings and ideas emerge. Whereas discussion is advocacy based, dialogue is inquiry based. The goal is not to �ind the right answer, but rather to examine multiple perspectives surrounding an issue that would not have been possible through individual re�lection or discussion. Dialogue is the collective engagement in re�lective practice, discussed in Chapter 1 of this book. Effective OD consultants hone their dialogue skills and use them across all interventions. Dialogue is an effective team process because it requires individuals to slow down and listen to each other. The AutoMark team members learned this skill, and

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it helped them converse about complicated issues that crossed several people’s functional territory. Being skilled at dialogue will also help individuals and teams better apply other interventions.

Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Dialogue? Throughout the action research process, consultants help clients adopt new behaviors, learn new ways of listening and speaking, and cultivate new tools for bridging understanding and dealing with disagreement. Because win–lose conversation is so prevalent in U.S. culture, engaging in dialogue is a major change for most organization members. They need training in how to dialogue, ideally at the beginning of the action research process, so that it can serve the team as it navigates the challenges of implementing change.

Dialogue helps consultants achieve multiple interventions such as listening, problem solving, decision making, strategic planning, talent management, and more. Speci�ic bene�its of dialogue include

conversing in ways that help clients think and re�lect differently, asking good questions that advance the conversation, using new knowledge created from the conversation, engaging in questioning that informs better decision making and action, sharing broader and deeper feedback than a back-and-forth discussion would yield, steering members away from argumentation and toward deeper inquiry that probes and challenges ideas, shifting away from unconditional acceptance of dominant ideas, and creating an atmosphere that is tough on the issues and easy on the people.

How Do OD Consultants Help Facilitate Dialogue? Dialogue is not easy. It requires new listening and conversing, which for most people means changing lifelong bad habits. There are several ways to use dialogue. Some guidelines for achieving a dialogue that is inquiry based include the following:

Situate participants in a barrier-free circle (e.g., no tables). This con�iguration physically removes obstacles and creates a more vulnerable space for the dialogue. Ask participants to suspend assumptions and certainties. This means that everyone willingly questions his or her own ideas and beliefs, as well as those of others. Listen. This is more important than talking. There are several ways an OD consultant can promote listening:

a. Use a “talking stick.” Provide a stick, ball, or some other artifact that signals the right to speak. Participants must have possession of the talking stick to speak.

b. Blindfold participants to remove nonverbal cues that people use to dominate conversation. c. Involve all participants in monitoring listening and confronting bad listening behaviors such as interrupting or signaling to speak before the

speaker has �inished. Focus on inquiry and re�lection instead of decision and action. Observe equality of members and give equal air time to everyone who desires to speak. Respect differences. Suspend role identi�ication. This means that participants cannot invoke their roles in the organization hierarchy to make points or dominate (“As the vice president, here is how I see it”). Nor can participants look to people who have certain roles and ask for guidance (“As our vice president, what do you think?”). Strive for learning over results. This means that the dialogue is a time to truly think about a problem. Once new knowledge is created and the dialogue ends, insight can be used to make decisions and act. Dialogue helps people slow down and evaluate decisions that are poorly thought out. Allow speakers to talk without interrupting. This is probably the most challenging aspect of dialogue, because everyone wants to be heard and advocate his or her viewpoint. Ensure con�identiality among the group. What is said in a dialogue stays in the dialogue.

Team Life Cycle

There has been an enduring interest in group dynamics since the advent of OD. Tuckman (1965) reviewed 55 articles dealing with stages of small group development and isolated commonalities. From this research, he created a model of stages that groups experience in order to become high performing. He called this the group or team life cycle. Tuckman’s model laid the groundwork for understanding and researching groups and remains one of the best-known models of group development (see Figure 8.1). See if you can identify these stages in a group you belong to or apply them to the AutoMark vignette.

Figure 8.1: Tuckman’s stages of group development

Tuckman’s model, which shows how groups become high performing, remains one of the best-known group development models.

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Later group development models have added a �ifth stage, adjourning. In this stage, the group disbands after it has moved through the �irst four stages and met its goals.

Although it is a widely used model of group development, Tuckman’s (1965) model is only one of several that have grown out of Kurt Lewin’s �ield theory. Lewin suggested that a group has its own psychological �ield or life space that consists of the group and all the variables in its environment and affects the group’s behavior (Lewin, 1947). Cummings and Worley (2009) proposed that group effectiveness could be judged based on the degree to which the task was accomplished, the level of satisfaction experienced by the group members, and the viability of the group itself.

Consider This

Virtual teams have become increasingly common in a global economy where organizations seek to bring teams together that combine needed talent and expertise to solve challenging problems (Furst, Reeves, Rosen, & Blackburn, 2004). Think of virtual teams you have participated in and list the challenges. Furst et al. (2004) offered key interventions for the virtual stages of team development:

Forming Storming Norming Performing

Share lessons from prior virtual teams Coach virtual teams with coaches experienced in virtual teaming Develop a shared sense of team identity through deliberate relationship building Acquire senior management support

Engage in face-to-face team building experiences (virtual F2F OK) Train members on con�lict resolution Encourage a spirit of seeking common ground during con�lict Seek mediation when consensus is impossible

Create templates for specifying action items and tasks Develop individual accountability measures such as due dates and schedules of work Distinguish task, social, and contextual information and design procedures for each Assign a team coach with virtual facilitation skills

Ensure the organization culture supports virtual teamwork Provide needed support and resources for team performance

Source: Adapted from “Managing the Life Cycle of Virtual Teams,” by S. A. Furst, M. Reeves, B. Rosen, and R. Blackburn, 2004, The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005), 18(2), 6–20. © Taylor & Francis.

Why Do OD Consultants Pay Attention to the Team Life Cycle? The team life cycle model serves multiple purposes. First, it helps the consultant observe where the group or team is in its development and plan interventions accordingly. If a team is just getting started, it is likely to be at the forming or storming stages. Agenda-driven interventions are probably warranted, and when the group gets stuck storming, con�lict resolution can also be helpful.

Helping team members understand the life cycle helps them recognize the challenges and con�licts that arise as normal developmental processes. This in turn helps depersonalize the dif�iculties associated with collective goal pursuit and allows members to focus on moving to the next stage.

When managers understand the team life cycle, they can help the groups and teams they manage through more effective decision making, problem solving, and con�lict resolution.

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How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Learn About the Team Life Cycle? An effective way to teach the team life cycle is through an experiential activity. A popular one is the Tinkertoy activity:

1. Organize the team into groups of about four to six people (depending on the size of the group). 2. Give each group a bag of Tinkertoys. They should have the same number and type of pieces in each bag, or give each group their own container. 3. Each group is given the following instructions:

a. Build the tallest freestanding tower with the materials provided. b. Groups have 20 minutes to plan and 40 seconds to build. c. Pieces cannot be connected during planning (they will be removed by the facilitator).

4. Facilitators serve as timekeepers. 5. All pieces are returned to the bag or container before building. 6. Construction must stop when the time limit is reached. 7. Once the activity ends, debrief around the stages of the team life cycle and help participants see how they moved through the stages.

There are dozens of such activities available to help develop teams. Find some resources you are comfortable using and become familiar with them.

Team Start-Up or Transition

Helping a team get off to a positive and productive start requires support from the beginning. It is common for organizations to set high expectations for teams without giving them the support or training needed to be high functioning; they then wonder why a team could not produce. Effective team-based OD interventions set teams up for success, whether they are new or already exist.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Start-Up? Giving teams a strong foundation at their formation helps them build the capacity to do what is expected of them. At a minimum, new or transitioning teams should be given a clear goal and the necessary resources to accomplish it. They also need training on the team life cycle and the tools for moving through the stages. Providing the team with training and a structure for effective meetings helps them make good use of their time together. Topics to explore to help the team get off on the right foot might include

the team life cycle, a change model (such as Lewin’s unfreezing, moving, and refreezing), a problem-solving model, meeting-effectiveness tips, and team-building exercises.

How Do OD Consultants Do Team Start-Up? Some key steps to follow include the following:

1. Establish a clear goal or charge for the team. 2. Create roles (e.g., facilitator, note taker, process observer). 3. Rotate roles. 4. Identify members’ communication expectations and needs. 5. Develop ground rules. 6. Create agendas for meetings. 7. Use tools to enhance meeting facilitation, such as decision-making and consensus procedures. 8. Evaluate team process on an ongoing basis.

Consider This

The AutoMark vignette provides a classic case of teams working on parts of a larger project but not collaborating, with problematic results. Considering the strategies and steps for helping teams start up, what has been your experience with these start-up strategies when you joined a new team, and what were the consequences?

Team Building

A common OD intervention is team building, that is, training and other activities that help teams perform more ef�iciently and effectively. This type of activity can also be used for team start-up. McGregor (1960) de�ined effective teams as those that

1. foster a relaxed and comfortable atmosphere, 2. clearly understand and accept their tasks, 3. are able to engage in dialogue and effective listening behaviors, 4. are tough on the issues and easy on each other, 5. use consensus decision making, and 6. complete their actions.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Team Building?

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Team building strengthens the team’s relationships and members’ understandings of roles and responsibilities.

Team-building OD interventions are centered on helping members move through the stages of group development (Tuckman, 1965) and on helping the team settle on task roles, goals, relationship building, group process, and activities to ensure smooth functioning. Team building is often accomplished through training and ongoing process checks as the team works on its activities. Speci�ically, team building can facilitate

improved morale and leadership skills among team members, the elimination of barriers that thwart creativity and collaboration, the de�inition of clear objectives and goals, improved processes and procedures, improved productivity and results, targeting and eliminating team weaknesses, and building up team strengths.

How did these strategies play out in the AutoMark vignette?

How Do OD Consultants Do Team Building? A successful team is only as good as its members, so following the team start-up tips will get the team primed to build deeper relationships. Burn (2004) suggested that skilled team members use the following approaches:

Develop norms and roles compatible with team success. Build a group with norms of cooperation. Make status assignments based on speci�ic-status characteristics. Minimize status differences. Engage in constructive controversy. Use constructive confrontation when group norms are violated. Establish a supportive communication climate. Recognize the bene�its of member diversity. Create a superordinate (shared) group identity. Use group goal setting. Rely on explicit coordination and pre-planning. Persuade members that their contributions are needed, noticed and valued. Tie valued individual outcomes to group outcomes. Balance task and socioemotional leadership. Choose discussion and decision-making procedures that prevent domination by a few members and ensure that all relevant information and perspectives are considered. (p. 389)

Consultants need to monitor the team and adjust interventions according to its needs.

Team Learning

Team learning is distinct from team building in that it strives to “transform conversational and collective thinking skills, so that groups of people can reliably develop intelligence and ability greater than the sum of individual members’ talents” (Senge et al., 1994, p. 6). Team learning emerged out of the learning organization movement in the 1990s. In addition to team building, team learning engages participants in the use of dialogical communication to bring assumptions to the surface and to address issues faced by the team, with the goal of collective learning.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Learning? Usually, team learning is sought by organizations that have made a commitment to becoming a learning organization. Team learning helps teams apply dialogue and action learning to solving problems encountered in the team dynamics, work projects, or change implementations.

Whereas team building improves courtesy, communication, performance, and relationships, team learning is a process of learning collectively. Team learning challenges individuals intellectually, emotionally, socially, and spiritually. It assumes self-mastery and self-knowledge while challenging members to look outward to develop shared alignment around goals and purpose.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Learning? Team learning adds to the team-building efforts that have likely taken place with the team. The consultant helps the team focus on its re�lection in action and re�lection on action through dialogue, action learning, and deliberate efforts to identify learning as it occurs while the team goes about its work, problem solving, and decision making.

To ensure that teams are prepared for learning, they need a clear purpose or goal, effective facilitation, ground rules, and dialogue skills. Usually, teams need to be trained on how to build effective skills. A common focus is on re�lective practice using action learning, assumption testing, and mistake sharing. Members must be willing to take risks to raise dif�icult issues, question structures that may inhibit group or organization functioning, and enhance the group’s knowledge base and learning as a whole.

The consultant can also help team members adopt certain behaviors that help them be more effective team learners, such as

listening to team members; empathizing with other team members’ viewpoints; taking interest in teammates by making eye contact, respecting them, and learning about them; watching nonverbal behavior (self and others); resisting the temptation to interrupt teammates; listening for implicit as well as explicit meaning in the team conversation; looking for omissions in both thought and action;

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af�irming the speaker versus evaluating or criticizing; paraphrasing to check for understanding; and listening more than talking.

Virtual Teams

Organizations and people are increasingly working across the globe. Separated by time and distance, interaction must be mediated with technology, and people often work in virtual teams. Although the art of face-to-face facilitation is well developed, the art of virtual facilitation is in its infancy. Technologies that facilitate virtual teamwork include multiple Internet applications, videoconferencing, teleconferencing, and webcams. Engaging with others virtually, with no opportunity to meet face to face, requires cultural awareness and effective communication skills.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Virtual Teams? Because of the global workplace, there is a need to develop capacity for effective virtual interactions, and this is accomplished in the same way as traditional team building and team learning. Consultants can help virtual participants be better virtual citizens and help virtual facilitators be effective in that context.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Virtual Teams? Consultants can coach individuals to be good virtual team members. Being a good virtual team member involves the following behaviors:

Be timely. If team members cannot be on time for the meeting, they should let the organizer know in advance. It is just as disrespectful to be virtually late as it is to be physically late. All members should plan to take necessary breaks prior to the meeting. Virtual meetings tend to be ef�icient, so it can waste everyone’s time if members step away from the session for various reasons. When team members must step away from the meeting, they should let the attendees or organizer know, preferably via an online chat feature. Always be professional. Even though team members may be at home or communicate solely via an audio feed, they should assume the same behavior they would in a boardroom. No one wants to hear what their children, cats, or dogs are doing. Do not do other work during the meeting. All team members’ input is valued, and the attendees are counting on everyone’s thoughts and contributions. Actively participate. If participants are presenting slides or sharing other kinds of information, they should practice prior to the meeting. Follow the same respectful behaviors you would in person:

1. Do not interrupt. 2. Listen intently. 3. Stay on topic.

Table 8.3 provides strategies for dealing with the challenges that arise from facilitating a virtual team. It is based on research by Mittleman, Briggs, and Nunamaker (2000).

Table 8.3: Challenges and strategies for facilitating virtual teams

Challenge Strategies

Following virtual meetings is dif�icult for participants who may do unrelated tasks, arrive late, leave early, or disappear for long periods.

Provide explicit preplanning instructions including prework, timed agendas, and the meeting’s purpose and objectives. Encourage interest and make it personal. Contact participants individually in advance of the meeting to con�irm their participation and discuss their interests. Create a scorecard. Use an electronic meeting platform to identify where you are in the agenda and who is participating. Distinguish transitions from one topic to another to keep the team focused. Clarify the intended outcome(s) for each agenda item (discussion, decision, action, etc.).

Virtual teams receive minimal feedback on the meeting’s progress and process.

The facilitator should periodically offer and solicit feedback. Engage in frequent process checks on the meeting (“Are we on task?” “Mark, are you still with us?” “Is there any concern about this course of action?”). Invite feedback via the meeting platform, email, or online chat.

Participants forget who is attending the meeting.

Use names during the meeting. The facilitator can use them or ask people to clarify their name before they speak. Provide frequent reminders of who is in the meeting (or use a meeting platform that lists attendees). Distribute short biographies and photos of attendees.

Virtual team building is challenging. Follow the best practices for team building already discussed in this chapter. Ensure the team has a clear goal. Meet face to face when possible, especially when the team is forming. Create breaks, particularly for long sessions, that promote team bonding on nonwork topics such as the weather, interests, or hobbies.

Technology is great when it works, but . . . Be patient and assume people are on a learning curve with their technology. Have a backup plan. Have technical support ready to assist if needed. Have a plan for reconnecting if the technology must be reestablished. Introduce new technology on an as-needed basis.

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Communicate effectively, virtually. Exchange dialogue and conversation rather than listen to lengthy one-way presentations. Speak clearly and into the microphone when you have the �loor. Mute your sound when you are not speaking.

Making decisions can be more dif�icult virtually.

Plan decision-making procedures (consensus, vote, etc.). Conduct process checks to �ind out where people are in the process.

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Promoting diversity and inclusion helps an organization build a stronger work force that is more equipped to excel in global markets.

8.2 Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

The U.S. work force is diverse and changing. There are more women employed than ever before, racial and ethnic minorities will soon surpass Whites in numbers, the work force is aging, and gender identity diversity is challenging binary de�initions of gender as either female or male. Diversity commonly refers to a heterogeneous group—one in which members differ in gender, race, age, religion, or sexuality. A more useful de�inition of diversity for OD consultants is “those individual differences that are socially and historically signi�icant and which have resulted in differences in power and privilege inside as well as outside of organizations; namely race, gender, and sexuality” (Thomas, 2005, p. 9).

Thomas (2005) identi�ied several challenges associated with leading modern, diverse organizations. These include attempting to understand

the differences between how work used to be accomplished and how it will change with an increasingly diverse environment and the legal, ethical, and day-to-day issues that arise from employing a more diverse work force composed of immigrants, racial and ethnic minorities, women, older workers, sexual minorities, and the disabled.

Thomas (2005) asserted that a goal for OD is “to maximize the bene�icial aspects of diversity for organizations and for individuals while minimizing and perhaps preventing any negative challenges of that same diversity” (p. 3). She further emphasized that those trained in the organizational sciences are uniquely quali�ied to address diversity issues by monitoring selection and placement, training and development, organization development, performance measurement, and quality of work life. OD consultants can help ensure that the dynamic complexity of diversity is respected in policy development and workplace practices that are fair, equitable, and sensitive.

Organizations can measure diversity intelligence (Hughes, 2016), which is similar to intelligence quotient (IQ) or emotional intelligence (EQ). Diversity intelligence (DQ) equips employees to interact more effectively with the changing demographics of workplaces and the global economy by helping them embrace difference and value diversity. See Assessment: Diversity Intelligence Instrument Validation Study.

Assessment: Diversity Intelligence Instrument Validation Study

Hughes is in the process of validating a DQ instrument that will be available for organizations to assess ability to effectively lead diverse workers. If you would like to take the survey as part of the research to validate the study, visit the following link: https://www.noark.org/diversity-intelligence-surve y-news-article_544 (https://www.noark.org/diversity-intelligence-survey-news-article_544) .

OD consultants must be sensitive to diversity issues, regardless of whether their interventions currently address an issue related to diversity. Although this book discusses diversity interventions under group-based OD, it is important to note that such interventions may occur at any level and often will be implemented across multiple levels simultaneously. See Case Study: Diversity and Inclusion for a �ictional example of a company that needs to address diversity and inclusion.

Case Study: Diversity and Inclusion

Over several decades, TechCo has built a reputation for its commitment to recruiting and developing a diverse work force. But recently, that reputation has slipped. About 5 years ago, the company underwent a top leadership transition. The new CEO dropped diversity and inclusion from its strategic goals because, in his words, “TechCo has already accomplished outstanding diversity and the infrastructure exists to sustain it.”

What the CEO did not anticipate was that TechCo’s competitors would expand their efforts to become more diverse and inclusive organizations. The top employees of TechCo are now being avidly recruited by these competitor organizations, and some begin to jump ship—particularly women and people of color—because they see more promising opportunities to work in organizations that appear to value diversity more than TechCo. Meanwhile, TechCo is falling behind in its strategy and ability to do realistic succession planning for future leadership. As management becomes less diverse, so does its recruitment pool and talent development.

Today, TechCo’s top leadership is approximately 90% White and male. Competing �irms have much higher percentages of female, African American, Latino, and Asian executives. Few TechCo employees participate in af�inity groups (e.g., women leaders, LGBTQ support groups, African American leaders, etc.), whereas its competition has doubled these types of supports.

TechCo needs an intervention, and fast. Its lack of diversity at the top of the organization and absence of a plan to resolve the problem could spell long- term disaster in its ability to recruit and retain the best people and remain competitive in its markets.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What immediate steps can TechCo take to address its problems with diversity and inclusion? 2. What mid- to long-term steps do you recommend TechCo take to become a more diverse and inclusive organization?

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Cultural Awareness

A �irst step for group members to more competently deal with diversity and inclusion is to gain cultural awareness, which is becoming conscious of and appreciating the differences between the characteristics of your own and other cultures.

Why Do OD Consultants Promote Cultural Awareness? Groups with low levels of cultural awareness will likely experience more con�lict and less productivity than groups that exhibit consciousness of and appreciation for other cultures. Groups with low cultural awareness may be candidates for interventions to increase their cultural learning. These include the following:

Practicing re�lection, which can help group members examine how their own culture differs from others Assessing values, which allows group members to compare what they value with others and tie values to cultural differences. For example, some cultures place a high value on punctuality, whereas others do not. The punctual culture may view lateness as rudeness without considering cultural meanings of time. Encouraging dialogue with people from different cultures. Dialogue, as has been discussed, creates a format for communication that builds inquiry and re�lection into the exchange, making it an ideal way to learn about other cultures. Participating on diverse teams, which creates the opportunity to focus on achieving tasks and problem solving with people from different backgrounds Encouraging group members to share information about their culture with others

How Do OD Consultants Promote Cultural Awareness? One way to measure group members’ cultural awareness is by administering a cultural intelligence quotient (or CQ) assessment, such as the one shown in Figure 8.2 (Earley & Ang, 2003) (see also Assessment: Cultural Competence Resources). The assessment measures four distinct CQ capabilities:

1. CQ drive (motivation): interest and con�idence in functioning effectively in culturally diverse settings 2. CQ knowledge (cognition): knowledge of how cultures are similar and different 3. CQ strategy (metacognition): how someone makes sense of culturally diverse experiences 4. CQ action (behavior): capability to adapt behavior to different cultures (Livermore, 2010)

OD consultants can also roughly gauge CQ by observing people while keeping in mind these four capabilities.

There are multiple cultural interventions; consultants should build skill in this area via reading and additional training or bring in experts in the area.

Figure 8.2: Cultural intelligence scale—self-report

While consultants can gauge CQ by observing, there are more formal methods of assessing it, such as this self-report scale. Download a PDF of this sample CQ scale (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/boo k/Bierema.6269.20.1/{pdfs}samplecqscale.pdf) .

From “Development and Validation of the CQS: The Cultural Intelligence Scale,” by L. Van Dyne, S. Ang, and C. Koh, in S. Ang and L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of Cultural Intelligence (pp. 34–56), 2015, New York, NY: Routledge. © Taylor & Francis 2015.

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Assessment: Cultural Competence Resources

The National Center for Cultural Competence (NCCC) has compiled a selection of self-assessments that measure an individual’s cultural competence. To take one yourself, visit the following link: https://nccc.georgetown.edu/assessments/ (https://nccc.georgetown.edu/assessments/) .

Cross-Cultural Development

Cross-cultural competence is what de�ines an employee who manages international business operations. Such an employee is often referred to as a global manager, international manager, or global leader (Ramburuth & Welch, 2005). Educating people to engage cross-culturally involves cross-cultural development. Preparing teams to engage cross-culturally is cross-cultural team building. These are similar interventions; that is, the distinctions pertain more to the type of work group than the speci�ic skills developed.

McLean (2006) lamented that much cross-cultural development is inadequate because it focuses more on the do’s and don’ts of traveling in certain places, versus building the competency to productively engage cross-culturally, appreciate difference, and resolve con�lict. Cross-cultural development is often short on actual experiences that build cultural competence.

Researchers directing a 4-year government-sponsored university exchange program between the United States and Brazil that involved 40 professional management and agriculture science students partaking in a semester-long study abroad experience found that in spite of intensive pre-departure preparation, in-country support, and cultural immersion, the students failed to improve their levels of intercultural awareness and tended to overestimate individual cross-cultural competence both before and after the experience (Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, & Ardichvili, 2016). The authors concluded that cross- cultural development requires well-designed interventions, feedback, and mentoring or coaching. See Tips and Wisdom: Global Business.

Tips and Wisdom: Global Business

Refer to the U.S. Department of State’s website for useful information relating to traveling and doing business globally (https://www.state.gov/countr ies-areas/ (https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/) ).

Why Do Consultants Promote Cross-Cultural Development? Cross-cultural development is important for a work force that is more culturally diverse and mobile than ever before. Organizations bene�it in myriad ways from hiring diverse, culturally savvy personnel who can relate to diverse work groups, customers, and suppliers. Unfortunately, few companies manage cross- cultural training well. See Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Training Programs.

Organizations that send employees abroad to work take signi�icant risks. First, it costs about three times an employee’s annual salary to send her or him abroad. Given that 30% to 40% of international assignments end prematurely, often because the cultural adjustment fails, it is worthwhile to help employees engage new cultures. Further, more than half of expatriated executives do not remain with their companies after an overseas assignment. In addition, international joint ventures have poor success rates, making it even more important to develop cultural understanding.

In spite of the high failure rate of cultural ventures, fewer than half of expatriated employees are given formalized cross-cultural training. Not surprisingly, fewer than half are also unable to manage cultural differences when they are sent abroad. The employee’s family typically receives even less assistance.

Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Training Programs

This list of cross-cultural training resources from the U.S. Department of State, a compilation of cultural training program providers from around the globe, is useful whether you are seeking a consultant or seeking to �ind employers of consultants: https://2009-2017.state.gov/m/fsi/tc/79756.htm (https://2009-2017.state.gov/m/fsi/tc/79756.htm) .

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Cross-Cultural Development? Cross-cultural development should emphasize key competencies needed by global leaders and teams. These include skills, traits, and knowledge across four dimensions (Ramburuth & Welch, 2005):

1. Cultural sensitivity and awareness. This involves awareness of how your own culture affects your behavior and shapes your beliefs (Lane, Maznevski, Dietz, & DiStefano, 2012).

2. Knowledge of other cultures and countries, including their norms, behaviors, cultural symbols, rituals, and belief systems (Hofstede, 2001) 3. Concrete business skills that help manage cultural differences, including cross-cultural negotiating, cross-cultural con�lict resolution, and cross-cultural

teamwork (Laughton & Ottewill, 2000) 4. Personal characteristics that support productive cross-cultural interactions such as emotional intelligence, psychological maturity, and the ability to

manage cognitive complexity (Sagha�i, 2001)

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Other traits important to cross-cultural competence include tolerance, persistence, �lexibility, self-esteem, self-questioning, and openness to learning and growth (Cui & Awa, 1992; Rhinesmith, 1996). See Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Awareness Resources.

Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Awareness Resources

Games and simulations are a fun and effective way to introduce issues of cultural awareness and intercultural communications. The games and simulations on the following site were compiled by the University of Minnesota Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition: https://carla. umn.edu/culture/res/exercises.html (https://carla.umn.edu/culture/res/exercises.html) .

Effective cross-cultural development involves creating experiences ahead of time in which participants can experience some of the challenges and emotions that may arise in an unfamiliar culture. Simply creating opportunities for the employee to interact with people from different cultures can also help. OD interventions that can provide such experiences will promote more cross-cultural exchange. Examples of effective cross-cultural development include the following:

Engage in self-awareness re�lective activities such as the Twenty Statements Test (see Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test). Create simulations that “plunge students into a state of uncertainty and confrontation, yet discovery and excitement that evokes the sensation of culture shock” (Ramburuth & Welch, 2005, p. 11). A popular cultural simulation is the game Bafa Bafa. Engage in multicultural teamwork. Perform case studies. Engage in immersion experiences or exchange programs.

Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test

The Twenty Statements Test (TST) (Kuhn & McPartland, 1954) is a long-standing psychological and social psychological assessment that asks participants to re�lect on their sense of self by providing answers to 20 questions that ask the participant, “Who am I?” Answers usually re�lect the various roles participants play and give clues to their culture. The assessment is simple to administer; an example is provided for you to try (see Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3: Twenty Statements Test

There are 20 numbered blanks on the page. Write 20 different answers to the question “Who am I?” in these blanks. Answer as if you were talking to yourself, not another person. There are no right or wrong answers. Simply write things down in the order that they occur to you. Download this assessment as a worksheet (https:// media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/{pdfs}twentystatements_form.pdf) .

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Adapted from “An Empirical Investigation of Self Attitudes,” by M. H. Kuhn and T. S. McPartland, 1954, American Sociological Review, 19, 68–76.

1. Notice the words used to describe yourself. What did you emphasize? What do you notice? 2. Did you include any of these typical descriptors?

a. Physical description (height, weight, skin color, eye color) b. Social roles (student, spouse, employee, parent) c. Personal traits (competitive, adventurous, quiet) d. Existential statements (spirituality or values statements such as “I believe in equality for all.”)

3. What did you learn about yourself ? Others? 4. How might this new knowledge assist you in cross-cultural interactions?

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�izkes/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Con�lict can be productive when it is steeped in ideas. When it becomes personal, it can be destructive and require an intervention.

8.3 Con�lict Management

“A con�lict is a problem in which two or more people have a difference of opinions, methods, goals, styles, values, and so on” (Brounstein, 2001, p. 155). Con�lict exists in every organization and is normal. Moreover, con�lict has a positive side, because it stimulates new solutions and helps clarify issues.

OD consultants may be called on to resolve con�lict between individuals or groups. These con�licts usually involve business concerns or working relationships. Often, OD consultants become aware of con�lict while implementing an intervention for another concern. Therefore, OD consultants need to be aware of the symptoms of con�lict. These include the following behaviors:

Ideas are attacked before they are completed. Comments are made with vehemence. Members belittle one another’s ideas or the ability of the group or team. Members accuse one another of not understanding. Members distort one another’s ideas. Members are impatient with one another. Members stick to their own points rather than �inding common goals or ground. Members take sides. Suggestions do not build on previous suggestions. Little movement is made toward resolution. We–they (win–lose) pressures and attitudes prevail. Members provoke, attempt to control, and give advice.

OD consultants can help clients develop attitudes that are conducive to resolving con�lict by cultivating

a mutual belief in the availability and desirability of �inding a solution; a recognition that con�lict is a natural part of relationships; empathy for others’ views; a commitment to cooperation, not competition; realization that the process must gravitate from problem identi�ication to solution; methods to minimize the power and status differences that elicit defensiveness and guarded communication; a belief that the other party can compete, but opts to cooperate; an attitude of self-examination to assess whether you are part of the problem or the solution; awareness of the limitations of arguing; ardent practice of dialogue; and a belief that differences of opinion (not interpersonal strife) are helpful.

Con�lict can be resolved by developing interpersonal skills, team building, and teamwork. Often, those in con�lict need to learn to recognize and value different perspectives, build self-awareness of their biases, improve communication skills, and devise solutions that reconcile the con�licting interests (Burn, 2004). Defusing con�lict can be accomplished through dialogue, trust-building activities, negotiation, or third-party intervention (when a neutral party attempts to resolve con�lict). This section pro�iles con�lict resolution through confrontation meetings, role negotiation and analysis, third-party intervention, and appreciative inquiry.

Gonçalves et al. (2016) tested a model of how cultural intelligence and self-monitoring positively in�luenced the ability to solve interpersonal con�licts more effectively among 399 participants and found them to be predictors of con�lict resolution style. Cultural intelligence helps individuals more effectively resolve con�lict and may also contribute positively to decision making and negotiation. They recommend that organizations invest in both helping employees bolster cultural intelligence and teaching them strategies for effectively managing con�lict.

Confrontation Meetings

A gathering that aims to identify problems, set priorities and targets, and begin working on identi�ied problems is known as a confrontation meeting (Beckhard, 1967). Confrontation meetings can be used any time and are especially useful when the organization is in stress and communication problems characterize the relationship between workers and top management.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Confrontation Meetings? Confrontation meetings allow timely intervention around a problem or issue. The process seeks broad participation from employees who represent the entire organization. Confrontation meetings work best when management is strongly committed to solving the problems that are communicated and when participants are committed to �inding a solution. Confrontation meetings are also used when communication must be immediately improved, employee morale needs a boost, the culture needs adjusting, relationships are suffering, and solutions are needed.

Confrontation meetings provide top management with speci�ic data regarding organization conditions and recommended actions from employees. The process involves multiple levels and gives top management the opportunity to identify key priorities. The entire process engages the organization in problem solving, decision making, strategic planning, and committing to action.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Confrontation Meetings? Consultants facilitate confrontation meetings by gathering relevant stakeholders. The goal of the meeting is to identify problems about the work environment and the organization’s effectiveness. The attendees are organized into smaller groups that represent all of the organization’s departments, but members who have a direct reporting relationship should not be grouped together. These departmental groups are tasked with candidly identifying organizational problems. The ground rules emphasize that neither individuals nor groups will be criticized for raising issues. Usually, groups are challenged to see who can raise the most issues.

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After the groups have generated issues or problems, they reconvene and hear reports from each group. Next, issues are consolidated and categorized. Participants are divided into problem-solving groups; the composition of these usually differs from the original problem-identi�ication groups, depending on the issues raised. Each group ranks the problems it has been assigned, creates action plans, and determines an appropriate timetable for completing them.

Each group then periodically reports its list of priorities and tactical plans of action to management as a follow-up to the original meeting. The steps of a confrontation meeting are presented in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Confrontation meeting steps

Step Time Description

Climate setting 1 hour Management explains the confrontation meeting purpose and objectives and shares more background on the issue or problem. Open dialogue is invited.

Information collection

1 hour The group is divided into smaller groups of six to eight participants representing functional areas as much as possible. Managers and subordinates are separated. Topics for information collection may include

1. concerns, 2. obstacles to progress, 3. demotivators in the culture, 4. problematic policies or procedures, 5. goals, 6. other topics as appropriate, and 7. key things that would improve the organization.

Information sharing 1 hour Each group appoints a reporter to share its information, usually put on a �lip chart or projected for everyone to see. The consultant helps identify major categories of issues and sorts them into groups, with input from participants.

Priority setting and group planning

1 hour + The entire group engages itself in a conversation about the categories. Individuals work to rank the categories in terms of priority. Participants shift into their functional groups to engage in planning, including managers. Each group is asked to

1. dialogue about the problems and issues raised, 2. identify how the issues affect the group, and 3. propose actions or solutions that the group is willing to commit to.

Organization action plan

2 hours Participants return to a “group of the whole.” Each functional unit reports its priorities, commitments, and plans. Top management is asked to react to this list and commit to action where needed. Participating units also share how they will communicate the results to colleagues not attending the session.

Immediate follow-up by top team

1 to 3 hours Top management team convenes immediately after the confrontation meeting ends to plan how it will follow up. Management shares its plan within a week.

Progress review Ongoing Progress on commitments is assessed periodically as groups present to the top management team.

Third-Party Intervention

When individuals or groups are unable to resolve con�licts on their own and enlist a neutral party to provide either mediation or arbitration, they are engaged in third-party intervention. Mediation occurs when a third party, after learning about the con�lict, makes nonbinding recommendations to the parties. Arbitration is similar to mediation, but the recommendations are binding. Mediation tends to be the preferred type of third-party intervention in OD. Organizations often train internal members to serve as mediators, but mediators can also be external.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Third-Party Intervention? Third-party intervention is warranted when a con�lict has become personal and debilitating to the individuals in con�lict and/or those around them, and the individuals are unable or unwilling to engage in con�lict-resolution activities themselves. Third-party intervention requires the consent of the individuals embroiled in con�lict and is usually sought by colleagues and/or managers who are exasperated by the con�lict and the challenges it poses to the work environment.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Third-Party Intervention? Mediation is usually a three-stage process:

Stage 1, or setting the stage, is when the mediator spells out ground rules between the disputants and gathers information about the con�lict. Stage 2, problem solving, is when solutions are generated. Stage 3, achieving a workable agreement, encourages the disputants to settle the disagreement with a win–win outcome (Burn, 2004).

If the con�lict escalates, the mediator may have to meet with the parties separately.

Burn (2004) outlined the following steps for facilitating mediation:

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1. Initiate direct contact between disputants only if hostility is low and common ground is high. When hostility is high, direct contact may escalate the con�lict. Therefore it is advisable to “caucus” with the two parties separately to identify underlying interests and present the other side’s position in a sympathetic way.

2. Teach the disputants constructive communication skills and negotiation concepts so that direct communication and resolution become possible. 3. Situate the negotiations at a neutral site to prevent one side from gaining a tactical advantage, and to enhance mediator control. 4. Promote trust between the parties by emphasizing overlapping interests and by encouraging both to make small but irrevocable concessions to show

they are committed to the conciliatory process. 5. To cool off parties’ emotions, listen carefully and sympathetically to participants’ expressions of emotions such as anger and resentment, holding

caucuses with each side. 6. Use the parties’ underlying interests to come up with integrative solutions. 7. Emphasize superordinate goals (common objectives) to promote cooperation. 8. Frame agreements in such a way that each side can make concessions without appearing weak. 9. To create a sense that agreement is possible, arrange the issues so that participants can work on easier issues �irst.

10. After signi�icant progress has been made toward an integrative solution, impose a deadline by which a �inal agreement should be reached. Do not impose a deadline too early because time pressure makes joint problem solving less likely. (p. 208)

Appreciative Inquiry

As discussed in Chapter 2, appreciative inquiry (AI) was originated by Cooperrider, Barrett, and Srivastva (1995). It is an OD process that focuses on renewal, change, and performance. It can be used to resolve con�lict or engage in strategic planning or visioning. AI follows steps similar to the action research model. The major departure is that rather than analyzing the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, AI focuses only on the positive aspects of the issue or culture. AI frames questions and future visioning positively, seeking to identify the basic goodness in a person, a situation, or an organization with the result of enhancing the organization’s capacity for collaboration and change.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Appreciative Inquiry? Appreciative inquiry can be used for several reasons. The organization may be in a rut and have dif�iculty envisioning a solution or desired future. Because AI reverses the human tendency to focus on the negative, it can help organizations see issues in a new light. It may also help shift the organization from a de�iciency mindset to a more opportunistic one.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Appreciative Inquiry? AI uses a four-stage process that focuses on the following:

1. Discover: Identify organizational processes that work well. 2. Dream: Envision processes that would work well in the future. 3. Design: Plan and prioritize processes that would work well. 4. Destiny (or Deliver): Implement (execute) the proposed design.

AI’s precept is to build on what works instead of trying to �ix what does not because where you place your attention shapes your reality. AI provides the structure to reframe the problem in a more positive, future-oriented way. Shifting the con�lict to focus on what is working and where the group wants to be changes the direction of the inquiry and energy of those involved toward doing more of what works instead of getting bogged down on what does not work. To use AI when con�licts arise, consider posing questions such as these to the group:

What are the positive aspects of this con�lict?

What makes you proud to work here?

What are your key relationships in this organization and how can you build more like them?

What values will sustain this organization into the future?

What questions should we be asking each other?

McLean (2006) has suggested that anecdotal research shows it may be bene�icial, particularly for organizations with a recent trauma such as a hostile takeover or downsizing. Although AI may be useful in bolstering morale and understanding an organization’s strengths, it may also sti�le dialogue on dif�icult issues, reinforce existing power arrangements, and further privilege management.

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8.4 Problem Solving and Decision Making

Another group of interventions is used to help organizations solve problems and make decisions in ways that promote continuous improvement and innovation. Pro�iled interventions include total quality management/Six Sigma, quality of work life, problem-solving models, and Work-Out.

Total Quality Management and Six Sigma

Total quality management (TQM) is a comprehensive approach to employee involvement that aims to create high-quality goods and services that exceed customer expectations through a process of continuous improvement. This method is therefore also known as continuous process improvement. TQM programs involve employees in activities focused on quality improvement. These usually are accompanied by extensive training, information sharing, shared decision making, and performance-based rewards systems.

Engineers W. Edwards Deming (1982) and Joseph Juran (1974) introduced TQM to the United States during World War II. Their ideas had more traction in Japan, and it was not until the 1980s that TQM received serious attention in the United States. TQM follows a plan, do, check, act cycle (Deming, 1982, 1986) that is similar to the phases of action research.

TQM is associated with the development, deployment, and maintenance of organizational systems that support a range of business processes. It is strategic in that it focuses on maintaining existing quality standards while simultaneously making incremental improvements in quality. TQM is not just an instrumental process of improving processes and products; it is also a cultural intervention that aims to promote collaboration in the organization’s efforts to improve quality. TQM gave rise to Six Sigma.

Six Sigma is a newer approach that is broader than a process improvement program. It focuses on continuous improvement in quality to near-perfection (3.4 defects per million). It uses statistical methods to monitor and control processes. Six Sigma differs from TQM as it is primarily focused on taking quality to the next level. The main difference between Six Sigma and TQM is the approach. Six Sigma focuses on defect reduction, cycle time reduction, and cost savings. Table 8.5 highlights contrasts between the two approaches.

Table 8.5: Contrasting TQM and Six Sigma

TQM Six Sigma

Articulates vision to improve quality Reduces dependence on inspections Aims to change the culture so employees can alert the organization about issues Trains employees to understand and seek quality improvement Promotes ongoing education

Focuses quality improvement initiatives on increasing customer satisfaction Drives decision making using metrics and data Aims to reduce variation that affects quality Separates non-value-added work from value-added work (reduces waste) Prioritizes speed

Determining which process is best depends on your industry and product or service. Six Sigma provides bene�its of data gathering and monitoring of quality that helps ensure quality products and services with minimal defects. TQM may be more appropriate for service-based industries that are less precise, where the aim is to improve customer service rather than decrease defects and build a collaborative culture around quality processes, products, and services.

Why Do OD Consultants Do TQM/Six Sigma? These processes help organizations improve quality, minimize costs, and satisfy customers. They also help reduce errors and defects in products and services. TQM promotes employee involvement because it develops quality-improvement teams. Both processes also help participants

learn to use problem-solving models; develop new skills in interpersonal communications, leadership, and facilitation; base process changes and improvements on data; and incorporate best practices that meet or exceed expectations.

This, in turn, translates into higher competitiveness, productivity, cost reduction, market share, and job security.

How Do OD Consultants Do TQM? Several steps have been proposed for TQM implementation. Table 8.6 offers examples from well-known quality gurus Deming (1986), Juran (1974), and Crosby (1979), all prominent leaders in the quality movement.

Table 8.6: Quality gurus’ points

Deming Juran Crosby

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1. Create constancy of purpose. 2. Adopt the new philosophy of quality. 3. Cease dependence on mass inspection. 4. End practice of choosing suppliers based

on cost. 5. Identify problems and continuously

improve system. 6. Adopt modern training and development

methods on the job. 7. Change focus from quantity to quality. 8. Drive out fear. 9. Break down barriers between

departments. 10. Stop requesting increased productivity

without providing methods to achieve it. 11. Eliminate standards and quotas. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. 13. Vigorously educate and retrain. 14. Create enabling management.

1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve.

2. Set goals for improvement. 3. Organize to reach goals. 4. Provide training. 5. Carry out projects leading to problem

solving. 6. Report progress. 7. Give recognition. 8. Communicate results. 9. Keep score.

10. Keep momentum strong for continuous quality improvement.

1. Management commitment 2. Quality-improvement teams 3. Quality measurements 4. Cost of quality 5. Quality awareness 6. Corrective action 7. Zero defects planning 8. Supervisor training and development 9. Zero defects day

10. Goal setting 11. Error cause removal 12. Recognition 13. Quality councils 14. Do it all over again.

Deming (1986) also identi�ied “seven deadly sins” that organizations should avoid if they are seeking TQM:

1. lack of constancy of purpose; 2. emphasizing short-term pro�its and immediate dividends; 3. evaluation of performance, merit rating, or annual review; 4. mobility of top management; 5. running a company only on visible �igures; 6. excessive medical costs; and 7. excessive costs of warranty.

TQM initiatives require long-term senior management commitment, member training in quality methods, creating quality-improvement projects, measuring progress, and rewarding accomplishments.

How Do OD Consultants Do Six Sigma? 1. Identify a high-impact area to improve that is currently suffering losses or losing against the competition. 2. Align resources with the problem. 3. Teach the Six Sigma methodology:

a. De�ine the problem and make the case for change. b. Measure performance standards, set goals, and prepare reports to ensure alignment with project goals. c. Analyze and communicate root causes of process redundancy. d. Improve processes and measure improvements. e. Control by making adjustments to new processes to ensure goals are being attained.

4. Prioritize activities. 5. Establish ownership or champion. 6. Collect data and use it to make decisions. 7. Establish program governance. 8. Recognize contributions.

Quality of Work Life Programs

Quality of work life (QWL) programs are also known as employee involvement programs. QWL emerged as a reaction to the workplace’s poor quality-of-life conditions. This concept has evolved over time into participative management programs. Four key elements are generally regarded as important for effective employee involvement or QWL:

1. Power—when employees have authority to make work-related decisions. This is also referred to as “empowerment.” 2. Information—when employees have timely access to relevant information to foster decision making 3. Knowledge and skills—when employees are given the proper training and skills to effectively function 4. Rewards—when employees are recognized for results

QWL programs yield improved communication, coordination, motivation, capability, and productivity.

Why Do OD Consultants Do QWL? QWL interventions seek to develop organization climates that are conducive to healthy workplaces, that is, workplaces that maintain a comfortable balance between life and work for employees. QWL initiatives actively involve employees in shaping organization life. There are at least four principles of QWL that serve as a rationale for doing it (Herrick & Maccoby, 1975):

1. Security: The principle of humanism, which undergirds OD, implies a workplace free from anxiety, fear, or loss of employment. Additionally, workers’ health and safety are protected.

2. Equity: An organization is characterized by fairness and justice, including pro�it sharing. 3. Individuality: Employees’ uniqueness is honored, and they are encouraged to develop to their full potential and competence. 4. Democracy: Authority and responsibility among employees, including decision making and problem solving, is broadly shared.

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How Do OD Consultants Do QWL? Lawler (1982) identi�ied several characteristics of participative systems such as QWL or employee involvement:

The programs depend on participative organization systems that have a �lat, lean, team-based organization structure that is designed around participative structures and decision making. The programs often have self-managing teams. Training is heavily emphasized, including peer training, economic education, and interpersonal skills. Information is transparently shared via open job postings, decentralized team management, participative goal setting, and open-door policies. The reward system is open, skill based, and egalitarian, often incorporating gainsharing or shared ownership of the enterprise, �lexible bene�its, and an all-salaried work force. Selection of coworkers is an open process that seeks team input. It is centered on hiring right-�it employees by giving them a realistic preview of the job and seeking out employees who will contribute to the organization’s participative nature. The organization is safe and pleasant and the personnel policies transparent and egalitarian. Organizations implementing high-involvement programs seek to improve employee attraction and retention, motivation, productivity, and employee well-being and satisfaction (Cummings & Worley, 2009).

Problem-Solving Models

Most groups and teams do not function for long before they encounter a problem to solve. Without any knowledge of team process or steps to resolve issues, teams may �lounder and fail to achieve results. Applying a problem-solving model helps teams stay focused and on task.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Problem Solving? Problem solving is warranted when the issue is complex, has implications for numerous stakeholders, and has no de�initive solution. For example, many American communities struggle with developing safe, walkable, bikeable routes that also allow vehicular traf�ic. There are many options and much disagreement about what the best solution is. This type of complicated issue that has multiple solutions is a perfect candidate for a problem-solving intervention.

Problem solving is also advisable when information from multiple sources is required to make an informed decision about appropriate courses of action, especially when experts have highly biased views on what makes the most sense. Regarding the safe routes issue again, pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists all have different views on what to do. Expert community developers and road scientists would also take different approaches.

Problem solving as an intervention has both advantages and disadvantages, as noted in Table 8.7.

Table 8.7: Disadvantages and advantages of problem solving as an OD intervention

Disadvantages Advantages

Competing interests that can escalate into unproductive con�lict Unwillingness to listen to differing viewpoints Conformity or tendency for individuals to try to reach a consensus before all options have been effectively vetted and because they want to avoid con�lict Lack of objective facilitation. Problem-solving groups require a leader who can provide balanced, neutral guidance for the direction and content of the discussion. Time constraints. Effective problem solving takes more time than do arbitrary decisions reached by individuals. Often, the group loses patience and seeks the option that allows the process to �inish as quickly as possible.

Diverse input based on different experience, knowledge, views, and values. This yields a larger volume of potential ideas and solutions. Cross-fertilization of ideas between members of the group Reduced bias due to a collective responsibility for acting on the problem and challenges from group members to avoid prejudice Increased risk taking due to the shared responsibility in the outcome Higher commitment based on a “we’re all in this together” mindset, where the group values individual and collective contributions to the process Improved communication around potential solutions, con�licts, and decisions Better solutions that use the critical thinking and broad thinking of the group

How Do OD Consultants Do Problem Solving? High-performing teams, as well as TQM and QWL processes, usually incorporate de�ined steps that help address the problem. The bene�its of following a problem-solving process are multiple, and these steps can be taken by anyone in the organization at any level to address challenges. Problems happen continuously, so the ability to proactively deal with them and involve key stakeholders is a universal skill that bene�its everyone. Being an effective problem solver means that individuals and teams demonstrate observational skills and the abilities to think laterally and analytically. Solving problems requires innovation and collaboration, so becoming strong in this area has multiple bene�its to careers, team functioning, and business performance. Problem-solving models follow a series of steps that should be mastered by individuals and teams, such as this basic problem-solving model:

1. Identify the problem. 2. Get speci�ic. De�ine the following:

a. Nature of the problem—what exactly do we mean by “the problem”? b. Cause—why does the situation exist? Why is it occurring? c. Scope—how widespread is the problem? To what extent does it exist? Who and what does it affect? Is it large or small? d. Severity—“How bad is it?” e. Is it a regular or an occasional event?

3. Diagnose the problem. (This is where the root cause is determined. Previous steps allow us to make an accurate diagnosis.) 4. Set objectives for solving the problem. 5. Identify potential constraints on problem solving. 6. Develop a plan for overcoming constraints and solving the problem. 7. Evaluate the plan.

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8. Implement the plan. 9. Monitor and evaluate the plan after implementation.

These basic problem-solving steps can be followed by individuals or teams. They might be used in a medical practice to remove waste and inef�iciencies, increase productivity, improve response time, or sustain safe and reliable operations. Table 8.8 shows an example of automating patient reminders as a way of addressing inef�iciency and boosting productivity.

Table 8.8: Problem-solving method example

Problem-solving step Description

1. Identify the problem. Patients are not showing up for scheduled appointments, and when they do, they are not following instructions such as fasting before bloodwork.

2. Get speci�ic. De�ine the following: Nature: Patients prevent the of�ice from running smoothly and serving the maximum number of patients when they are no-shows for appointments. Sometimes, even when they show up, they have been noncompliant with instructions (e.g., fasting 12 hours before bloodwork), causing further delays when procedures have to be rescheduled.

Cause: Poor communication mechanism to remind patients of appointments and procedures with the practice of calling patients manually

3. Diagnose the problem. Lack of reliable communication method to provide timely reminders that patients follow

4. Set objectives for solving the problem.

Cost effective Easy to administer Patient satisfaction Improved ef�iciency and productivity of clinic

5. Identify potential constraints on problem solving.

Time Money Ease of use

6. Develop a plan for overcoming constraints and solving the problem.

Several solutions were evaluated to automate patient reminders using the potential constraints identi�ied in step 5 to assess them. An automated reminder system was selected that best met concerns for time, affordability, and user- friendliness.

7. Evaluate the plan. The plan was shared with the entire staff and approved with a plan for piloting the system and then expanding it once any problems were resolved.

8. Implement the plan. An automated patient reminder system was implemented that would send voicemail and text messages to patients to remind them of upcoming appointments and any special instructions they should follow. Patients would receive a reminder 3 days before the appointment and then the day before.

9. Monitor and evaluate the plan after implementation.

Patient no-shows and noncompliance decreased, and therefore the plan was deemed a success. If that had not been the case, the clinic might have had to implement other strategies to address the problem or tweak the system and essentially go back through the problem-solving steps.

A formal and intensive method of engaging in team problem solving is a Work-Out. Also referred to as a town meeting or step-level meeting, a Work-Out involves considerable planning. An organization might engage in this type of problem solving to signi�icantly reduce the cost of supplies needed to run the business or to solve problems related to product or service quality. The following tasks need to be completed in advance:

Identify the facilitator(s). Select a problem for the group to work on. Secure management support. Identify potential participants. Prepare participants for what to expect. Select and prepare the site.

The event itself proceeds as follows:

1. A group of employees and other appropriate stakeholders convenes with a manager at an off-site location. 2. The manager charges the group with solving a problem or set of problems shared by the group that ultimately falls under the manager’s

responsibility. 3. The manager leaves, and the group spends 2 or 3 days working on devising solutions to the problems under the guidance of skilled outside facilitators

or consultants. 4. At the conclusion of the meeting, the manager returns, along with her or his boss, to learn the group’s recommendations. 5. The manager has a choice of three responses to each recommendation:

a. “Yes.” b. “No.” c. “I have to consider it more” (in which case, the manager clari�ies what must be considered and how and when the decision will be made).

6. The process is strongly supported by management. Resistance to the process or outcome is not tolerated and is considered a career-limiting move.

See Who Invented That? Work-Out for background on the process.

Who Invented That? Work-Out

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Work-Out was developed at General Electric during the late 1980s as an intensive approach to team problem solving (Ashkenas & Jick, 1992; Cosco, 1994; Tichy & Charan, 1989). Work-Out played a key role in the company’s notable performance over the past decade and has been implemented in many other organizations. Dave Ulrich, Steve Kerr, and Ron Ashkenas created Work-Out. You can read more about the process in their book, The GE Work-Out: How to Implement GE’s Revolutionary Method for Busting Bureaucracy and Attacking Organizational Problems—Fast! (2002, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill).

Work-Out is a useful intervention because it reinforces an existing or desired culture of fast problem solving, broad employee involvement, employee empowerment, dialogue across organization levels, accountability for solutions and results, and continuous improvement. Doing a Work-Out is not cheap, given that it requires external facilitation and a group of employees to go off-site for a few days. However, it signals to the organization that there is a commitment to invest resources in seeking employee input and solving problems in a timely fashion.

For more information on the program, visit the following link: http://www.huf�ingtonpost.com/ray-gagnon/ge-workout_b_4071796.html (http://w ww.huf�ingtonpost.com/ray-gagnon/ge-workout_b_4071796.html) .

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Summary and Resources

Explore the following interaction to test your understanding of group and team interventions.

Chapter Summary Using the inquiry-based discourse of dialogue (instead of discussion) promotes learning and understanding among team members. The team life cycle represents the various stages teams undergo as they form and develop procedures and working relationships. The stages are forming, storming, norming, and performing (and sometimes adjourning). Team start-up or transition helps acclimate teams to new members or new challenges by establishing clear goals, providing training, creating support structures (e.g., facilitation guidelines, meeting structures, problem-solving procedures), and evaluating progress. Team building is the process of helping teams perform more effectively and ef�iciently via relationship-building and team-management procedures (e.g., clear roles and responsibilities). Team learning attempts to harness the team’s knowledge and use action learning to address challenges and problems. Virtual teams use technology to mediate their communication and work; they are increasingly common and important for organizations to compete and succeed in global markets. Building cultural awareness increases organization members’ consciousness of and appreciation for cultural differences. Developing cultural awareness promotes more effective group and team processes. Cross-cultural development provides participants with the education and experience to effectively navigate multicultural groups and teams and to travel abroad for business. Third-party intervention or mediation features an objective, neutral party that hears both sides of the con�lict and makes nonbinding recommendations to the feuding parties. Appreciative inquiry can be used to resolve con�lict by shifting group members away from negatives, problems, and de�iciencies and toward opportunity, positive attributes, and possibilities. Total quality management (TQM) uses a process of continuous improvement to solve problems, make decisions, and function in ways that yield high- performing teams, products, and processes. Six Sigma uses data and metrics to improve processes, lower defects, and speed up the process. Quality of work life (QWL) programs seek to involve and empower teams to make decisions and problem solve in ways that enhance the workplace and its productivity. Problem-solving models provide steps for groups and teams to follow as they attack challenges such as mistakes, errors, defects, or interpersonal con�lict.

Think About It! Re�lective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning 1. Re�lect on a team you belong to and see if you can pinpoint Tuckman’s (1965) stages of group development (forming, storming, norming, and

performing). 2. Think of a group (versus a team) to which you belong. See how many of the characteristics of groups versus teams �it your experience. 3. Re�lect on your own cultural identity and awareness and think about how it affects the groups and teams to which you belong. 4. Think of a con�lict you are currently experiencing and characterize it based on the information presented in the chapter.

Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life 1. Practice dialogue in your conversations for 1 day and jot down your experiences. What did you notice? What did you learn? What was challenging?

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2. Pick �ive tips from the virtual teams section and apply them the next time you have a virtual meeting. What was the impact of changing your behavior? 3. Take the cultural intelligence quotient assessment. What are your strengths? What are your opportunities to learn? 4. Take the Twenty Statements Test with a family member or friend and follow the debrie�ing questions listed in the chapter. 5. Identify the problem-solving and decision-making tools you have used. 6. Practice appreciative inquiry on a problem you are experiencing. 7. Identify a problem you want to resolve and follow the problem-solving steps presented in this chapter.

Additional Resources Media

Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_HZd5rAF6g (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_HZd5rAF6g)

Con�lict Resolution https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KY5TWVz5ZDU (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KY5TWVz5ZDU)

Problem-Solving Strategies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4U04TbCR28g (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4U04TbCR28g)

Web Links

Group or Team Process and Development

Infed, which provides a space for people to explore education, learning, and social action: https://infed.org/mobi/bruce-w-tuckman-forming-storming-norming-and-performing-in-groups/ (https://infed.org/mobi/bruce-w-tuckman-formin g-storming-norming-and)

Research Center for Group Dynamics, whose mission is to advance the understanding of human behavior in social contexts: http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu (http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu)

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

EDUCAUSE, which provides links to diversity, equity, and inclusion resources: https://www.educause.edu/about/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/resources (https://www.educause.edu/about/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/resource s)

Con�lict Management

U.S. Institute of Peace Con�lict Styles Assessment, provided by the independent, nonpartisan con�lict-management center created by Congress in 1984 to prevent, mitigate, and resolve international con�lict without resorting to violence: http://www.buildingpeace.org/act-build-peace/learn/con�lict-styles (http://www.buildingpeace.org/act-build-peace/learn/con�lict-styles)

Appreciative Inquiry Commons, a worldwide portal devoted to sharing academic resources and practical tools on appreciative inquiry: http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu (http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu)

Problem Solving and Decision Making

American Society for Quality, which provides training, professional certi�ications, and knowledge to a vast network of members of the global quality community: http://www.asq.org (http://www.asq.org)

American Productivity and Quality Center, a member-based nonpro�it and a leading proponent of business benchmarking, best practices, and knowledge management research: http://www.apqc.org (http://www.apqc.org)

International Society of Six Sigma Professionals, which exclusively promotes the interests of Six Sigma professionals: http://www.isssp.com (http://www.isssp.com)

Memory Jogger resources from Goal/QPC (http://www.goalqpc.com) (http://www.goalqpc.com) such as these:

Brassard, M. (1989). The Memory Jogger Plus+™: Featuring the seven management and planning tools. Methuen, MA: Goal/QPC.

Brassard, M., & Ritter, D. (1994). The Memory Jogger™ II: A pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement and effective planning. Salem, NH: Goal/QPC.

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

arbitration (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When a third party hears a con�lict and makes a binding resolution.

con�lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

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When two or more people have a difference of opinions, methods, goals, styles, or values.

confrontation meeting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A gathering that aims to identify problems, set priorities and targets, and begin working on identi�ied problems.

cross-cultural development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Education aimed at helping individuals and teams engage with increasingly diverse cross-cultural groups and build capacity for inclusion.

cultural awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Competence in dealing with diversity and inclusion in organizations.

diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The increasingly multicultural and varied composition of the work force.

diversity intelligence (DQ) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A measure of employees’ ability to re�lect on actions and behaviors toward diverse individuals in an organization by embracing difference as a strength and helping them interact more effectively with the changing demographics of workplaces and the global economy.

group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Three or more people bound by common perceptions, motivations, goals, or organization membership.

group or team life cycle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Stages of development that groups pass through to become high performing: forming, storming, norming, and performing.

mediation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When a third party hears a con�lict and makes a nonbinding resolution.

problem solving (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

De�ined steps to work in the process of addressing issues, from problem identi�ication to resolution.

team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Three or more individuals working together toward a common goal.

team learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A process that builds a team’s capacity to create and share new knowledge in a way that bene�its the organization.

third-party intervention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When individuals or groups cannot resolve problems on their own and involve a mediator or arbitrator to provide neutral assistance.

virtual teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Teams that function through computer-mediated communication across different geographical and time zones.

Work-Out (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Also known as town meeting or step-level meeting. An intensive approach to team problem solving.

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Discuss the role of vision, mission, and values in driving organization-level change.

Describe key activities that facilitate strategic planning, such as environmental scanning, SWOT analysis, SMART goals, and scenario planning.

Of the various organization designs, identify those that best facilitate the organization’s mission and those that need to be reorganized or restructured.

Explain how learning can be used strategically, such as by capturing organization learning and developing a strategic learning organization.

Explore how culture in�luences organizations and can be changed through interventions.

Describe key talent management interventions, such as talent management strategy and succession planning.

Examine the role of large-scale interactive events for organization change.

A nonpro�it health care organization had been struggling to keep its doors open. When the region’s largest employer went out of business, the size and needs of the population served by the organization rose signi�icantly; it was becoming increasingly dif�icult to provide services to clients. The executive director, Jane, was relatively new and decided the organization needed to improve its ability to raise funds. Jane contracted with an OD consultant, Jeff, to address the issue.

Jeff took Jane and the organization through the action research process to discover the root cause of the problem. He began by collecting data. He reviewed the organization’s website and brochures and interviewed employees, donors, and clients. After analyzing the data, he concluded that the organization was not clearly communicating its mission and services well enough and that it lacked a strategic plan. Jeff also suspected that the organization design was not conducive to carrying out its work.

Jeff and Jane began to address this problem by holding a retreat. During the retreat, board members and staff engaged in numerous exercises to express, clarify, and revise their mission, vision, and values statements. For example, they spent time identifying the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats over the short, mid-, and long term. They imagined various scenarios that would create very different outcomes for the organization, such as changes in health care coverage, escalating expenses, a new employer moving into town, future company closures, and an electronic medical record.

Immediately following the retreat, the organization updated its website, letterhead, and brochures to re�lect its more concise mission, vision, and values. Jeff and Jane also worked with the board on developing a 5-year strategic plan that included more aggressive communication to potential donors, increased fundraising efforts, and enhanced diversity of both its board members and its donor base.

Part of the strategic plan included reorganizing the nonpro�it around its programs to more readily respond to its distinct stakeholder groups, such as patients and insurance companies. The reorganization was preceded by a large-scale event that brought together employees, patients, other health care providers, board

Organization-Level Interventions 9

PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images Plus

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members, and other local nonpro�its that worked closely with the organization to plan for the future and how best to meet its needs. Each of these steps will be illuminated in the following sections.

Organization-level OD interventions tend to be more comprehensive and long term than individual and group interventions. Their goal is to help the organization set direction, determine strategy, solicit feedback, facilitate learning, manage knowledge, change the culture, value diversity, develop the work force, and manage day-to-day activities. Although the list of potential interventions is endless, this chapter introduces the range and variety of interventions that are typically used in OD. These can be categorized into seven areas: mission, vision, or values development; strategic planning; organization design; learning infrastructure; culture; talent management; and large-scale interactive events (see Table 9.1). The �irst of these is the development of mission, vision, and values statements.

Table 9.1: Categories of individual OD intervention

Mission, vision, and values development

Strategic planning Organization design

Learning infra- structure Culture Talent management

Large-scale interactive events

Mission Environmental scanning

Organization structure

Organization learning Culture change

Talent management strategy

Interactive Strategic Planning

Vision SWOT analysis Reorganization Learning organization Diversity and inclusion

Succession planning Future Search

Values SMART goals Scenario planning

— — — — Conference Model Redesign Open Space Technology

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Bloomberg/Getty Images

An organization’s mission is its reason for being. It is usually based on a central product or service. eBay’s mission statement from 2013 was, “We exist to serve, and, through our service, we create an engaged and loyal eBay community.” In 2020, eBay’s website read, “Our mission is to be the world’s favorite destination for discovering great value and unique selection.”

9.1 Mission, Vision, and Values Development

If an organization is to communicate its core beliefs to the world, it must have a clear and concise statement of its mission, vision, and values. Start-up, merged, or signi�icantly reorganized organizations need to develop or revise these statements, and even established organizations should revisit them periodically. OD consultants often get involved in these efforts.

Consider This

Take a moment to jot down the vision, mission, and values of your organization. Can you do it from memory? If not, you are in good company, because most employees and other organization stakeholders cannot; this signals that these statements are probably in need of some revision.

Mission

A mission statement explains why an organization exists. It identi�ies the organization’s target audience and the product or service it provides in a way that expresses the organization’s core values. Good mission statements are easy to remember and describe.

Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Mission Statements? Mission statements create boundaries of service, motivate staff, and help evaluate whether the organization has met its goals. They succinctly communicate the organization’s purpose to both the internal and the external world. They can also help focus strategic planning, product development, and innovation.

How Do OD Consultants Help Organizations Create Mission Statements? There are three parts of a good mission statement: the audience, the product or service, and the evaluative measures. Consider a social media company’s mission statement to evaluate these elements:

“TechConnect’s mission is to give people the power to communicate and connect worldwide.”

Audience: The audience de�ines whom the organization serves. TechConnect is boundaryless to people who have access to a device and an Internet connection. TechConnect’s audience is “people . . . worldwide,” as noted in the statement. Product or service: The product or service identi�ies what the organization provides. TechConnect’s service is social networking, with the aim of openly connecting the world. Evaluative measures: Evaluative measures are the standards by which the organization can be judged in terms of whether it is achieving its mission. TechConnect’s mission is to connect people throughout the world. How well it is doing that might be measured by the number of users, ad revenue, or site traf�ic.

Mission statements should be short, succinct, and easy to remember, like the ones listed earlier in this section. Management guru Peter Drucker was known to have advocated mission statements that were no longer than eight words and could easily �it on a T-shirt. In his opinion, anything larger was simply too long (Wartzman, 2012). Chances are, if you cannot state an organization’s mission, it may not be a good statement.

You can use Figure 9.1 to write your own mission statement or evaluate your organization’s mission according to how well it articulates audience, product or service, and evaluative measures.

Figure 9.1: Mission statement assessment worksheet

Use this worksheet to write your own mission statement or evaluate your organization's mission statement. Download a copy of this worksheet (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/{pd fs}missionstatement_form.pdf) .

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Jeff and Jane, from the opening vignette, planned a retreat with staff and the board, who used their time away to craft a mission statement that could be communicated more succinctly. A list of exemplary mission statements can be found at the following link: https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/inspiring-c ompany-mission-statements (https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/inspiring-company-mission-statements) .

Vision

A vision statement articulates an organization’s desired end state. When the organization is able to articulate its image of a desired future—that is, where it wants to go and what it will be like once it gets there—it has clear vision (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994). Although leaders are responsible for formulating vision, Senge and colleagues (1994) argued that fostering and ful�illing the vision is everyone’s responsibility. Examples of good vision statements include these:

Motorcycle company: “To awaken adventure through motorcycling”

Wine maker: “To be the world’s most distinguished producer of �ine wines”

Chain restaurant: “To create a �irst-rate, accessible dining company”

Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Vision Statements? Noting that “not all visions are equal” (p. 299), Senge and colleagues (1994) identi�ied several attributes that make a vision powerful. Powerful visions “tap into an organization’s deeper sense of purpose and articulate speci�ic goals that represent making that purpose real, [and] have unique power to engender aspirations and commitment” (Senge et al., 1994, p. 299).

Creating a shared vision requires stakeholders to re�lect on the organization’s purpose and future. Senge and colleagues (1994) equated building shared vision with building shared meaning that yields a collective sense of what is important.

How Do OD Consultants Help Organizations Development Vision Statements? The consultant helps the client determine how it hopes its products or services might change the world. The vision statement should capture the organization’s dream; it is a picture of the organization’s ultimate success.

There are multiple methods for creating vision statements. These include simple word smithery and generative activities in which multiple participants identify key vision ideas that are collated and ranked. Other companies may use exercises involving pictures and visual aids to create images of the desired future. Table 9.2 compares the characteristics of vision and mission statements.

A list of exemplary vision statements can be found at https://�itsmallbusiness.com/vision-statement-examples/ (https://�itsmallbusiness.com/vision-statement -examples/) .

Table 9.2: Comparing mission and vision statements

Mission statements: Why the organization exists

Vision statements: The organization’s desired end state

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Succinct one-sentence statement explaining why the organization exists. It should

1. be simple and clear, 2. avoid jargon, 3. be easily memorized, 4. be distinctive, and 5. not be confused with a vision statement.

Succinct one-sentence statement describing the organization’s long-term desired end state. It should

1. be simple and clear, 2. avoid jargon, 3. be easily memorized, and 4. not be confused with a mission statement.

Examples of mission and vision statements

Automobile Company Mission Go the distance: We go the distance to exceed the expectations of our customers in quality and performance.

Automobile Company Vision To be the world’s leading provider of automotive products and services

Children’s Hospital Mission Committed to making them all better: We make children better today, and healthier in the future.

Children’s Hospital Vision To transform the landscape of pediatric health care and improve the health of all children

Values

An organization’s values are principles that govern how the organization expects to function in pursuit of its vision. OD consultants are often hired to help the organization clarify and articulate its values, along with its mission and vision.

Why Do OD Consultants Help Clients Develop Values Statements? A values statement brings the mission and vision statements to life by describing what the organization believes in and how it will behave. These statements signal the organization’s beliefs and culture. Values statements can serve as a moral compass for the organization by de�ining leadership expectations, establishing standards, and guiding decisions.

How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Develop Values Statements? Values are usually derived in conjunction with mission and vision statements. They are generally based on consensus and ideally involve input from top management and stakeholders across the organization.

OD interventions often center on helping organizations articulate their mission, vision, and values in a collective process that is developmental. This process may involve other visioning interventions introduced later in this chapter, such as a Future Search Conference, SWOT analysis, or environmental scanning. Creating the mission, vision, and values statements is often an integral part of strategic planning.

Consider This

What are the values of an organization of which you are a part? How are the values communicated or visible? For example, Patagonia communicates its value of “saving the planet” in how it manufactures, markets, and affects the environment: https://www.patagonia.com/company-info.html (https:// www.patagonia.com/company-info.html) .

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9.2 Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is “a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization (or other entity) is, what it does, and why it does it” (Bryson, 2004, p. 6). Strategic planning seeks to accomplish several goals, including establishing or revisiting long-term vision, values, and mission statements that span several years. Strategic planning scans the environment to assess the competitors, products, and services that characterize the industry context. The plan generates strategies to be implemented over a 5-year period that delineate speci�ic activities, champions to advocate for the plan, and deadlines for accomplishing tasks. For example, Jeff and Jane led the nonpro�it health organization’s staff and board through a strategic planning process that helped accomplish these goals.

The strategic planning process has several steps, including

engaging in comprehensive, effective information gathering; clarifying the organization’s mission, vision, and values; identifying issues to be addressed in pursuit of the mission; developing and exploring strategic alternatives; emphasizing the future impact of present decisions; and creating speci�ic, measurable actions and timelines, usually in 5-year increments.

Strategic planning helps organizations communicate their mission and goals to employees and other stakeholders. The process is often collective and seeks input from across the organization and its constituents. It represents multiple agendas, interests, and values. It also creates a deliberative assessment of the past, present, and future and establishes accountability measures. An organization typically makes a public commitment to its strategic plan and uses the plan to guide its decisions and actions. Figure 9.2 outlines a simple approach to strategic planning.

Figure 9.2: Strategic planning steps

Strategic planning is a three-step process to determine where you are, where you want to be, and how to get there.

An effective strategic plan will communicate the organization’s mission, vision, and values to the organization’s constituents. The plan will also help the organization prioritize and allocate resources and provide a basis for measuring progress and change. Consultants who facilitate a strategic planning process must educate themselves on the necessary steps, usually by undergoing continuing education or graduate study. They should also use products such as OnStrategy (https://onstrategyhq.com/ (https://onstrategyhq.com/) ) to track progress and make the plan and accomplishments visible on the organization website. Additionally, they can access strategic planning tools and resources through the Council of Nonpro�its: https://www.councilofnonpro�its.org/tools- resources/dashboards-nonpro�its (https://www.councilofnonpro�its.org/tools-resources/dashboards-nonpro�its) .

Several interventions support the strategic planning process. These include environmental scanning, SWOT analysis, creating SMART goals, and scenario planning. Each will be pro�iled in the following sections.

Environmental Scanning

When the organization scrutinizes external and internal factors that provide critical information about its future, the organization is engaged in environmental scanning. Environmental scanning involves both external and internal scans:

External scans examine industry and government reports, journals, conferences, and any other sources that can be used to evaluate the industry. This information might include competitors, market conditions, government regulations, demographics, technology, economic development, global trends, or anything else that might affect the organization’s livelihood. Internal scans draw on stakeholder interviews, annual reports, planning documents, analysis reports, customer surveys, employee surveys, marketing reports, board meeting minutes, human resource databases, and other sources that provide relevant information.

Why Do OD Consultants Recommend Environmental Scanning? Environmental scanning systematically scrutinizes the organizational context (economic, competitive, social, political, and so forth) and collects data to develop a picture of current and future conditions that could positively or negatively affect the organization. Environmental scanning is important for organizations to maintain or improve their competitive position. The data generated by an environmental scan is used to develop or change strategies and plans.

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Environmental scanning can be done on any scale. Individuals may engage in it on a personal level when they try to understand the job market or select the best product to buy. Organizations use it regularly to anticipate the future and be more internally and externally strategic.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Environmental Scanning? Environmental scanning involves the following steps:

1. Collect data about the context in which the organization operates, including a. economic, b. government, c. legal, d. demographic, e. social, f. political, and g. environmental.

2. Use data sources such as a. publications, b. focus groups, c. industry leaders, d. internal leaders, e. media, and f. civic associations.

3. Critically examine competitors to discover trends, opportunities, and threats that have implications for the organization. 4. Conduct an internal scan to examine the organization’s strengths and weaknesses. This should include reviewing short- and long-term goals. 5. Assess where the organization is now and where it should be in 10 years. Conduct a gap analysis as discussed in Chapter 4. 6. Collect relevant data from the community in which the organization operates. Outcomes might be joint projects or strategies. Relevant stakeholders

might include a. nonpro�it organizations, b. governmental or social agencies, c. higher education institutions, and d. religious organizations.

7. Analyze the data and use it to develop or modify strategy.

Have you ever participated in environmental scanning? See the activity at the end of the chapter to practice.

SWOT Analysis

During a SWOT analysis, employees and other stakeholders come together to identify an organization’s strengths and weaknesses and to examine environmental opportunities and threats. It is often done as part of strategic planning and is very effective if performed correctly.

Why Do OD Consultants Do SWOT Analysis? The act of simply carrying out an analysis using the SWOT framework can be enough to reveal what needs to change and to stimulate new ideas. SWOT analyses are often undertaken following environmental scanning to establish strategies to maximize opportunities and minimize threats.

How Do OD Consultants Do SWOT Analysis? To carry out a SWOT analysis, re�lect on the questions listed in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: SWOT analysis

Strengths Weaknesses

What are our advantages? What do we do well? What are our • Unique capabilities? • Natural advantages? • Superior resources?

What could we improve? What are we doing badly? What should we avoid? What are our • Key vulnerabilities? • Disadvantages? • Resource and capability shortfalls?

Opportunities Threats (Challenges)

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Where are the good chances facing us? What are the interesting trends? What are the • Changes in the social, economic, and political environment? • Changes in technology? • Changes in government policy? • Changes in markets? • Weaknesses of our competitors? • Unmet customer needs? • Staff and supplier capabilities? • Size, location, and strategic positioning? • Changes in social patterns, population pro�iles, lifestyle changes,

etc.? • Local events that have potential?

What obstacles do we face? What is our competition doing? Are the required speci�ications of our work, products, or services changing? Is changing technology threatening our position? Do we have bad debt or cash �low problems? Are we at risk of • Resistance to change? • Lack of interest or motivation? • Lack of commitment? • Lack of �lexibility or focus? • Mismatch of skills and resources with the strategic direction? • High risks or impossible odds?

Facilitating a SWOT analysis for a client involves following these steps:

1. Ask participants to individually brainstorm on each of the SWOT categories (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats). Have them write down their ideas on Post-it notes.

2. Invite participants to place their Post-it notes on �lip charts stationed around the room. Each �lip chart should be devoted to one SWOT category. Individuals will work around the room in carousel fashion, adding one issue to each �lip chart until all ideas are exhausted.

3. Tally the issues. Seek consensus on prioritization of the key issues in each SWOT category. 4. Review and discuss the issues. 5. Invite the group to raise questions and answers. 6. Help the group plan action around key issue(s). 7. Summarize the process and outcomes.

Keep in mind that groups have a tendency to get stuck in the process of identifying issues and have dif�iculty moving toward commitment to action. Plan for transition out of the SWOT analysis to bridge the gap between idea generation and meaningful action.

Returning to the vignette, the nonpro�it organization underwent a SWOT analysis as part of its planning to adjust priorities and goals. The process helped clarify the nonpro�it’s challenges around fundraising in particular.

SMART Goals

Strategic plans should incorporate SMART goals. SMART goals are

Speci�ic Measurable Attainable Realistic or Relevant Time bound

The SMART mnemonic was introduced by George Doran, Arthur Miller, and James Cunningham in 1981 (Doran, Miller, & Cunningham, 1981). Since that time, it has served as the standard tool for creating effective goals.

How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Set SMART Goals? Table 9.4 offers descriptions and examples of SMART goals.

Table 9.4: Setting SMART goals

Description Personal example Organization example

Speci�ic A speci�ic goal can be clearly visualized. Speci�ics help us focus and clearly de�ine actions. Speci�ics are the what, why, how, and who of the SMART model.

WHAT are you going to do? Use action words such as increase, organize, collaborate, lead, develop, plan, establish, and build.

WHY is the goal important at this time? What do you ultimately want to accomplish?

HOW are you going to do it?

WHO is going to do it?

Instead of setting a goal to lose weight, set a speci�ic goal, such as losing 2 inches off your waistline, losing 5 pounds in 5 weeks, or walking 5 miles at an aerobically challenging pace.

Instead of setting a goal to retain employees, set a speci�ic goal, such as improving retention by 10% over the next 90 days and implementing an onboarding program to provide orientation to new employees.

Measurable An old management adage is “If you cannot measure it, it does not matter.” Furthermore, you cannot manage it. A goal provides a measuring stick. If the goal is accomplished, success has been achieved. An organization may also build several short-term or small measurements into the goal to measure incremental progress along the way.

A goal that is dif�icult to measure would be “Lose weight.” A better goal with measurable steps would be “Lose 1 pound per week for 5 weeks” or “Exercise for 30 minutes every day.”

“The organization will improve retention by 10% over the next 90 days.”

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Attainable Goals should be attainable and possible to reach. The goal should create some challenge in that it is neither too easy nor too dif�icult to reach and will require push to attain. The goal should be within the employee’s or organization’s ability and resources to achieve and should align with the work unit goals.

Aiming to lose 10 pounds in 1 week is not attainable (or healthy). A more attainable goal is to lose 1 to 2 pounds per week for a sustained period of time.

Aiming to improve retention by 10% is realistic, and after the 90-day period, the organization can adjust its goal and approaches (e.g., onboarding) to see if that affects retention.

Realistic or relevant

Realistic does not mean “effortless.” A realistic SMART goal is within the employee’s or team’s capability. Although the goal may challenge employees to develop new skills and knowledge, it will not throw them into the panic zone or break their motivation to continue because it seems possible to reach.

This part of the SMART goal framework is called “relevant” by some models. Relevant means that the goal is linked to roles and responsibilities and to the overall organization mission. Either way, the stated goal should be tied to the mission and should challenge the organization to attain it.

“Lose 25 pounds in 7–8 months in an effort to have a healthier lifestyle.” This type of goal requires us to further develop capacity to take steps to lose weight, but it is not unrealistic in what it is asking. An unrealistic goal might be one with a much shorter amount of time.

Reducing turnover is realistic in terms of being within the organization’s capability and highly relevant, as retaining staff has multiple bene�its that affect customer care, product or service quality, morale, and costs.

Time bound Creating a timetable or Gantt chart for a goal is imperative. Speci�ic time frames by week, month, semester, or year offer manageable targets to work toward. Without deadlines, it may be dif�icult to secure commitment to achieving the goal. A timetable creates a sense of urgency to achieve the goal. Make sure the timing is measurable, attainable, and realistic!

“To lose 10 pounds in time for a class reunion in 6 months.”

“To improve retention by 10% in 90 days.”

Why Do OD Consultants Help Clients Set SMART Goals? SMART goals help clients develop goals that hold them accountable for implementing their strategic plan. Addressing each aspect of the SMART goals helps clients develop good goals.

Scenario Planning

Scenario planning is a strategic planning approach that assesses all possible environmental changes that could affect the organization and creates a story about the outcomes. Strategic responses to the stories are developed so that all imaginable contingencies have been considered.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Scenario Planning? Organizations use scenario planning to plan long-term strategy in a shifting environment. For example, the process was used by Royal Dutch Shell to predict future shifts in the oil industry. The creation of scenarios can give organizations a context and situation that mimic reality and more readily allow problem solving and innovation.

How Do OD Consultants Do Scenario Planning? Scenario planning was introduced in the 1960s as a military tool to design weapons technology. It was then adopted for business planning and community building (Haeffner, Leone, Coons, & Chermack, 2012). Chermack (2011) suggested that scenario planning involves

1. emphasizing changed thinking, 2. creating informed narratives or stories of plausible futures, 3. making better decisions about the future, and 4. enhancing human and organization learning.

For example, during the nonpro�it retreat pro�iled in the vignette, Jeff and Jane developed potential stories of what might happen in the future if fundraising further diminished or increased dramatically.

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9.3 Organization Design

Organization design consists of �ive elements:

1. strategy: long-term vision 2. structure: roles, responsibilities, and relationships among organization units or functions 3. process and lateral capacity: decision-making process, cross-functional and integrative roles 4. reward systems: compensation, recognition, metrics 5. people practices: human resource or personnel functions such as hiring, talent management, learning, and development (Anderson, 2016; Galbraith,

2002)

When an organization’s design does not work well or prevents the organization from achieving its goals, it will redesign or restructure.

Organization design may change following a shift in strategy, a merger or acquisition, or outsourcing and downsizing. Such a shift allows the organization to more effectively meet the changing demands and market conditions.

Organization Structure

The order of reporting relationships and their general design is known as organization structure, which also incorporates processes and lateral capacities in terms of how individuals and groups work and make decisions together. There are several varieties of structure, including functional, divisional, matrix, process, and network (Cummings & Worley, 2018). We will de�ine each type shortly. Having an appropriate structure facilitates the organization’s work and productivity.

Why Do OD Consultants Address Organization Structure? An organization’s structure determines reporting relationships, level of formality, and how work gets accomplished. Consultants examine organization structure to assess how well it �its with the organization’s overall mission, vision, and values.

How Do OD Consultants Address Organization Structure? Consultants �irst assess the organization’s type of structure and then examine the mission and vision, key processes, and functions to see if the structure makes sense. For example, most automotive companies have hierarchy, assembly lines, and clear productivity targets. However, that type of structure would not be�it a company focused on the latest technology, quick responses, and innovation.

Types of Organization Structure This section pro�iles common organization structures. See if you can identify the structure of an organization you belong to as one of these types.

Functional Structure Functional organizations are organized according to functional activities such as �inance, human resources, and operations (Cummings & Worley, 2018). The functional structure values skill specialization, in that certain subdivisions carry out all tasks associated with that function for the organization. This structure promotes career development within the function, sometimes at the expense of exposure to other functions. The functional structure is sometimes accused of being “siloed” in that the functions become isolated from each other and lack understanding and communication across the organization. See Figure 9.3 for an example of a functional structure.

Figure 9.3: Functional structure

This structure is the classic hierarchy most of us think of when we envision organization structure.

Divisional Structure In a divisional structure, also called a self-contained unit, activities are organized according to products, services, customers, or geography (Cummings & Worley, 2018). Because members identify with the product or service rather than their own function and are oriented to the customer, departments tend to be more cohesive across the organization as compared with the functional structure. Cross-training is also more easily facilitated. However, the divisional structure may not be as ef�icient as the functional structure because of duplication of services, and career advancement within a specialty is more dif�icult. Divisional structure is depicted in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4: Divisional structure

The advantage of a divisional structure is the cohesiveness it tends to create.

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Matrix Structure The matrix structure combines two or more organization structures. For example, an engineer may report to the head of engineering and, on a special project around process changes in a manufacturing plant, will also report to the manager of the project, perhaps a manufacturing director. This structure results in employees reporting to more than one supervisor, as in the case of the engineer. Matrix structure promotes the sharing of functional and product knowledge across functions. It requires a �lexible and supportive management, because employees often report to both functional and product managers, making this structure more politically contested and dif�icult to implement than other structures. Matrix structures are not usually permanent. They shift according to organization need. See Figure 9.5 for an example of a matrix structure.

Figure 9.5: Matrix structure

The matrix structure allows for sharing of information across functions, but because employees may report to more than one person (e.g., functional and product managers), this structure often creates tension and is more dif�icult to implement.

Process-Based Structure Glavan and Vukšić (2017) described the process-based structure, or business process orientation (BPO), as occurring when an “organization pays attention to its relevant (core) processes (end-to-end view across the borders of departments, organizations, countries, etc.)” (p. 138). They surveyed 127 Croatian companies and found that BPO enhances both �inancial and non�inancial performance. Anderson (2018) noted that process-based structures are considered horizontal and boundaryless in nature and emerged in high-tech where competitive edge means organizations are nimble and quick in innovating new products and getting them to market. This requires a breakdown in hierarchy and instead uses cross-functional, self-managed teams to accomplish work. A process orientation involves a continuous improvement mindset, where the organization is perpetually seeking ways to improve. For example, ensuring the hiring process is well integrated throughout the organization and top diverse candidates are being recruited, interviewed, and hired requires constant attention. Hiring processes have evolved, with new capabilities using social media and hiring analytics. A business process–oriented organization seeks to improve processes across the organization that sustain and evolve over time.

The BPO structure is a relatively �lat structure with a small senior management team. Each major process has an owner who oversees its management. This structure is highly customer oriented and able to quickly adapt to the environment. There is generally strong teamwork based on the need to work across process groups to serve the customer, and thus teams work rapidly to set goals, adapt to change, and build collaborative working relationships. Successfully organizing according to process requires a shift in thinking about management’s role. Moreover, it may take longer to make decisions and accomplish tasks in the process-based structure. See Figure 9.6 for an example.

Figure 9.6: Process-based structure

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The process-based structure has teams focusing on core processes instead of products.

Network Structure A network structure abandons the traditional hierarchical functional structure, reducing functions down to key competencies and a network that helps the organization achieve its goals (Anderson, 2018). Network structures have been described as spider webs, clusters, or starbursts. They are characterized by vertical disaggregation, or the splitting of business functions into separate organizations that perform specialized work. Network organizations do not have hierarchies but are often managed by brokers who orchestrate processes, much as a general contractor draws on a network of specialties to construct a building (Cummings & Worley, 2018). Brokers coordinate a variety of informal relationships, contracts, and market mechanisms.

Network structures are �lexible and adaptable to the environment and are usually good at meeting customer and market demands. However, this structure is complex and unstable, making recruitment and retention challenging. See an example in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7: Network structure

The most adaptable of the organization structures, the network structure allows for a �lexible environment to meet customer and market demands.

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Organization design is driven by the organization’s mission, vision, values, and strategic plan. When there is a mismatch, reorganization is usually necessary.

Reorganization and Restructuring

Organizations must make changes that allow them to more nimbly respond to environmental factors such as increased competition, globalization, and new technologies. Often, these factors require organizations to rethink their structures through reorganizing or restructuring their operations to allow them to more effectively meet market conditions.

Why Do OD Consultants Help Clients Reorganize and Restructure? Organizations often decide to reorganize to improve communication, quality, or customer satisfaction or to improve productivity and performance. These activities can also be part of strategic plan implementation, particularly when the goals relate to improved performance and ef�iciency.

How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Reorganize and Restructure? Restructuring is the process by which an organization design is changed. Organizations will usually shift from a more traditional structure (such as functional, divisional, or matrix) to a more integrative and �lexible structure (such as process based or network). Also known as �lattening, restructuring involves shifting the organization to become more agile, responsive, productive, and effective. Restructuring is in�luenced by the environment, the geographic span of operations, organization size, technology, and the strategic plan. Here, we discuss three common approaches to restructuring: reengineering, mergers and acquisitions, and downsizing.

Reengineering Reengineering (Hammer & Champy, 1993) is the radical redesign of the organization’s core work processes to provide greater linkage and coordination among tasks. The goal is to achieve higher, faster performance and better customer service. Reengineering is primarily concerned with streamlining business processes and pays little attention to the human social system (French & Bell, 1999; McLean, 2006). The reengineering process is often associated with technological advances that the organization must adopt. Reengineering questions tasks and processes and attempts to unearth the assumptions that govern them. The result is usually radical changes in thinking and practice and improved customer service.

Reengineering is accomplished by preparing the organization, usually through data and education, about the need for the change. Preparatory work also involves clarifying the organization’s strategy and objectives so that the reengineering effort supports the long-term vision and mission. The reengineering process begins with a fundamental rethinking of how work gets accomplished by identifying and analyzing core business processes, de�ining performance objectives, and designing new processes. Next, the organization restructures around the new business processes. Typical process changes include shifting from functional departments to process teams, changing jobs from simple tasks to multidimensional work, empowering workers to have more authority in their roles, shifting compensation and performance measures from activities to results, �lattening the organization’s structure, and shifting managerial behavior from supervisory to coaching (Cummings & Worley, 2018).

Since reengineering’s emergence in the early 1990s, it has been used as a business improvement process in many sectors including energy management conservation (Chassiakos, Karatzas, & Farmakis, 2019), information technology investment and employee performance (Huang, Lee, Chiu, & Yen, 2015), public administration (Esbenshade, Vidal, Fascilla, & Ono, 2016; Rinaldi, Montanari, & Bottani, 2015), and total quality management (Serban, 2015), to name a few.

Mergers and Acquisitions

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Katleho Seisa/E+/Getty Images Plus

Organizations downsize to save money, although there is little evidence to show it effectively accomplishes cost savings.

Restructuring is usually necessary when companies merge or acquire new businesses. McLean (2006) identi�ied four methods of restructuring after a merger or acquisition:

1. Limited integration: Operations continue as they were premerger; alternatively, the acquisition is managed by a holding company, which houses several other organizations. For example, Walt Disney is the world’s largest mass media holding company, with theme parks, studios, television channels (Disney, ESPN, A&E, and ABC Family), as well as familiar �igures like Mickey Mouse.

2. Dominant company: The acquiring company absorbs the acquired company into its operations. 3. Mutual best of both: Melds the best of each organization into a new organization 4. Transformation to new company: Although similar to mutual best of both, this structure adopts entirely new organization practices to create a new

organization.

Have you ever been part of an organization that experienced one of these changes? If so, which structure did you experience?

Mergers and acquisitions often stimulate multiple OD efforts at the individual, team, and organization levels. Sometimes, mergers and acquisitions stimulate downsizing.

Downsizing “When you strip away the fancy jargon, a successful business fundamentally makes more money than it spends” (Ashkenas, 2012, para. 1). When an organization decreases its size to reduce cost and bureaucracy, it is downsizing. Downsizing is usually prompted by mergers and acquisitions, restructuring, lost revenue and market share from industrial and technological change, or social pressure to create a small, lean organization (Cummings & Worley, 2018). Additionally, McLean (2006) identi�ied economic downturn, change in product or service demand, technological shifts, improved processes, and �lattening as reasons organizations downsize.

Downsizing is usually accomplished through workforce reduction, organization redesign, or systemic redesign (Cameron, Freeman, & Mishra, 1991; Cummings & Worley, 2009):

Workforce reduction seeks to reduce the organization’s head count and is usually a short-term downsizing tactic accomplished through layoffs, attrition, retirement incentives, and buyout packages. Organization redesign seeks more fundamental organization change than workforce reduction and is a longer-term strategy accomplished by merging units, redesigning tasks, and eliminating functions, layers, and products. Systemic redesign seeks transformational culture change. A long-term strategy, it involves changing responsibilities, adopting continuous improvement programs, simplifying processes, and accepting downsizing as a way of life.

Downsizing is not cost-free, and organizations may not realize the hidden costs, which can be so high that they might cancel any gains made in salary savings (Ashkenas, 2012). When organizations lay off workers, they take on the costs of severance pay, bene�it extensions, and outplacement counseling. Longer term, organizations lose institutional knowledge, disrupt relationships, and create more burden and angst for employees who remain (Ashkenas, 2012). One study of 318 companies and more than 4,000 participants indicated that 77% of organizations have increased errors and mistakes after a downsizing.

Downsizing should not be about lowering the budget. A good measure is to assess the PEST costs: What are the Political, Economic, Social, and Technical costs of laying off workers? Downsizing was a desperate response some organizations had to the Great Recession that occurred from approximately 2008 to 2010. Yet, the costs of cutting the work force at that time were signi�icant: Valuable knowledge was lost with the laid-off long-term workers, new workers were under incredible pressure to learn new skills with little time and minimal mentoring, innovation was hurt, workloads increased, and trust and willingness for workers to engage diminished, along with company loyalty. The sum total was a disaster for many organizations, which were left in a tumultuous period without knowledge, loyalty, or enthusiasm for working at their companies.

Downsizing can be avoided if organizations pay attention to structure and do not allow it to become overly complex. Organizations have to shift with innovation and customer tastes and be willing to phase out products and services people no longer want. The Kodak corporation featured in an earlier chapter was not able to digest the growing demand for digital photography. The company did not phase out its �ilm business and wound up downsizing as a result. Organizations also need to accurately forecast the future and balance pro�itability in the short term and sustainability and growth in the long term.

Incidentally, the rise of the contingent work force is a consequence of downsizing. Research on downsizing has indicated that it does not achieve the intended results in cost reduction or productivity gains (Cummings & Worley, 2018). For a comprehensive reference, see the Society for Human Resource Management’s 2009 “Employment Downsizing and Its Alternatives”: https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/special-reports-and-expert -views/Documents/Employment-Downsizing.pdf. (https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/special-reports-and-expert-views/Documents/Employmen t-Downsizing.pdf)

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Interventions that support learning value the process and strategy for creating a learning culture.

9.4 Learning Infrastructure

When an organization embraces learning as a process and strategy and creates systems to capture and share learning, it is concerned with learning infrastructure. We have shifted from the industrial age to the knowledge age, and with that change we need to facilitate learning and thinking that begins at the individual level and ideally spreads throughout the organization. “Organizations will no longer remain competitive with informal approaches to knowledge and learning” (Gilley & Maycunich, 2000, p. 16). Organization-level interventions aimed at learning seek to raise awareness of how knowledge can give organizations a competitive edge. Two learning infrastructure interventions—organization learning and the learning organization—gained popularity in the 1990s, particularly with the publication of Peter Senge’s (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. These are discussed here.

Organization Learning

An organization concerned with describing the nature and process of internal learning is focused on organization learning (Callahan, 2003). When an organization focuses on learning, it pays attention to how knowledge is developed and shared.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Organization Learning? Developing organizational capability for learning builds adaptive capacity that is important in continually shifting markets that are highly competitive and driven by knowledge. The quality of individual learning affects organizations, yet learning is often riddled with errors that prevent change and progress.

In his classic Harvard Business Review article “Teaching Smart People How to Learn,” Argyris (1991) argued that most people do not know how to learn. Even people who are regarded as the smartest are rarely effective learners. He suggested that professionals’ greatest fears are to make mistakes and fail; they therefore create elaborate mechanisms to defend themselves against either outcome, at the expense of the system. For instance, when most people are confronted with a question they cannot answer, they make up one instead of admitting they do not know (or pledging to �ind out). People will go to great lengths to avoid appearing ignorant or inexperienced. Yet such behavior can ultimately hurt both individuals and organizations, especially when it results in poor decisions or unshared learning. Argyris also found that otherwise smart people go to great lengths to cover up mistakes. Argyris called this unwillingness to admit ignorance or mistakes learned incompetence. Interestingly, most individuals and organizations are not even aware that they have learning de�iciencies.

How Do Consultants Facilitate Organization Learning? Argyris and Schön (1974) developed the original models of organization learning. The organization uses learning to change behavior; the new knowledge helps the organization transform information, which improves its long-term capacity (Callahan, 2003). Organizations committed to organization learning will undergo interventions such as re�lective practice, action learning, team learning, learning and development programs, and problem solving.

Learning Organization

Senge (1990) de�ined a learning organization as “an organization that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future” (p. 14). Watkins and Marsick (1993) viewed it as learning that transforms or changes the organization and observed that it occurs at four interdependent levels: individual, team, organization, and society.

In effective learning organizations, the work force is accustomed to participatory management, a supportive culture, ongoing learning opportunities, and rewards for learning. Such organizations

encourage managers to be coaches, mentors, and facilitators of learning; build a culture of feedback and disclosure; take a systemic, holistic view of the organization; create shared vision with all stakeholders; establish systems for sharing learning and using it in the business; provide regular opportunities to learn from experience; foster trust throughout the organization; and embrace the unexpected as opportunities to learn (Marquardt & Reynolds, 1994; McLean, 2006).

Embracing organization learning usually requires a signi�icant shift in the organization’s culture. This is the subject of the following section.

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9.5 Culture

Every human being belongs to multiple social groups that have rules, rites, and rituals that shape members’ beliefs, values, and behaviors. These variables mesh together to create culture. Nations, cities, organizations, churches, sports teams, universities, and so forth all have distinct cultures. The meaning of culture has been debated and studied for decades. In fact, during the 1950s, Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) found more than 150 de�initions of culture in academic literature.

Edgar H. Schein’s (1991) groundbreaking work suggested that by understanding culture, we gain a deeper appreciation for the way it affects members’ thoughts, feelings, and actions. Schein de�ined culture as a pattern of basic assumptions that are invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with problems adapting to the external environment. Culture is thus a learned value system or structure for solving problems that is passed down from old members to new ones. It is a signi�icant in�luence on how members perceive, think, and feel about their environment, as well as how they behave.

Culture is often described as encompassing three levels: (a) basic underlying assumptions, (b) espoused beliefs and values, and (c) artifacts (see Table 9.5). As important as culture is claimed to be in organizations, 61% of new employees reported receiving no training on the culture of their new company (Moran, 2019).

Table 9.5: Levels of culture

As you study this table, think of a culture to which you belong. How would you describe each of these levels? Consider fans of a sports team and a corporation as examples:

Culture features Sports team examples Corporation examples

Basic underlying assumptions (Generally known, but not discussed or written anywhere: “The way we do things around here.”)

Team superiority Support the team whether it wins or loses Sportsmanship

Product or service superiority Long hours Honesty (or a lack thereof ) Protocol (hierarchical or �lat communications across the company)

Espoused beliefs and values (Public statements about the culture)

“We are number one” “We are the Bulldawg Nation” (as said at the University of Georgia) Videos for fans

Mission statement Vision statement Posted values Strategy Traits management displays Promotion of product/service

Artifacts Mascot Cheers and behaviors Logoed attire Stadium

Of�ice layout Company logo Products Rituals such as how employees are recognized and celebrated

We will examine two different culture interventions: culture change and diversity and inclusion.

Culture Change

Most people are unaware of the extent to which culture dictates their thoughts and actions, including in organizations. All members of an organization participate in and shape its culture. For example, working long hours may be a part of one organization’s culture. Although this rule is not written anywhere or explicitly discussed, it is understood by everyone who is part of the organization, and newcomers quickly adopt it. When members fail to comply with cultural rules, the culture �inds ways to correct, reprimand, or remove them.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Culture Change? There are good and bad cultures. OD interventions targeted at culture aspire to make the culture more positive, productive, inclusive, or innovative.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Culture Change? Culture change is challenging because it attempts to change “business as usual.” “Changing an organization’s culture is one of the most dif�icult leadership challenges. That’s because an organization’s culture comprises an interlocking set of goals, roles, processes, values, communications practices, attitudes and assumptions” (Denning, 2011, para. 1).

A good way to approach culture change is to use survey research. Conducting a survey about how people regard the organization’s culture, practices, policies, products, and management provides a baseline (or comparative data, if a survey has been conducted before). This type of data offers management rich feedback on what is working well and less well. The results can provide an agenda for change that the organization can prioritize and implement.

Next, the leadership needs to offer a vision for the future once the organization changes. This might be product innovation, market dominance, customer satisfaction, or ef�iciency. The vision needs to be communicated clearly and broadly so that the organization both understands and supports it.

If the changes require new roles, then management needs to articulate what these are. It also needs to establish new reward systems that recognize contributions to the new culture, along with metrics that measure progress. For example, if the leadership culture is being changed from autocratic to participative, managers would be rewarded for exhibiting participative behavior, such as including employees in decision making. There also need to be clear consequences for supporting (or not supporting) the desired culture changes. Finally, infrastructure to support the new culture needs to be created. This might include resources, new positions, new policies, or new procedures. See Case Study: World Bank for a real-life example of a culture change.

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The U.S. work force is becoming increasingly diverse.

Case Study: World Bank

Culture change at the World Bank has proved dif�icult over the years, particularly because it presents a unique culture change challenge. The organization’s formal purpose is ambiguous, and the institution is a combined philanthropic foundation, university, and bank. Governments around the world own this international organization, with a resident board of directors and staffs who operate the World Bank on a day-to-day basis and regularly question the management. Read a case study of culture change at the World Bank: http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2011/07/2 3/how-do-you-change-an-organizational-culture (http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2011/07/23/how-do-you-change-an-organizational-culture) .

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Organizations and their members are inimitable. Each has distinctive values, cultures, identities, and social norms that blend into the complex sociocultural system of work. Diversity, equity, and inclusion interventions aim to make organizations more welcoming and af�irming of an increasingly varied work force; as such, they address changing demographics, the dearth of ongoing diversity and inclusion interventions, their spotty success rates, and their pitfalls and strategies:

Inclusion is an active process in which individuals, groups, organizations, and societies—rather than seeking to foster homogeneity—view and approach diversity as a valued resource. . . . [I]t is about presence, participation, safety, voice, authenticity, equity, and equality for more people across multiple identity groups. (Ferdman, 2017, p. 238)

Valuing diversity, equity, and inclusion can also give organizations a competitive edge in attracting talent. According to Moran (2019), 67% of job candidates want to join a diverse team, and companies with diverse organizations are 35% more likely to have above-average �inancial returns for their industry.

See Assessment: Equity and Diversity.

Assessment: Equity and Diversity

Take the equity and diversity quizzes available at the following links to assess your level of awareness related to issues of diversity and inclusion:

https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/quizshow.php?title=equity-diversity-awareness-quiz&q=1 (https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/ quizshow.php?title=equity-diversity-awareness-quiz&q=1) http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/quizzes.html (http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/quizzes.html)

What do you need to work on in the future to become more inclusive in your own life and work?

Why Do OD Consultants Promote Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion? The U.S. Census Bureau (2019) has predicted dramatic demographic shifts over the next 50 years, the rami�ications of which are already being felt in many organizations. “By 2030, all baby boomers will be older than age 65,” making 1 out of 5 people of retirement age, and “adults will outnumber children for the �irst time in U.S. history” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019, para. 3). By approximately 2043, the United States is projected to become a majority–minority nation, meaning that although the non-Hispanic White population will continue to be the largest single group, no group will constitute a majority.

“The worldwide phenomenon of economic globalization not only has provided different logistics and consumption habits, but also has generated a new workplace environment much more diverse than ever” (Castro, 2013, p. 37). Today’s organization is characterized by people of different genders, generations, ethnicities, sexual orientations, physical abilities, countries of origin, and religious beliefs working side by side. Each of these groups has its own culture, needs, and expectations from work.

Historically, U.S. organizations have been designed and run by heterosexual White males. People outside of that cultural group have been offered fewer training and development opportunities, received fewer promotions, suppressed their identity in order to assimilate to patriarchal culture, and experienced harassment or other mistreatment (Bierema, 2002, 2016b, 2017). Obviously, diversity and inclusion interventions are needed throughout U.S. organizations, yet, according to Castro (2013), only 40% of 300 multinational organizations surveyed intend to deliver multicultural programs to develop leaders; only 9% already do. This indicates that a majority of organizations are not taking steps to prepare for an increasingly diverse work force. Moreover, 36% of organizations surveyed were not even aware of the meaning of a “multicultural program.” Nancherla (2008) reported on a study that found 68% of companies do not hold senior executives accountable for diversity and inclusion oversight, 65% lack a global diversity strategy, and 53% do not sponsor any training in this area. Given these statistics, diversity and inclusion interventions are likely to continue to be important for years to come, until organizations become much more accommodating of diverse perspectives and needs.

A survey of more than 16,000 employees in 14 countries was conducted regarding what diversity, equity, and inclusion interventions were common and how effective they were for women, racial or ethnic groups, and LGBTQ employees (Krentz, 2019; Krentz et al., 2019). According to the researchers, day-to-day bias is pervasive and underestimated, with half of the respondents observing bias as their daily work experience. Half had little con�idence that their organization had policies and practices in place to ensure that major decisions (e.g., hiring, promotion, assignments) are bias-free. Providing a stark contrast, White

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heterosexual males were 13% more likely to rate their daily work experiences as bias-free. Diversity and inclusions that respondents prioritized included robust, well-crafted, and consistently followed antidiscrimination policies; effective training to mitigate biases and increase cultural competency; and removing bias from evaluation and promotion decisions.

Even when organizations engage in diversity and inclusion interventions, they may not �ind them effective. Numerous researchers have observed that these interventions lack a track record of success (Cavaleros, Van Vuuren, & Visser, 2002; Kochan et al., 2003), or worse, do not work (Lipman, 2018). For example, a comprehensive review of 31 years of data from 830 mid- to large-sized U.S. workplaces found that diversity training at most �irms precipitated a 7.5% drop in the number of women in management. The number of Black female managers fell by 10%, and the number of Black males in top positions fell by 12%. Similar trends were seen for Latinos and Asians (Kalev, Kelly, & Dobbin, 2006; Vedantam, 2008). This discouraging research highlights the need for OD consultants to have training and expertise in this area. Recently, a Diversity and Inclusion Index (D&I Index) was created to measure relative performance against multiple factors that de�ine diverse and inclusive workplaces. The top 100 ranked �irms are available via Re�initiv Diversity and Inclusion Index, accessed at the following link: https://www.re�initiv.com/content/dam/marketing/en_us/documents/reports/diversity-and-inclusion-top-100-compa nies.pdf (https://www.re�initiv.com/content/dam/marketing/en_us/documents/reports/diversity-and-inclusion-top-100-companies.pdf) .

How Do OD Consultants Promote Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion? Organizations face several obstacles in promoting diversity and inclusion. This section identi�ies some of these and offers strategies for overcoming them. These obstacles and strategies have been adapted from Lankau (2013) and Nancherla (2008).

Diversity and Inclusion Intervention Pitfalls Obstacles to promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion commonly include the following:

Managers and leaders assume diversity and inclusion is not their job, but rather the responsibility of human resources. In reality, it is everyone’s job, with zero tolerance for disrespect of diversity. The organization focuses on recruiting a diverse work force but not retaining one, because the organization values diversity but lacks inclusivity. Not surprisingly, people leave. There is little or no assessment of organization culture to evaluate how inclusive and diverse it is or to intervene as necessary. Training sessions are nonsubstantive; that is, they focus on nonthreatening topics such as appreciating different customs or foods but fail to help employees build capacity to manage intercultural con�lict and differences. Training sessions have �lawed content and delivery and do not help the organization build needed capacity to manage and celebrate difference. Diversity and inclusion programs are conducted to comply with compulsory legal requirements but have little organizational or leadership commitment. There is little or no buy-in from senior management and no role modeling. Diversity and inclusion programs lack a strategic connection to the organization’s long-term plans. Expectations to embrace diversity and inclusion are not strategically embedded in the rewards system or culture. The organization does not productively deal with con�lict—particularly con�lict related to diversity and inclusion issues. Participation in diversity and inclusion training is mandatory, which makes employees resent it. There are no goals or strategies for diversity and inclusion, and it is not a part of the rewards or recognition system. Diversity “fatigue” sets in—that is, people get tired of hearing about it and ignore it, or they think “we do this well already” and shift their attention away from it. The organization’s management lacks accountability for improving diversity and inclusion.

Diversity and Inclusion Intervention Strategies The following are some common strategies organizations can adopt to promote diversity and inclusion:

Initiate diversity actions with top management support and examples. Maintain a clear and consistent emphasis on diversity and inclusion in the organization’s vision, mission, values, and strategy. Identify business drivers for diversity and how addressing it can improve organization results (such as innovation, creativity, market growth, customer satisfaction, and supplier base). Appoint a diverse board of directors. Support formal and informal mentoring programs that target diverse employees. Engage employees in the process of creating a diverse and inclusive organization through planning, participation in training, soliciting feedback, and evaluating the process. Set expectations for and reward diversity, equity, and inclusion. Promote a culture of communication and productive con�lict resolution around misunderstandings and problems. Re�lect diversity in the organization’s hiring practices and leadership. Tie diversity and inclusion to the bottom line. Articulate organization values around diversity and inclusion. Integrate diversity and inclusion into the organization’s strategy. Engage in a long-term multifaceted change strategy to make the organization more diverse and inclusive. Engage in community and philanthropy for multicultural nonpro�its. Partner with educational institutions to increase minority student enrollment. Measure progress and create accountability mechanisms.

Ensuring management accountability will increase the likelihood of a successful diversity, equity, and inclusion intervention. Under CEO Jack Welch’s leadership, for example, General Electric implemented an aggressive diversity and inclusion strategy that appointed a chief diversity of�icer and used employee networks, regular planning forums, formal mentoring programs, and college recruitment of diverse populations to increase the diversity of its work force. From 2000 to 2005, the numbers of the company’s female, minority, and non–U.S. citizen employees increased 12% among top leadership and 11% among senior executives (Nancherla, 2008). The vignette at the beginning of the chapter featured a nonpro�it that lacked diversity. Through its strategic planning process, it was able to create speci�ic goals and measures for pursuing more diverse board members and donors.

See Case Study: Culture Change in the More Company for an example of how a company institutes a culture change.

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Joelle, the consultant, attends an executive meeting to listen to, record, and then analyze feedback about the company culture.

Case Study: Culture Change in the More Company

The More Company is in trouble. Sales are �lat, and a recent survey of employees shows that more than half are dissatis�ied with management, 25% are considering leaving in the next year, and an overwhelming 90% say culture change is needed. These results are the focus of an executive meeting.

“We obviously have problems and need to change,” notes CEO Lauren Gerald. “What do we need to do to create a culture where people are proud and happy to work here?” Discussion ensues among her team, which decides to call in an OD consultant who can help the company engage in some serious assessment and perhaps undertake cultural interventions. Lauren makes it clear that she expects improvement and change over the next year.

Joelle Herbert, the OD consultant, attends the next executive meeting. She asks a lot of questions, such as these:

How would you describe your current culture? What is your strategy? Who are your current leaders? Future leaders? How do you perform in comparison with your competition? What is the demography of your organization? Why do you think people leave? Stay? What supports are in place to help employees navigate the organization and develop in their careers?

Joelle carefully records and analyzes data from her visit with the leadership team. She also reviews the survey data and interviews frontline supervisors and a cross-section of employees. The problems are clear. Employees do not trust management and have no idea where the organization is headed. They feel excluded from any decisions that affect the business’s strategy and consequently have no buy-in to the current strategy. A culture of mistrust has developed.

Joelle gives this feedback to the leadership team. The team members realize something has to change. They work together to draft a new vision for the organization that focuses on creating product excellence and service and building an organization that breeds employee loyalty and performance. They create SMART goals, communicate these to their respective teams, and invite input. The team decides to make four changes:

1. Increase the quality and quantity of management communication via multiple outlets, including face-to-face, written, online, and customer.

2. Strategically recruit top talent to contribute to the mission, and retain, train, and mentor the current work force to meet the new strategy.

3. Broadly solicit input into the strategic plan and modify as needed. 4. Change reward systems that are tied more directly to the strategic plan to

reward managers who advance the new, more open and collaborative culture.

The plan is implemented fairly quickly, but progress is slow. Culture change is dif�icult, and employees are usually suspicious of it. Some managers resist the change.

Subtle shifts begin once employees who work toward the change are repeatedly recognized. Managers begin consulting with their employees and allowing more time to discuss issues prior to making decisions. Communication improves. The changes are not total, but progress is made in the right direction.

The CEO, Lauren, did several things to position the organization for culture change:

1. Stage setting: The CEO put forth her expectations as a result of the negative survey and took action on it by hiring a consultant. 2. A vision for the culture change was shared broadly, and the strategic plan was modi�ied with employee input. 3. SMART goals were created across the organization. 4. Progress was measured and tracked. 5. Expected behaviors were clari�ied and rewarded.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What other interventions might you make if you were CEO? 2. What steps might you take if you were the consultant? 3. What resistance to this change can be expected?

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Samsung CEO Oh-Hyun Kwon speaks during the company’s annual share-holder’s meeting in 2014. Talent management involves identifying high-potential employees and developing them to take key leadership roles. Samsung is one company that has applied talent management with much success.

9.6 Talent Management

Interventions aimed at developing and optimizing the organization’s workforce productivity revolve around a process called talent management (Nagra, 2011). Talent management is concerned with recruiting, onboarding, retaining, managing, and developing a high-performing work force. In a survey of 850 American, British, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Japanese, and Chinese executives, 67% ranked talent management as second only to competition in importance for their organization (Altman, 2008). More recently, 83% of employers identi�ied attracting and retaining talent as a growing challenge, and 66% of millennials are expected to leave their organization by 2020 (Moran, 2019). Thirty percent of millennials leave their organizations due to better job offers, 27% due to misaligned career goals, and 13% due to perceived lack of career advancement opportunities within the organization (Moran, 2019). These statistics are scary to organizations that make major investments in recruiting and hiring talent, as it is costly to replace workers who leave; millennial turnover costs $30.5 billion annually (Negroni, 2017).

One reason talent management is a priority for organizations is that hiring and developing pro�icient workers improves performance. According to a McKinsey & Company study (as cited in Axelrod, Hand�ield- Jones, & Welsh, 2001), organizations with top talent management practices outperformed their competition by a 22% return on shareholder value. These companies also reported higher productivity, pro�it, and sales. An example is Samsung, which transformed itself into a leader in the electronics industry under chair Lee Kun-hee, who emphasized quality-based management and talent development. Under his 25-year leadership, the company market capitalization went from approximately $1.1 billion in 1987 to $375.5 billion in 2012 (Chung, 2013). “The key to Samsung’s talent management is to prepare a pool of next-generation leaders as part of a succession plan” (Chung, 2013, p. 58).

Gheorghiu (n.d.) predicted that talent management in 2020 will be affected by three trends: addressing unconscious bias in the hiring and recruitment process, employee experiences that simplify life–work con�lict and increase autonomy, and the use of analytics in making decisions about talent.

Talent management employs multiple strategies, such as the previously discussed individual interventions of training, assessment, career development, leadership development, and work design. Talent management can also be addressed at the organization level by creating a talent management strategy and succession planning. Each of these will be discussed in this section.

Talent Management Strategy

Managing talent is not accidental. It requires a talent management strategy, that is, a plan, commitment, and collaboration across the organization. Much like a strategic plan, a talent management strategy seeks to make personnel decisions and placements that shape and guide the organization according to its vision and mission.

Why Do OD Consultants Promote Talent Management Strategy? The largest investment an organization will ever make is the one it makes in its work force. Thus, it is prudent for organizations to take a long-term strategic approach to developing it (Morgan & Jardin, 2010). Although most organizations understand the importance of cultivating potential leaders, many fail to do so. When leaders leave or retire and they are not replaced for long periods, the remaining staff must pick up the slack without vision or direction. These leadership gaps create long-term damage including lack of trust, demotivation, and lowered productivity. Determining successors to current leaders takes time, expertise, and knowledge of the work force, although organizations must plan ahead and have detailed succession plans in place in anticipation of leadership vacancies.

How Do OD Consultants Promote Talent Management Strategy? There are some key strategic steps to developing a talent management strategy. The �irst is to make talent management everyone’s job. This means the task does not fall just to human resources or OD. Ideally, the responsibility crosses the organization’s functions of sales, operations, engineering, and so forth. All managerial personnel need to think about developing talent within their units and about who could replace them in the future.

The second step is to develop what a McKinsey & Company report called the “talent mindset” (as cited in Michaels, Hand�ield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001, p. 11). Having a talent mindset means that the organization keeps the development of high-performing employees a priority at all times and constantly considers its ability to develop talent by posing questions such as “What is our capacity to do our jobs well?” or “Where do we need to improve to be more competitive?” (McCauley & Wake�ield, 2006).

Creating a culture of feedback and assessment also helps build a talent management system. McCauley and Wake�ield (2006) recommended that consultants integrate needs assessment of leadership (much like the steps in the discovery stage of the action research model) to determine key strengths and weaknesses of employees they wish to develop.

Individual leadership development is another strategy that prepares employees to move to the next level. This intervention was discussed at length in Chapter 7.

Having a reputable performance evaluation process is also helpful. The best such processes are ongoing; that is, managers should not wait for an annual review to intervene when they see a developmental opportunity. They seize the moment for feedback and coach and monitor progress.

Finally, organizations that have successful talent management programs are committed to learning, as discussed in the previous sections on organization learning and the learning organization. The ability to learn from experience and share it with the next generation is imperative for talent management.

Developing top talent is a strategic business imperative. Morgan and Jardin (2010) recommended that companies take the same approach to employee talent development that they do to market development. Companies typically divide markets into segments based on certain niches, such as potential for greater

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revenue or improved margins. The same can be done for employees around key learning and development needs, stretch assignments (projects that signi�icantly challenge the employee), or mentoring. Luna-Arocas and Morley (2015) indicated that having a talent mindset directly affects performance, and when employees are supported in talent and competency development, they are more satis�ied.

See Tips and Wisdom: Top Talent Management Best Practices for more information on how to identify and retain top talent.

Tips and Wisdom: Top Talent Management Best Practices

Top talent is de�ined as workers who continually exceed expectations and demonstrate productive behaviors and agility in their learning and approach (Morgan & Jardin, 2010). Talent management programs identify top talent and use several interventions to manage it, such as workforce planning, analyzing gaps between needs and existing talent, recruiting, staf�ing, training, retention, talent reviews, succession planning, and evaluation (McCauley & Wake�ield, 2006). A key question to encourage your managerial clients to ask is “How can I develop talent in my organization?” See the following adapted list of the American Productivity and Quality Center and the Center for Creative Leadership’s best talent management practices.

1. De�ine “talent management” broadly. This means that organizations take a liberal approach to cultivating talent through learning and development, experiences, and assignments.

2. Integrate the various talent management interventions into a comprehensive system. Instead of just offering a leadership development course to targeted employees, organizations might launch mentoring, networking, assessments, and other comprehensive learning activities that develop talent.

3. Focus talent management programs on the most highly valued talent. 4. Get commitment from CEOs and senior-level executives. 5. Build competency models to develop a shared understanding of the skills and behaviors the organization needs and most values in employees. 6. Monitor talent across the organization to identify potential talent gaps. 7. Excel at recruiting, identifying, and developing talent. 8. Develop effective performance management and retention processes. 9. Evaluate the results of the talent management process on an ongoing basis. (McCauley & Wake�ield, 2006)

Succession Planning

Succession planning is the process of identifying employees with high potential to assume leadership roles in the organization. Targeted positions would include top executives and the management levels immediately below that level that will eventually feed the executive pipeline.

Why Do OD Consultants Promote Succession Planning? Most workers stay with a particular organization for an average of 4.4 years, and the youngest workers log about half that (Meister, 2012). Organizations that lack a contingency plan for the unexpected departure of key leaders and other personnel are at risk. Succession planning identi�ies potential replacements of current leaders and managers and determines what key experiences, training, and mentoring they need to take on the next role.

How Do OD Consultants Promote Succession Planning? A succession plan is a document that highlights key leadership and management roles. It also identi�ies potential successors according to their experience and what development they would need in order to take on a particular role. Steps to succession planning include the following:

1. Identifying positions where succession planning is necessary 2. Specifying the key knowledge, skills, and abilities for the positions 3. Assessing potential successors’ applicable knowledge, skills, and abilities 4. Developing potential successors for future positions, especially where de�iciencies are noted (McLean, 2006)

Miles (2009) suggested that effective succession planning programs engage stakeholders in determining the succession pool and process. Stakeholders typically include current top leaders, human resources managers, and consultants. In terms of losing executives, organizations should assume the worst; that is, they should be prepared to replace all key positions as soon as vacancies occur. If a successor is not readily identi�ied in the organization, there should be a contingency plan to deal with the potential vacancy, such as targeted industries or external candidates.

It is also important to assess the talent pool to determine how potential successors can be developed through training, work assignments, and experiences to prepare them for new roles and to strengthen any noted weaknesses.

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Aerogondo/iStock/Thinkstock

Large-scale interactive events attempt to capture the collective thinking of key stakeholders in deciding the organization’s future.

9.7 Large-Scale Interactive Events

Large-scale or organization-wide OD is concerned with system-wide interventions usually targeted at improving problem solving, leadership, visioning, and task accomplishment between groups. These activities are known as large-scale interactive events (LSIEs). LSIEs can be traced to Kurt Lewin’s (1951) original change model, discussed in Chapter 2. That is, their basic steps are �irst to “unfreeze” the current situation so change can occur, then to make changes, and �inally to “refreeze” the new situation in place.

Why Do OD Consultants Do LSIEs?

LSIEs are conducted when the organization wants to seek broad input from a range of stakeholders, generate innovative ideas, and/or plan for the future. Because of the highly participative nature of the LSIE, the results tend to promote acceptance of and enthusiasm toward the ideas generated during the event.

The major features of large-scale, real-time change management processes include the following:

They take a systems approach to the problem and consider all angles and options. They use environmental scanning to consider the organization system in the wider system. They share information across the organization. They are quick processes that result in immediate action. They are characterized by shifts in perspective: Learning shifts from the individual level to the organization level as individuals, groups, and the organization gain new insights and ideas. Accountability shifts from senior management to the whole organization system, because the process gets “the whole system in the room” to engage in planning and thinking. The change process itself shifts from incremental to fundamental, organization-wide change.

LSIEs are challenging to accomplish and require careful planning and skilled facilitation. They are usually offered only by OD consultants experienced in facilitating large events.

How Do OD Consultants Do LSIEs?

When planning LSIEs, the OD team must confront a variety of special considerations for large group interventions. First, a compelling meeting theme is essential. Is the meeting for strategic planning, innovation, culture change, or some other objective? Second, attendance must include all appropriate stakeholders, depending on the theme. Stakeholders might include all employees or a large cross- section of them, particularly of employee groups such as managers, members of an organization, residents of a community, customers, suppliers, and so forth. The agenda must include relevant tasks to address the conference theme, including the following:

mapping the current organization context; assessing the organization’s responses to environmental dynamics; identifying the organization’s core mission, vision, and values; creating a realistic future scenario of environmental expectations and organization responses; creating an ideal future scenario of environmental expectations and organization responses; and comparing the present with the ideal future and preparing an action plan for reducing the discrepancy (Cummings & Worley, 2018).

Methods of LSIEs

This section provides a brief summary of the best-known methods for managing organizational change with large groups. Much of the information on these methods is from Smith and Smith (1994) and Bunker and Alban (1992). See Table 9.6 for an overview of Interactive Strategic Planning, the Future Search Conference, Conference Model Redesign, and Open Space.

Table 9.6: LSIEs: An overview

Developed by Event description Focus Steps

Interactive Strategic Planning

Dannemiller Tyson Associates (1994)

2–3 days, up to 2,300 participants

Aims to identify dissatisfaction and enable articulating vision and taking �irst steps so that change can begin

1. Develop database of current reality (collect views from customers, leaders, industry, etc.).

2. Diagnose problems that impede change and progress.

3. Set strategy and gather/process feedback on the strategy.

The Future Search Conference

Weisbord (1992), Weisbord & Janoff (1995)

2.5 days, 64–72 participants

Based on Asch’s (1952) conditions for effective dialogue, with an emphasis on �inding common ground. Remains relevant today for organizations seeking to establish a clear and powerful image of their desired future with diverse stakeholders (Serrat, 2017). Emphasis on action planning.

1. Look at the past (examine previous state of people, business, industry, and global environment).

2. Look at the present (examine events that shape reality).

3. Participants devise scenarios of their ideal future (keeping some of the past, changing where needed for the future).

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Conference Model Redesign

Axelrod (1992, 1993, 1995)

Four 3-day conferences held 1 month apart

It is a process of reengineering intended to produce permanent, radical organization redesign that occurs quickly. Approach is customer focused, concentrates on the technical work�low, and develops a preferred design for the organization.

1. Vision conference (similar to Weisbord’s Future Search Conference)

2. Customer conference (de�ine the requirements, business relationships, roles, and customers)

3. Technology conference (identify redundancy and variance and clarify participants’ assumptions about their business)

4. Design conference (develop a preferred design; uses “treasure hunt” features)

Open Space Owen (1992) 1–3 days, 20–100 participants

Approach is based on the notion of an “idea marketplace” that stresses learning, networking, and community building. The purpose is to surface information and promote dialogue. Encourages personality responsibility for self-learning.

Has no structured steps. Instead, the model features open facilities, an open agenda, breakout rooms, and blank walls. Team members post issues in the “open space” and assume ownership of their personal issue. Other members choose to work on the issues and are free to move from issue to issue. The outcome is unpredictable but usually results in deeper understanding and action related to an issue.

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Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary Mission statements, which explain why organizations exist, are often created or revised during strategic planning. Vision statements articulate the organization’s desired future or end state. They are often created or revised during strategic planning. Values statements explain how the organization aspires to behave in pursuit of its mission and vision. These statements are generally created or revised during strategic planning. Environmental scanning is often used to provide a baseline for strategic planning. It is a process of scrutinizing internal and external factors that have implications for the economic, competitive, social, and political context of the organization. SWOT analyses examine the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats and use them in strategic planning. SMART goals are speci�ic, measurable, attainable, realistic or relevant, and time bound. Scenario planning develops stories that represent possible outcomes for the organization, which it can use to problem solve and innovate. Organization structure determines how work gets accomplished, how employees relate, and an organization’s level of formality. Organization structure takes several forms, including functional, divisional, matrix, process based, and network. Organization design can be changed through reorganization or restructuring, often in the form of reengineering, mergers and acquisitions, or downsizing. Downsizing can be signi�icantly costlier than salary savings, and short- and long-term measures should be taken to avoid such drastic interventions. Organization learning represents a learning infrastructure intervention that is concerned with the nature and process of learning and how it can be captured and shared for future advantage. The learning organization makes a strategic commitment to harnessing learning for the organization’s bene�it. Culture is dif�icult to change. Culture change interventions attempt to change the beliefs, values, and behaviors of the organization culture. Interventions to improve diversity, equity, and inclusion help the organization maximize innovation because of the variety of ideas a diverse work force offers. Developing a talent management strategy positions an organization to meet competitive, innovation, and long-term personnel demands. Succession planning is a strategic plan for talent. It identi�ies potential leaders and managers so that the organization is not left without the key skills and talents needed to run the business. Large-scale interactive events (LSIEs) are system-wide interventions that seek to improve organizational problem solving, leadership, vision, or task accomplishment. Types of LSIEs include Interactive Strategic Planning, Future Search Conference, Conference Model Redesign, and Open Space.

Think About It! Re�lective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning 1. Find the mission, vision, and values statement of an organization you belong to or want to explore. Assess the statements. How compelling and

memorable are they? How well do they convey what the organization does? 2. Find the strategic plan of an organization of your choice and review it. What are its strengths and weaknesses? How would you change it? 3. Take time to re�lect and write your own personal mission statement. You can �ind many resources by searching online for “personal mission

statement.” Or start by reading this informative blog post on the topic: https://www.personalbrandingblog.com/strong-personal-mission-stateme nt-works-like-a-career-gps/ (https://www.personalbrandingblog.com/strong-personal-mission-statement-works-like-a-career-gps/) .

4. What new insights do you have now that you have learned about organization-level interventions?

Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life 1. The chapter began with a vignette about a nonpro�it organization that needed help articulating its mission, vision, and values, as well as developing a

strategic plan. What is your experience with such interventions? 2. Conduct an environmental scan on the topic of your choice, such as a career change, place to live, or social issue that interests you. How might you

apply a similar approach to an organization you work for or are involved with? For more information on environmental scanning, read this article: ho rizon.unc.edu/courses/papers/enviroscan/ (http://horizon.unc.edu/courses/papers/enviroscan/) .

3. Conduct a SWOT analysis of an organization to which you belong. Ideally, assemble a team to join you in the process. If that is not possible, you can conduct one on yourself or a social group to which you belong.

4. Identify the type of organization structure that exists in your current workplace, based on the information provided in the organization design section. 5. Take an inventory of the type of learning activities promoted by your organization. Does it �it the de�inition of a learning organization or organization

learning? Why or why not? 6. Pick a culture to which you belong and identify examples of the three levels of culture:

a. Basic underlying assumptions b. Espoused beliefs and values c. Artifacts

Additional Resources Media

Hilton Hotels Mission, Vision and Values (How does your stay there stack up to this statement?) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKgGdnz0658 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKgGdnz0658)

Strategic Planning Explanation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sU3FLxnDv_A (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sU3FLxnDv_A)

Organizational Design Concepts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvyXVTb3f1Y (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvyXVTb3f1Y)

Corporate Culture: A Conversation With Edgar Schein https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZB3jJlGWuk (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZB3jJlGWuk)

Talent Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5jlNi03m7s (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5jlNi03m7s)

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LSIE: Future Search Interview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPgGv48r_D8 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPgGv48r_D8)

Web Links

Vision, Mission, and Values Development

Fortune 500 Mission Statements, which offers instructions for how to write effective mission statements from the Fortune 500: https://www.missionstatements.com/fortune_500_mission_statements.html (https://www.missionstatements.com/fortune_500_mission_statements.htm l)

Strategic Planning

Nonpro�it Answer Guide’s Purpose of the Environmental Scan page, which offers instructions on how to conduct an environmental scan that pro�iles current and anticipated environmental factors that may affect your organization: https://nonpro�itanswerguide.org/strategic-planning/ (https://nonpro�itanswerguide.org/strategic-planning/)

OnStrategy, a website that automates an organization’s strategic plans and makes them available via the web, based on what the organization wishes to share: https://onstrategyhq.com/ (https://onstrategyhq.com/)

Organization Design

Journal of Organization Design, a research journal focusing on organization design: http://www.jorgdesign.net (http://www.jorgdesign.net)

Microsoft® Of�ice’s page on how to create an organization chart: http://of�ice.microsoft.com/en-us/word-help/create-an-organization-chart-HA010354860.aspx (http://of�ice.microsoft.com/en-us/word-help/creat e-an-organization-chart-HA010354860.aspx)

Society for Organizational Learning, a nonpro�it member organization for those interested in organization learning: http://www.solonline.org/?home (http://www.solonline.org/?home)

Culture

Enhancing Cultural Competence Toolkit, which offers tips for enhancing culture: http://ctb.ku.edu/en/enhancing-cultural-competence (http://ctb.ku.edu/en/enhancing-cultural-competence)

Forbes Top 100 Companies for Diversity: https://fortune.com/best-workplaces-for-diversity/ (https://fortune.com/best-workplaces-for-diversity/)

U.S. Census Population Projections: https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2018/cb18-41-population-projections.html (https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/ 2018/cb18-41-population-projections.html)

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Resources from the University of Georgia College of Education, a wide range of resources focused on diversity that have been organized by faculty: https://resources.coe.uga.edu/students/department-resources/#of�ice-of-diversity-equity-and-inclusion (https://resources.coe.uga.edu/students/ department-resources/#of�ice-of-diversity-equity-and-inclusion)

Labor Force Participation Rate Age 65 and Older—see how the demographics are shifting: https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2013/acs/acsbr11-09.pdf (https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2013/acs/acsbr11-09.pdf)

Talent Management

Succession Planning: How Everyone Does It Wrong (Forbes) https://www.forbes.com/2009/07/30/succession-planning-failures-leadership-governance-ceos.html#1f73669e3d4b (https://www.forbes.com/ 2009/07/30/succession-planning-failures-leadership-governance-ceos.html#1f73669e3d4b)

Succession Planning: How to Do It Right (Forbes) https://www.forbes.com/2009/07/31/succession-planning-right-leadership-governance-ceos.html#c0408e137333 (https://www.forbes.com/200 9/07/31/succession-planning-right-leadership-governance-ceos.html#c0408e137333)

McKinsey & Company: The Use and Abuse of Scenarios (tips to keep in mind for scenario planning): https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-�inance/our-insights/the-use-and-abuse-of-scenarios (https://www.mc kinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-�inance/our-insights/the-use-and-abuse-of-scenarios)

Large-Scale Interactive Events

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Large Group Interventions, by Thomas J. Grif�in and Ronald E. Purser: http://online.sfsu.edu/rpurser/Large Group Intervention OD Handbook.htm (http://online.sfsu.edu/rpurser/LargeGroup Intervention OD Handbook.ht m)

Dannemiller Tyson Strategic Planning: https://www.dannemillertyson.com/what-we-do/strategy-planning/ (https://www.dannemillertyson.com/what-we-do/strategy-planning/)

Dannemiller Tyson Whole-Scale Change Approach: https://www.dannemillertyson.com/how-we-work/whole-scale-change-approach/ (https://www.dannemillertyson.com/how-we-work/whole-scale-c hange-approach/)

The Conference Model: https://sites.google.com/site/thechangehandbook/samples/the-conference-model (https://sites.google.com/site/thechangehandbook/samples/the-co nference-model)

Future Search Network: http://www.futuresearch.net (http://www.futuresearch.net)

Marvin Weisbord (Future Search Originator): http://www.marvinweisbord.com (http://www.marvinweisbord.com)

Open Space: http://www.openspaceworld.com/index.htm (http://www.openspaceworld.com/index.htm)

Key Terms Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The rules, rites, and rituals of social groups that shape the beliefs and behaviors of their members.

diversity, equity, and inclusion (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Interventions aimed at making organizations more welcoming and af�irming of an increasingly multicultural work force.

downsizing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When an organization decreases its size to reduce cost and bureaucracy.

large-scale interactive events (LSIEs) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

System-wide interventions usually targeted at improving problem solving, leadership, visioning, and task accomplishment between groups.

learning infrastructure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When an organization embraces learning as a process and strategy and creates systems to capture and share learning.

mission statement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A statement that explains why an organization exists, including its key audience, product, and evaluative measures.

organization design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

How an organization is set up in terms of strategy, structure, process and lateral capacity, reward systems, and people practices to most effectively meet the organization’s needs and goals.

organization structure (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

The order of reporting relationships and their general design and relationship to each other, such as functional, divisional, matrix, process based, or network.

reengineering (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A radical redesign of the organization’s core work processes to provide greater linkage and coordination among tasks with the goal of higher, faster performance.

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scenario planning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A strategic planning approach that assesses all possible and improbable environmental changes that could affect the organization and creates a story about the possible outcomes.

SMART goal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A goal that is speci�ic, measurable, attainable, realistic or relevant, and timely.

strategic planning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Occurs when an organization makes a concerted effort to make decisions and embark on actions that shape and guide its entire essence.

SWOT analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

When organization members come together to identify the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, examine environmental opportunities and threats, and create action items to address all of these issues.

talent management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Interventions aimed at developing and optimizing the organization’s workforce productivity.

talent management strategy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A plan, commitment, and collaboration across the organization to manage talent.

values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

Principles governing how the organization expects to function in pursuit of the vision and mission.

vision (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Biere

A statement of the organization’s desired future in terms of where the organization wants to go and what the future will be like once it gets there.