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Burkley

First edition

Chapter 6

Competence

Learning Objectives

6.1 Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive

6.1.1 Analyze how competence elicits behaviors

6.1.2 Explain how competence produces positive outcomes

6.1.3 Describe the universality of competence

6.2 Analyze the ways in which people express competence

6.2.1 Contrast learning and performance goals

6.2.2 Contrast entity and incremental beliefs

6.2.3 Explain the concept of self-efficacy

6.2.4 Explain the concept of flow

6.3 Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation

6.3.1 Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation

6.3.2 Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives

6.4.1 Describe social comparison theory

6.4.2 Explain the concept of self-assessment

6.4.3 Explain the concept of self-verification

6.4.4 Explain the concept of self-enhancement

6.4.5 Explain the concept of self-improvement

6.4.6 Describe how self-evaluation motives may be used

6.5 Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation

6.5.1 Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias

6.5.2 Explain the concept of self-handicapping

6.5.3 Explain the concept of excuse making

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Competence

Key questions to be answered

The need for competence

Variability in the expression of competence

The role of the self

Self-evaluation motives

Reactions to a loss of competence

The need for competence is a core motive that refers to people’s basic desire for effectiveness, ability, or success.

People vary in the ways they express and fulfill their competence.

The self-concept refers to an individual’s collection of self-knowledge.

Self-evaluation refers to people’s attempts to judge aspects of their self-concepts, including their competencies and abilities.

Self-serving attributions involve making internal attributions for successes and external attributions for failures.

6.1: The Need for Competence (1 of 3)

6.1: Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive

What is the need for competence?

Desire for effectiveness, ability, or success

Doing one’s best

Learning new skills

6.1: Analyze the concept of competence as a core motive

Point 1 –What is the need for competence?

Refer to Figure 6.1: Competence Involves the Desire for Ability, Success, and a Sense of Effectiveness

Figure 6.1: Competence Involves the Desire for Ability, Success, and a Sense of Effectiveness

6.1: The Need for Competence (2 of 3)

6.1.1: Competence Elicits Behaviors

6.1.1: Analyze how competence elicits behaviors

How does competence elicit behaviors?

Natural curiosity

Seek new information

Fear of incompetence

6.1.2: Competence Produces Positive Outcomes

6.1.2: Explain how competence produces positive outcomes

How does competence produce positive outcomes?

Physical health

Mental health

6.1.3: Competence Is Universal

6.1.3: Describe the universality of competence

6.1.1: Competence Elicits Behaviors

6.1.1: Analyze how competence elicits behaviors

Point 1 – How does competence elicit behaviors?

From birth, we seek out new information, set and strive for abstract goals, and avoid situations in which we feel incompetent.

Discuss Sheldon and Gunz (2009) and college students and a personality test.

6.1.2: Competence Produces Positive Outcomes

6.1.2: Explain how competence produces positive outcomes

Point 1 – How does competence produce positive outcomes?

Feeling competent is linked to many positive benefits.

Benefits from competence often only occur if the individual also feels autonomy.

Why would autonomy be linked to competence?

Discuss Fisher (1978) and word-find puzzles.

6.1.3: Competence Is Universal

6.1.3: Describe the universality of competence

Point 1 – Competence is universal.

Competence is universal in all cultures.

However, Eastern cultures are more likely than Western cultures to value competence within group-based domains.

6.1: The Need for Competence (3 of 3)

Competence is universal.

Western and Eastern cultures

Different definitions

6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (1 of 5)

6.2: Analyze the ways in which people express competence

How do people differ in their approach to competence?

Achievement motivation

Types of goals

Beliefs about where competencies come from

Perception of competency level

6.2.1: Learning Versus Performance Goals

6.2.1: Contrast learning and performance goals

Learning goals vs. performance goals

Learning goals—learn and improve competence

Performance goals—prove their competence

Independent goal types

High learning/high performance

High learning/low performance

Low learning/high performance

Low learning/low performance

6.2: Analyze the ways in which people express competence

Point 1 – How do people differ in their approach to competence?

Some people are more driven to fulfill their competence need than others.

Some people adopt the goal to improve their competence, while others adopt to goal to prove their competence.

People who think competencies are something they are born with respond differently from people who think their competencies are something they had to work hard to achieve.

People who perceive themselves to be competent respond differently from people who see themselves as incompetent.

6.2.1: Learning Versus Performance Goals

6.2.1: Contrast learning and performance goals

Point 1 – Learning goals vs. performance goals

People who prefer learning goals are not concerned about making mistakes and want to learn new things.

People who prefer performance goals are concerned with looking competent.

Point 2 – Independent goal types

Goals may not be on the same continuum, and people can fall into different categories.

Point 3 – Approach vs. avoidance

Refer to the 2 x 2 goal taxonomy.

Learning-approach goals are the most beneficial, while performance-avoidance goals are the least.

6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (2 of 5)

Approach vs. avoidance

Desire to approach success

Desire to avoid failure

Figure 6.2: The 2 × 2 Goal Taxonomy

6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (3 of 5)

6.2.2: Entity Versus Incremental Beliefs

6.2.2: Contrast entity and incremental beliefs

Dweck’s theory of implicit beliefs

Entity theorists

Incremental theorists

Differing outcomes for entity and incremental beliefs

Differences in the definition of competence

Differences in goal adaptation

Differences in effort after failure

How praise influences entity and incremental beliefs

Effort

Intelligence

6.2.2: Entity Versus Incremental Beliefs

6.2.2: Contrast entity and incremental beliefs

Point 1 – Dweck’s theory of implicit beliefs

Entity theorists believe traits and abilities are fixed.

Incremental theorists believe traits and abilities are malleable.

Point 2 – Differing outcomes for entity and incremental beliefs

Entity theorists means being competent is doing something well right away without effort. Incremental theorists believe you work hard and improve over time.

Entity people adopt performance goals while incremental people adopt learning goals.

Incremental people increase efforts after failure, while entity people are more likely to walk away.

Point 3 – How praise influences entity and incremental beliefs

Refer to Mueller and Dweck (1998) study of task persistence. Refer to Figure 6.3: Praise on Task Persistence.

Figure 6.3: Praise on Task Persistence

6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (4 of 5)

6.2.3: Self-Efficacy

6.2.3: Explain the concept of self-efficacy

What is self-efficacy?

Belief about ability to accomplish a task

Task-specific

Not actual ability

Self-efficacy and motivational outcomes

Exert effort

Less emotional stress

Goal achievement

Attributions and self-efficacy

Early experiences

Attributions: internal, external, stable, unstable

6.2.3: Self-Efficacy

6.2.3: Explain the concept of self-efficacy

Point 1 – What is self-efficacy?

Self-efficacy is demonstrated in the children’s book The Little Engine That Could.

Self-efficacy beliefs are not global beliefs.

Refer to Figure 6.4: Our Level of Competence is Determined by Both Our Abilities and Our Perceived Capabilities (Self-Efficacy).

Point 2 – Self-efficacy and motivational outcomes

Students achieve more when their self-efficacy beliefs are increased.

Point 3 – Attributions and self-efficacy

Early experiences partially contribute to self-efficacy beliefs.

Attributions play a high role: Internal attributions increase feelings of pride and accomplishment, and stable attributions increase hope that good performances will occur in the future.

Figure 6.4: Our Level of Competence Is Determined by Both Our Abilities and Our Perceived Capabilities (Self-Efficacy)

6.2: Variability in the Expression of Competence (5 of 5)

6.2.4: Flow

6.2.4: Explain the concept of flow

What is flow?

A subjective state in which people feel completely absorbed and focused on an activity

Concerns, anxieties, commitments, time melt away

What causes flow?

Self-efficacy matches task competency

Benefits of flow

Task performance

Task continuation

6.2.4: Flow

6.2.4: Explain the concept of flow

Point 1 – What is flow?

Csikszentmihalyi (1982) was interested in why people perform time-consuming activities for no extrinsic reward.

Point 2 – What causes flow?

Refer to Figure 6.5: Factors That Determine Flow.

Point 3 – Benefits of flow

Discuss Keller and Bless (2008) and the study of college students and Tetris.

Flow is both a mental and a physical experience.

Figure 6.5: Factors That Determine Flow

6.3: The Role of Self (1 of 2)

6.3: Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation

What is the self-concept?

Individual’s collection of self-knowledge

Competencies as a foundation

6.3.1: Goal Fusion

6.3.1: Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation

What is goal fusion?

The extent a goal is perceived to be integrated into a person’s self-concept

Measuring goal fusion

6.3: Evaluate how the self impacts our motivation

Point 1 – What is the self-concept?

The self-concept is who you think you are.

Discuss the reflection list of “I am.” Competencies form the basis for the sense of self.

6.3.1: Goal Fusion

6.3.1: Analyze how goal fusion can impact motivation

Point 1 –What is goal fusion?

When fusion is high, people feel one with their goal. (People who jog vs. people who are joggers.)

Refer to Figure 6.6: Measure of Goal Fusion.

When we do not feel fused with a goal, successes and failures with that goal have little impact.

Figure 6.6: Measure of Goal Fusion

6.3: The Role of Self (2 of 2)

6.3.2: Self-Esteem

6.3.2: Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation

What is self-esteem?

How favorably or unfavorably people evaluate themselves

What determines self-esteem?

Contingencies of self-worth

6.3.2: Self-Esteem

6.3.2: Analyze how self-esteem can impact motivation

Point 1 – What is self-esteem?

Self-esteem is considered to be a major motivator of human behavior.

Point 2 – What determines self-esteem?

Crocker at al. (2003; 2012; 2001) discuss that the impact an event has on one’s self-esteem depends on the relevance of that event to one’s contingencies of self-worth.

Discuss Crocker, Sommers, and Luhtanen (2002) study of college seniors applying to graduate school.

6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives (1 of 4)

6.4: Differentiate self-evaluation motives

What is self-evaluation?

Judging aspects of self-concept

6.4.1: Social Comparison Theory

6.4.1: Describe social comparison theory

Social comparison theory

Festinger (1954)—We only know who we are and what we are capable of by comparing ourselves to others

Need to accurate assess abilities

Four self-evaluation motives

Self-assessment

Self-verification

Self-enhancement

Self-improvement

6.4: Differentiate self-evaluation motives

Point 1 – What is self-evaluation?

People tend to compare their skills to those around them.

6.4.1: Social Comparison Theory

6.4.1: Describe social comparison theory

Point 1 – Social comparison theory

We make decisions of athletic ability or intelligence by comparing ourselves to others.

When no definitive test is available, we look to others.

Is it important to know how others score?

Point 2 – Four self-evaluation motives

Refer to Figure 6.7: Motives to Evaluate Own Competencies.

Figure 6.7: Motives to Evaluate Own Competencies

6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives (2 of 4)

6.4.2: Self-Assessment: To Thine Own Self Be True

6.4.2: Explain the concept of self-assessment

What is self-assessment?

The motivation to obtain an accurate evaluation of one’s abilities and competencies

Diagnostic tests

6.4.3: Self-Verification: To Thine Own Self Be Sure

6.4.3: Explain the concept of self-verification

What is self-verification?

The motivation to maintain consistency between self-conceptions and new information

Company of others

Negative self-views

Symbolic completion theory

Clothing or symbols that represent to those around us who we are

6.4.2: Self-Assessment: To Thine Own Self Be True

6.4.2: Explain the concept of self-assessment

Point 1 – What is self-assessment?

Polonius suggested that the most important thing in life is to be true to yourself and not to pretend to be something you are not.

Diagnostic tests like personality tests or horoscopes are one way to fulfill self-assessment.

6.4.3: Self-Verification: To Thine Own Self Be Sure

6.4.3: Explain the concept of self-verification

Point 1 – What is self-verification?

Sometimes, we engage in a behavior to prove that we are good at it.

We like having consistent information.

Discuss Giesler, Josephs, and Swann’s (1996) study on positive self-views and negative self-views.

Refer to Figure 6.8: Which Profile Would You Pick ?

We tend to seek out the company of others who verify their self-views.

People are more likely to divorce a spouse when they think that their spouse perceives them too favorably.

This figure is not included in the template.

Point 2 – Symbolic completion theory

From clothing to symbols (like ribbons), we choose items that send a message about ourselves.

Figure 6.8: A hotspot with a stick diagram shows the two profiles of an individual, the positive profile has a happy face, while the negative profile has a sad face.

6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives (3 of 4)

6.4.4: Self-Enhancement: To Thine Own Self Be Good

6.4.4: Explain the concept of self-enhancement

What is self-enhancement?

The motivation to enhance the positive aspects and decrease the negative aspects of our self-concept

Positive feedback

Positive illusions

The better-than-average effect

Downward social comparison

Self-affirmation theory

If one part of our self-concept is threatened, we can restore our sense of self by affirming another values part of the self-concept.

6.4.5: Self-Improvement: To Thine Own Self Be Better

6.4.5: Explain the concept of self-improvement

6.4.4: Self-Enhancement: To Thine Own Self Be Good

6.4.4: Explain the concept of self-enhancement

Point 1 – What is self-enhancement?

Sometimes, we just want to feel good about ourselves.

We engage in behaviors that help us feel good about ourselves.

The better-than-average effect is the pattern of thinking that we are better than the average.

Point 2 – Self-affirmation theory

Facebook and our profiles enable users to reaffirm competence.

6.4.5: Self-Improvement: To Thine Own Self Be Better

6.4.5: Explain the concept of self-improvement

Point 1 – What is self-improvement?

We constantly seek self-improvement in jobs, school, and relationships.

Point 2 – How does self-improvement motivate people?

When we compare our skills to people who are more skilled, we are more inspired to become competent.

What dangers are associated with upward social comparisons?

We are more likely to feel threatened when someone outdoes us on a domain that is dear to our heart.

6.4: Self-Evaluation Motives (4 of 4)

What is self-improvement?

The motivation to improve one’s traits, abilities, and well-being

How does self-improvement motivate people?

Upward social comparisons

Domain-specific

6.5: Reactions to Loss of Competence (1 of 3)

6.5: Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation

Self-defensive strategies

Self-serving attributional bias

Self-handicapping

Excuse making

6.5: Analyze how the loss of competence can affect motivation

Point 2 – Self-defensive strategies

Self-defensive strategies allow us to externalize information when it threatens our sense of competency.

Refer to Figure 6.9: Self-Defensive Strategies.

Figure 6.9: Self-Defensive Strategies

6.5: Reactions to Loss of Competence (2 of 3)

6.5.1: Self-Serving Attributional Bias

6.5.1: Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias

What is self-serving attributional bias?

People take credit for their successes and deny blame for their failures.

Beneficial

6.5.2: Self-Handicapping

6.5.2: Explain the concept of self-handicapping

What is self-handicapping?

The tendency to create an external obstacle that blocks one’s own performance

Anticipating a potential failure

Harmful

6.5.1: Self-Serving Attributional Bias

6.5.1: Explain the concept of self-serving attributional bias

Point 2 – What is self-serving attributional bias?

We strategically use internal and external attributions to maintain overly positive self-evaluations.

While it seems delusionary, it helps people put more effort to positive solutions.

6.5.2: Self-Handicapping

6.5.2: Explain the concept of self-handicapping

Point 2 – What is self-handicapping?

By creating an obstacle that guarantees failure, people can blame the poor outcome on the external cause and not blame themselves.

People are more likely to use this strategy when they expect failure.

Discuss Berglas and Jones (1978) study of IQ tests.

Refer to Figure 6.10: Self-Handicapping as Expressed Through Drug Choice.

Self-handicapping seems to do more harm than good.

Figure 6.10: Self-Handicapping as Expressed Through Drug Choice

6.5: Reactions to Loss of Competence (3 of 3)

6.5.3: Excuse Making

6.5.3: Explain the concept of excuse making

What is excuse making?

An attempt to shift attributions for a negative outcome from internal causes to external causes

6.5.3: Excuse Making

6.5.3: Explain the concept of excuse making

Point 2 – What is excuse making?

How is excuse making different from self-handicapping?

Summary: Competence

The concept of competence as a core motive

The ways in which people express competence

How the self impacts our motivation

The different self-evaluation motives

How the loss of competence can affect motivation

People whose sense of competencies is threatened show a higher desire for competence. People who pursue competence-relevant goals are happier and healthier than those who pursue other types of goals.

Learning goals frame the task as an opportunity to improve competencies; performance goals frame it an opportunity to prove their competencies. Entity theorists believe traits and abilities are fixed while incremental theorists believe they can and do change over time. Praising for effort is better than praising for ability. Flow occurs when a person is in a state of concentration and becomes completely absorbed within an activity.

Goal fusion refers to the extent that a goal is perceived to be integrated into one’s self-concept. People highly fused with their goal are more likely to achieve their goal and are more impacted by goal feedback.

Social comparison theory posits that people evaluate their abilities by comparing to the abilities of similar others. Self-assessment states people are motivated to obtain an accurate evaluation of their abilities. Self-verification states people are motivated to maintain consistency between their self-concepts and new information. Self-enhancement states people are motivated to enhance positive aspects and decrease negative aspects of their self-concept. Positive illusions are overly positive self-perceptions. Downward social comparisons involve comparing our skills to those worse off; self-affirmation theory states that if one aspect of the self-concept is threatened, we can reflect on another valued aspect. Self-improvement states people are motivated to improve their abilities. We compare ourselves to others better than ourselves, but self-enhancement appears to be the dominant motive.

Self-handicapping occurs when someone who is anticipating failure purposely creates an obstacle that will prevent his or her own success. Excuses try to shift the cause of a negative outcome from internal to external causes. It protects self-esteem and makes others less likely to blame us for our failures.