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Burkley

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Chapter 14

Situational Influences

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

14.1 Explain how the environment impacts behavior

14.2 Explain human behavior using the behaviorist approach

14.2.1 Analyze the principles of behaviorism

14.2.2 Apply behaviorism principles to your own life

14.3 Explain the concept of drive

14.3.1 Explain the principles of Hull’s drive theory

14.3.2 Describe the criticisms of Hull's drive theory

14.4 Contrast between drive theory and arousal theory

14.4.1 Explain the principles of arousal theory

14.4.2 Describe the criticisms of arousal theory

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

14.5 Analyze the way social situations impact motivation

14.5.1 Explain the concepts of social facilitation and inhibition in terms of motivation

14.5.2 Explain the concept of deindividuation in terms of motivation

14.5.3 Explain the concept of social loafing in terms of motivation

14.5.4 Explain the concept of social power in terms of motivation

14.6 Explain how variables interact to influence behavior

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Situational Influences

Key questions to be answered

The power of the situation

Behaviorism

Drive theory

Arousal theory

Social situations

Person-by-situation explanation

Most motivational theories focus on internal factors, not external, but situations also have an impact.

Behaviorism asserts that behavior should be studied in an objective and systematic way without consideration of inner mental states.

Hull’s drive theory argues that behavior is a function of drive multiplied by habit.

Arousal is broadly defined and is thought to be responsible for consciousness, attention, and intensity.

Social facilitation refers to the tendency for the presence of others to improve task performance.

Person-by-situation explanations assert that person variables and situation variables interact with each other in a multiplicative way to influence behavior.

14.1: The Power of the Situation

14.1: Explain how the environment impacts behavior

The connection between environment and behavior

Fundamental attribution error

Environmental influences

14.1: Explain how the environment impacts behavior

Point 1 – The connection between environment and behavior

We tend to focus on internal factors instead of external ones.

How can we control our diets using situational factors?

14.2: Behaviorism (1 of 2)

14.2: Explain human behavior using the behaviorist approach

What is behaviorism?

Behavior can (and should) be studied in an objective and systematic way without the consideration of inner mental states.

14.2.1: Principles of Behaviorism

14.2.1: Analyze the principles of behaviorism

Emphasis on the situation

Dominant force

Evolutionary theory

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Stimulus-response bond

Conditioning

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

14.2: Explain human behavior using the behaviorist approach

Point 1 – What is behaviorism?

Anything an organism does can be considered a behavior.

We cannot accurately describe one’s internal state.

14.2.1: Principles of Behaviorism

14.2.1: Analyze the principles of behaviorism

Point 1 – Emphasis on the situation

Behaviorists wondered if the environment could shape the evolution of an organism’s behavior.

Thorndike suggested that an organism’s response can be affected by a desirable outcome: the S-R bond.

Point 2 – Conditioning

The classical conditioning occurs when an environmental stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior operates on the environment to generate a consequence for that behavior.

Which conditioning explains human learning and motivation better?

Point 3 – Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers refer to the presence of a pleasant outcome, while negative reinforcers refer to the removal of an unpleasant outcome.

Timing of reinforcement also affects reinforcement. Which schedule of reinforcement do you think is best?

14.2: Behaviorism (2 of 2)

14.2.1: Principles of Behaviorism

14.2.1: Analyze the principles of behaviorism

Reinforcement

Positive

Negative

Schedules of reinforcement

Continuous

Partial (fixed, variable, ratio, interval)

14.2.2: Applying Behaviorism Principles

14.2.2: Apply behaviorism principles to your own life

Applying behaviorism principles

Changing the environment

Recognizing the role of control (or lack of)

14.2.1: Principles of Behaviorism

14.2.1: Analyze the principles of behaviorism

Point 1 – Emphasis on the situation

Behaviorists wondered if the environment could shape the evolution of an organism’s behavior.

Thorndike suggested that an organism’s response can be affected by a desirable outcome: the S-R bond.

Point 2 – Conditioning

The classical conditioning occurs when an environmental stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior operates on the environment to generate a consequence for that behavior.

Which conditioning explains human learning and motivation better?

Point 3 – Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers refer to the presence of a pleasant outcome, while negative reinforcers refer to the removal of an unpleasant outcome.

Timing of reinforcement also affects reinforcement. Which schedule of reinforcement do you think is best?

14.2.2: Applying Behaviorism Principles

14.2.2: Apply behaviorism principles to your own life

Point 1 – Applying behaviorism principles

What are some environmental changes you can make to achieve your goals?

14.3: Drive Theory (1 of 2)

14.3: Explain the concept of drive

Drive theory

Aversive or uncomfortable state

Energy that fuels learning

Needs

14.3.1: Principles of Drive Theory

14.3.1: Explain the principles of Hull’s drive theory

Hull’s drive theory

Drive

Habit

Behavior = Drive x Habit

Implications for easy versus difficult tasks

Easy tasks = habitual

Drive and performance

14.3: Explain the concept of drive

Point 1 – Drive theory

When drive is high, the organism is motivated to engage in behaviors that reduce it.

Behaviorists argued that drive occurred when biological needs are unmet.

14.3.1: Principles of Drive Theory

14.3.1: Explain the principles of Hull’s drive theory

Point 1 – Hull’s drive theory

Biological needs ignite drive.

Habits emerge because they were rewarded in the past.

The equation indicates that the excitatory level of a behavior is a function of drive multiplied by habit.

Why is the theory multiplicative?

Point 2 – Implications for easy versus difficult tasks

When we are experts and have done something for years, the task becomes easy and habitual.

High levels of drive will facilitate performance on easy tasks, but impair it on difficult ones.

14.3: Drive Theory (2 of 2)

14.3.2: Criticism of Hull’s Drive Theory

14.3.2: Describe the criticisms of Hull's drive theory

Criticisms of Hull’s drive theory

Lack of evidence for nonspecific drive

Only biological needs

Incentive motives

Failure to explain all behaviors

14.3.2: Criticism of Hull’s Drive Theory

14.3.2: Describe the criticisms of Hull's drive theory

Point 1 – Criticisms of Hull’s drive theory

There is not enough evidence to support the argument that drive was nonspecific.

Hull’s theory could not account for psychological motives.

Incentive motives do not account adequately for human’s complex behaviors.

People engage in behaviors that do not reduce drive.

14.4: Arousal Theory (1 of 3)

14.4: Contrast between drive theory and arousal theory

Development of arousal theory

Replace drive

14.4.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

14.4.1: Explain the principles of arousal theory

What is arousal?

Mentally and physically alertness

Consciousness, attention, intensity of behavior

Arousal is based in physiology.

Directly measured

Specific regions of the brain—reticular activation system

Curvilinear relationship between arousal and performance

Yerkes-Dodson law

An upside-down U-shaped curve

Task difficulty dependent

Anderson (1994) —caffeine and test performance

14.4: Contrast between drive theory and arousal theory

Point 1 – Development of arousal theory

Arousal theory developed as drive theory fell out of favor in the 1950s.

14.4.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

14.4.1: Explain the principles of arousal theory

Point 1 – What is arousal?

Refer to Figure 14.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

Point 2 – Arousal is based on physiology.

Because arousal could be directly measured, it was considered to be a more objective scientific concept than drive.

Point 3 – Curvilinear relationship between arousal and performance

Refer to Figure 14.2: Yerkes-Dodson Law.

Easy tasks do not require a great deal of thought and, instead, rely on stamina and persistence.

Refer to Figure 14.3: Effect of Caffeine on Easy and Difficult Tasks.

Point 4 – Low arousal is aversive.

Too much arousal and too little arousal are both aversive.

Studies using sensory deprivation show that a lack of stimulation produces a host of negative effects.

14.4: Arousal Theory (2 of 3)

14.4.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

14.4.1: Explain the principles of arousal theory

Low arousal is aversive.

Moderate level of arousal is most optimal.

Wundt—stimulation intensity

Sensory deprivation

14.4: Contrast between drive theory and arousal theory

Point 1 – Development of arousal theory

Arousal theory developed as drive theory fell out of favor in the 1950s.

14.4.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

14.4.1: Explain the principles of arousal theory

Point 1 – What is arousal?

Refer to Figure 14.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

Point 2 – Arousal is based on physiology.

Because arousal could be directly measured, it was considered to be a more objective scientific concept than drive.

Point 3 – Curvilinear relationship between arousal and performance

Refer to Figure 14.2: Yerkes-Dodson Law.

Easy tasks do not require a great deal of thought and, instead, rely on stamina and persistence.

Refer to Figure 14.3: Effect of Caffeine on Easy and Difficult Tasks.

Point 4 – Low arousal is aversive.

Too much arousal and too little arousal are both aversive.

Studies using sensory deprivation show that a lack of stimulation produces a host of negative effects.

Figure 14.1: Principles of Arousal Theory

Figure 14.2: Yerkes-Dodson Law

Figure 14.3: Effect of Caffeine on Easy and Difficult Tasks

14.4: Arousal Theory (3 of 3)

14.4.2: Criticisms of Arousal Theory

14.4.2: Describe the criticisms of arousal theory

Criticisms of arousal theory

Alternative emotions

Truly based in physiology

14.4.2: Criticisms of Arousal Theory

14.4.2: Describe the criticisms of arousal theory

Point 1 – Criticisms of arousal theory

Emotions, attention, and thought seem to do a better job of explaining behavior.

Motivation theorists define arousal differently now—as a hypothetical construct that represents a complex process that includes physiological, emotional, and behavioral aspects.

14.5: Social Situations (1 of 5)

14.5: Analyze the way social situations impact motivation

Social situations

Humans as social animals

Impact on behavior

14.5.1: Social Facilitation and Inhibition

14.5.1: Explain the concepts of social facilitation and inhibition in terms of motivation

Social facilitation

Ex.: Triplett (1897)—bicycle races; fishing

Social inhibition

Zajonc’s theory

Presence of others increases arousal

Physiological response

Easy tasks vs. difficult tasks

Evidence for Zajonc’s theory

Easy maze

Difficult maze

14.5: Analyze the way social situations impact motivation

Point 1 – Social situations

Humans are social creatures who are impacted by social situations.

14.5.1: Social Facilitation and Inhibition

14.5.1: Explain the concepts of social facilitation and inhibition in terms of motivation

Point 1 – Social facilitation

The tendency for the presence of others to improve task performance is known as social facilitation.

Does the situation have to be one of competition? Why or why not?

The tendency for the presence of others to impair task performance is known as social inhibition.

Point 2 – Zajonc’s theory

Zajonc’s theory reflects Hull’s drive theory.

The presence of others is thought to result in social facilitation when the task is easy, and result in social inhibition when the task is difficult.

Discuss example of skateboarder/snowboarder.

Point 3 – Evidence for Zajonc’s theory

Refer to Figure 14.5–A-C: Zajonc’s Cockroach Study on Social Facilitation and Inhibition.

What implications does Zanjoc’s theory have for work, school, and sporting events?

Figure 14.4: Social Facilitation and Inhibition

Figure 14.5-A: Easy Maze

Figure 14.5-B: Difficult Maze

Figure 14.5-C: Results of Zajonc’s Cockroach Study

14.5: Social Situations (2 of 5)

14.5.2: Deindividuation

14.5.2: Explain the concept of deindividuation in terms of motivation

Deindividuation

Task with a group

Gustave Le Bon

Mob mentality, herd mentality, crowd psychology

Cultural rules and norms no longer apply

Situational features

Are groups always bad?

Altruistic behaviors

Group cohesiveness

14.5.2: Deindividuation

14.5.2: Explain the concept of deindividuation in terms of motivation

Point 1 – Deindividuation

Groups foster a sense of anonymity and a loss of individuality.

Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-focus and individual accountability that occurs when people are in a group.

People in a state of deindividuation no longer feel accountable for their actions and are more likely to act against their own standards and values.

Situational factors like drugs, alcohol, masks, or foreign places can produce deindividuation.

Discuss deindividuation during Halloween (Diener et al., 1979)—Figure M.

How does deindividuation explain online behaviors?

Point 2 – Are groups always bad?

Any situational feature that decreases individuality and increases group cohesion is likely to encourage conformity among group members.

Figure: Result of Deinidividuation During Halloween

14.5: Social Situations (3 of 5)

14.5.3: Social Loafing

14.5.3: Explain the concept of social loafing in terms of motivation

Social loafing

Max Ringelmann

Exert less effort when working in a group than alone

Deindividuation

14.5.3: Social Loafing

14.5.3: Explain the concept of social loafing in terms of motivation

Point 1 – Social loafing

People tend to exert much less effort in a group.

When people are in groups, they feel less accountable for their actions and may decrease their efforts.

When you are working on a group project, how can you avoid social loafing?

14.5: Social Situations (4 of 5)

14.5.4: Social Power

14.5.4: Explain the concept of social power in terms of motivation

Social power

The ability to control others, either by providing or withholding resources or by delivering punishments.

External behavior

The pursuit of power

Morgenthau—the need to belong

Love—equal influence and control

Power—unbalanced union

Autonomy

14.5.4: Social Power

14.5.4: Explain the concept of social power in terms of motivation

Point 1 – Social power

People high in the need for power perceive that the best way to fulfill their goals is to focus on influencing those around them.

People high in the need for power are more likely to use aggression or sexual permissiveness.

Point 2 – The pursuit of power

Morgenthau argued that power and love both stem from the same basic root of loneliness.

When power fails to cure loneliness, leaders often seek even more power.

Power can fulfill the need for autonomy.

Point 3 – Positives and negatives of power

What are the positives and negatives of power? Why do so many powerful men make headlines for negative actions?

Discuss Ent et al. (2012) with regard to self-control and power. Studies suggest that powerful people are strategic about where they exert their limited self-control resources.

Point 4 – Can power backfire?

People in high-power roles are more likely to engage in risky behavior and to cheat on a spouse.

14.5: Social Situations (5 of 5)

14.5.4: Social Power

14.5.4: Explain the concept of social power in terms of motivation

Positives and negatives of power

Easier to achieve goals

Good for motivation

Self-control

Can power backfire?

Focus on impulses

Less perceived risk

Action-oriented

14.5.4: Social Power

14.5.4: Explain the concept of social power in terms of motivation

Point 1 – Social power

People high in the need for power perceive that the best way to fulfill their goals is to focus on influencing those around them.

People high in the need for power are more likely to use aggression or sexual permissiveness.

Point 2 – The pursuit of power

Morgenthau argued that power and love both stem from the same basic root of loneliness.

When power fails to cure loneliness, leaders often seek even more power.

Power can fulfill the need for autonomy.

Point 3 – Positives and negatives of power

What are the positives and negatives of power? Why do so many powerful men make headlines for negative actions?

Discuss Ent et al. (2012) with regard to self-control and power. Studies suggest that powerful people are strategic about where they exert their limited self-control resources.

Point 4 – Can power backfire?

People in high-power roles are more likely to engage in risky behavior and to cheat on a spouse.

14.6: Person-by-Situation Explanation

14.6: Explain how variables interact to influence behavior

Is motivation primarily driven by person factors or situation factors?

Person-by-situation explanations

Kurt Lewin (1942)—Field theory

Behavior = f(P,E)

14.6: Explain how variables interact to influence behavior

Point 1 – Is motivation primarily driven by person factors or situation factors?

Person variables and situation variables interact with each other in a multiplicative way to influence people’s responses.

Discuss stimulation and introverts vs. extraverts.

Lewin argued that forces in this field drive people toward their goals or away from them.

Behavior is a function of both person factors and environment factors.

Summary: Situational Influences

How the environment impacts behavior

The human behavior using the behaviorist approach

The concept of drive

The difference between drive theory and arousal theory

The way social situations impact motivation

How variables interact to influence behavior

Situational factors influence behavior and must be taken into consideration.

Inspired by Darwin, behaviorists recognized that the situation is the dominant force in learning and behavior modification. Thorndike’s Law of Effect states responses that are closely followed by a desirable outcome will be more associated with that situation than other responses. Conditioning can be either classical or operant. Reinforcement is defined as any event that follows the behaviors and strengthens that behavior.

Drive is defined as a state of tension or arousal caused by a deprived biological need. Hull considered drive to be nonspecific arousal. High drive facilitates performance on easy tasks and impairs performance on difficult tasks

Arousal theory assumes that all behaviors can be placed on a continuum of relaxation vs. excitement and that a moderate level of arousal is best for performance.

Zajonc’s theory states that the presence of others increases arousal, and this arousal will facilitate behavior when the task is easy, but inhibit behavior when the task is difficult. Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability that occurs when people are in a group. Social loafing refers to the tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group. Social power refers to the ability to control others.

Person-by-situation explanations assert that person variables and situation variables interact with each other in a multiplicative way to influence behavior. Lewin’s field theory states that behavior (B) is a function (f) of person factors (P) and environment factors (E).