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Organization Change: Theory and Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 7: Organization Change: Research and Theory

Reviews of Organization Change Research (1 of 11)

Early reviews by Friedlander and Brown.

Target of interventions.

Two outcomes.

An open-system approach.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Early reviews by Friedlander and Brown:

One of the early reviews of organization change research was the Annual Review of Psychology chapter by Friedlander and Brown.

Writing on organization development, these authors framed the terms of “target of interventions” that led to outcomes.

Target of interventions:

The two broad categories of interventions were (a) people and (b) technology.

People emphasizes organizational processes, such as communication, decision making, and problem solving.

Technology emphasizes organizational structures, such as task methods, job design, and organizational design.

Two outcomes: The two categories of interventions could lead to two outcomes: (a) human fulfillment and (b) task accomplishment.

An open-system approach: The framework of Friedlander and Brown is reflective of an open-system approach to conceptualizing organizations.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (2 of 11)

Approaches to organization development.

Reviews by Alderfer.

Not using an overall framework.

Cross-cultural reviews.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Approaches to organization development:

Change in the techno-structural category was clearer and more definitive than studies investigating the human-processual approach as techno-structural change is easier to measure than the human processes domain.

OD today is a long way from being the general theory and technology of planned social system we would like to see it become.

Reviews by Alderfer: The overall quality of research is showing increasing signs of both rigor and vigor as more careful studies are being conducted and reported.

Not using an overall framework or model: Alderfer, unlike Friedlander and Brown, did not use an overall framework or model to discuss his review of the literature.

Cross-cultural reviews by Faucheux, Amado, & Laurent:

There remained a “paucity of good research and particularly fundamental research”.

There was evidence to counter “that changed process caused changed outcome”.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (3 of 11)

Need for sociotechnical linkage.

Organizational development inconclusive.

Four problems of OD research.

Adopting “Action science”.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Need for sociotechnical linkage:

The sociotechnical linkage between the social and the technical approaches and the need to account for the broader context of organization change are critical.

The linkage brings about true organization change that is measurable and endurable.

Organizational development inconclusive: Reviews by Beer & Walton raised an important question on why OD research results be still inconclusive despite more sophisticated research methods.

Four problems of OD research:

Researchers, while relying on traditional scientific methods, overlook the larger system of interconnectedness.

Due to snapshot research of organization change, it is difficult to determine how permanent a change may be.

Quantitative methods are not very useful for understanding an outcome that has multiple causes.

Use of highly technical, statistical procedures produce complicated outcomes not in an usable format to end users.

Adopting “Action science”:

This means moving away from typical positivistic assumptions about research in organizations.

And moving toward a process that (a) involves the users in the study, (b) relies on self-corrective learning, and (c) occurs over time, not episodically.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (4 of 11)

Growing research on organization change.

Problems of researchers themselves.

Clarity about research objective.

Alpha change.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Growing research on organization change: The literature about “action science” kind of choice for organization change research has begun to grow.

Problems of researchers themselves:

The degree to which the researcher is directly involved makes a difference.

Collecting data as a more distant observer, or not directly intervening in the organization at all and relying exclusively on archival information can affect the outcome.

Clarity about research objective: Whether it is for evaluative purposes or for scientific community determines about what data to collect and how to collect them.

Alpha change: It concerns a difference that occurs along some relatively stable dimension of reality. It is a comparative measure before and after an intervention.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (5 of 11)

Beta change.

Gamma change.

Selecting appropriate dependent variable.

Recipient’s reaction to change.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Beta change: a recalibration of the intervals along some constant dimension of reality.

A gamma change:

It involves a redefinition or reconceptualization of some domain, a major change in the perspective or frame of reference within which phenomena are perceived and classified, in what is taken to be relevant in some slice of reality.

This involves change from one state to another.

Selecting appropriate dependent variable:

Determining specifically what might change is not as simple as it might appear.

This is especially important when self-report data are used.

Recipient’s reaction to change:

Oreg, Vakola, and Armenakis’ review research extensively covers the change recipients’ reactions to change.

Focus was on quantitative studies that measured organizational members’ reactions to change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (6 of 11)

Framework of 3 primary antecedents.

Determining cause and effect.

Matching definitions to instruments.

Reporting on overall trends.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Framework of 3 primary antecedents:

The three primary antecedents of organizational members’ reactions to change are (a) change recipient individual characteristics, (b) change process, and (c) change content.

These antecedents in a quantitative manner are linked to explicit reactions: behavioral, affective, and cognitive, which in turn were associated with change consequence.

Determining cause and effect:

Determining what is cause and what is effect can be tricky.

Variables such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction can be “antecedents as well as change consequences.”

Matching definitions to instruments: It is critical to match variable definitions to measurement instruments. It is a validity issue.

Reporting on overall, not individual trends:

There is a deficiency in time 1 to time 2 linkage.

Time 2 recipients were not the same individuals who responded at Time 1.

Hence, only overall trends could be reported not trends at the individual level.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (7 of 11)

Studies based on single organization.

Predicting recipient’s reaction to changes.

Trust of change recipients.

Involvement in decisions.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Studies are based on single organization:

Studies considered change processes in a single organization or department and not the variables at the organization level.

Executives are often incapable of predicting how change recipients will react to organization changes that contribute to ineffective leadership.

Predicting recipient’s reaction to changes: There is an incapability to predict how change recipients will react to organization changes that contribute to ineffective leadership.

Trust of change recipients: Change recipients must trust their leaders and the process that they advocate.

Involvement in decisions: There should be involvement in decisions that directly affect change recipients.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (8 of 11)

Selection of people.

Leadership of change.

Focused leadership.

Distributed leadership.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Selection of people: Selection of people to help lead and manage the change needs to have a personal disposition with positivism rather than with a negative and resistant disposition.

Leadership of change:

Ford and Ford studied on whether leadership of change in organizations actually matters.

Summary and conclusions were based on a few articles that met the criteria of leadership of change per se.

Focused leadership: single individual in a leadership position. The unit of analysis is the “stand-alone leader.”

Distributed leadership: involves many people with their individualistic, and complementary, versions of leading.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (9 of 11)

Subsets of distributed leadership.

Approaches to change.

Leader behaviors.

Leader change activities.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Subsets of distributed leadership:

There are at least two subsets, Collective distributed leadership and Co-performing distributed leadership.

Collective distributed leadership means that leadership is dispersed among many organizational members at all levels and functions.

Co-performing distributed leadership is performed by a specific group of individuals who collaborate with one another, more like deliberate team work.

Approaches to change: (a) whether the change effort is simple or complex and (b) whether the change can be driven from the top or from a more local, differentiated approach. Three alternative approaches: (a) immediate, (b) incremental, and (c) indifferent.

Leader behaviors: rely on identifying specific behaviors of individuals in positions of authority.

Leader change activities: The emphasis is on particular change activities and evaluating progress.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (10 of 11)

Lack of relationship.

Recipients’ personal experiences.

Leader’s effectiveness.

Impact of change on leaders.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Lack of relationship:

Whether leaders of change efforts

(a) Stop doing things they usually do,

(b) Add new things while continuing what they usually do,

(d) Some combination of these

Recipients’ personal experiences: The personal reactions and experiences of change recipients: leaders approach change has an effect on recipients as measured by their commitment and readiness for change

Leader’s effectiveness: Leader effectiveness in making change happen: a highly directive approach tended to be more successful although the recipients were not very happy about it.

Impact of leading on the leaders: Leaders of change do seem to alter their behavior.

Reviews of Organization Change Research (11 of 11)

Issues and tentative conclusions.

Weaknesses of leadership of change.

Measuring organization change complex.

Normal science and actual science.

7.1. Discuss the different research review findings on organization change.

Reviews of Organization Change Research

Issues and tentative conclusions:

With snapshot measures, the dynamic interplay between leader behaviors and the activities of change over time.

Individuals in positions of leading change alter their behavior during the process, becoming more transformational and at times more directive.

Leadership effectiveness in a co-performing form appears to be based on the complementarity of behaviors among leaders.

Actual content of communication, how much and how often, or which way, up or down, laterally, is unknown.

Due to the type of study conducted like assessments, questionnaires, etcetera, measuring outcomes of organization change is quite problematic.

Four weaknesses of leadership of change:

An over-emphasis on the role of the individual leader in a position of authority.

The use of subjective assessments of change implementation and leadership.

The single-point data collection of many studies.

A vocabulary that adds confusion and vagueness.

Measuring organization change is complex: Measuring organization change involves to determine cause and effect and also determine who the research is for.

Switching between normal science and actual science:

If the users are other researchers, then following normal science may be important. If the users are the members of the organization being studied, then the emerging field of action science may need to be followed.

Recent Approaches to Research and Theory (1 of 2)

The Shift From “Normal” Science

Complex-system approach.

Requisites to understand complex system.

Linear versus nonlinear approaches.

Nonlinear concepts.

7.2. Compare and contrast recent approaches to research and theory.

The Shift From “Normal” Science

Svyantek and Brown: complex-system approach”: The study that is hard to be explained by analysis and by breaking down the system into its component parts.

Requisites to understand complex system:

(a) the variables determining the system’s behavior

(b) the patterns of interconnections among these variables, and

(c) the fact that these patterns, and the strengths associated with each interconnection, may vary depending on the time scale relevant for the behaviors being studied.

Traditional linear versus complex nonlinear approaches: Traditional system uses linear methods such as regression whereas complex systems approaches rely on nonlinear methods.

Nonlinear concepts: phase space and attractor:

Svyantek and Brown proposed two nonlinear concepts with explanatory value for understanding social systems: phase space and attractor.

Phase space: depiction of multiple behavioral measurements over time.

Attractors: patterns of behavior with two primary characteristics: sensitivity to initial conditions and stability. Sensitivity to initial conditions means that an organization’s history is highly important. Stability is an organization’s culture.

Recent Approaches to Research and Theory (2 of 2)

The Organizational Change Research Theory of Porras and Colleagues

Planned change.

Unplanned change.

First-order change.

Second-order change.

7.2. Compare and contrast recent approaches to research and theory.

The Organizational Change Research Theory of Porras and Colleagues

Planned change: This is a deliberate, conscious decision to improve the organization in some manner or perhaps to change the system in a deeper, more fundamental way.

Unplanned change: The organization has to respond to some unanticipated external change.

First-order change: Referred as “continuous improvement” where the change consists of alterations or modifications in existing system characteristics.

Second-order change: Referred as “revolutionary, this is radical, more fundamental change.

Organization Models

Porras’ model of four “streams”.

Transformation from input into output.

Identifying primary and member elements.

Organizational vs individual performance.

7.3. Identify different organization models.

Organizational Models

Porras’ model of four “streams”:

It consists of four basic dimensions: (a) organizing arrangements (b) social factors (c) technology and (d) physical settings.

It describes how organizations operate and the key elements in that operation. The model adds to the array of like models in the field of OD and change.

Transformation from input into output: Porras’ model describes how input from the external environment gets transformed into output: organizational performance and individual development.

Identifying primary and member elements:

The primary elements and dimensions of an organization are the work setting elements which includes social factors, physical setting, etc.

The member elements are the cognitions and behaviors.

Organizational versus individual performance:

Organizational performance includes both unit (group, team, and department) and individual performance.

These in turn affect or produce organizational performance.

Organization Change Theory (1 of 4)

Four elements of a “complete” theory.

New model of planned change.

On-the-job behavior of members.

Flow of change.

7.4. Explain organization change theory.

Organization Change Theory

Four elements of a “complete” theory”:

What (constructs): factors that should logically be considered as explanatory parts of what is being considered.

How (linkages): how the factors under what relate to one another, typically portrayed in the form of boxes and arrows, what comes before what (strategy before structure), and what causes what.

Why (conceptual assumptions): the logic underlying the theory or model.

The combination of Who/ where/ when: “These temporal and contextual factors set the boundaries of generalizability, and as such constitute the range of the theory.”

Porras: new model of planned change:

It proposes a process of how organization change occurs.

The flow of the framework is from organizational interventions that affect certain variables, to individual behavior and then to improve organizational performance and enhance individual development.

Change based on on-the-job behavior of members:

As the nature of the setting significantly influences the behavior, organizational members must “alter their on-the-job behavior” for change to occur.

Flow of change from OT and OD interventions:

An OT intervention affects an organization’s vision, purpose, and mission.

An OD intervention is aimed at changing aspects of the work setting.

These interventions in turn affect organizational members’ thought processes as alpha, beta, and gamma changes.

Thus, behavior is changed, it leads to improved performance and enhanced individual development.

Organization Change Theory (2 of 4)

Merits of Porras’ framework.

Challenges in organization change.

Accountability for human processes.

Accountability of the social effect.

7.4. Explain organization change theory.

Organization Change Theory

Merits of Porras’ framework:

Fairly easy to understand the flow where A leads to B, which in turn affects C, and so on.

Meets the criteria for completeness reasonably well.

The boundaries of the theory are fairly clear: this addresses how change occurs within an organization.

Practical challenges in organization change: Organization change does not completely occur according to the theoretical framework.

Accountability of human processes:

Human behavior comes first, then cognition.

We act and then attribute meaning to that action.

Accountability of the social effect: This relates to how organizational members collectively react to events and how they interact with one another.

Organization Change Theory (3 of 4)

Establishing causal links.

Implementation of the change plan.

Achieving the necessary behavior.

Evidences for behavior change.

7.4. Explain organization change theory.

Organization Change Theory

Establishing causal links: Establishing the causal links with commitment between vision (thought) and action (behavior) is a challenge for organization change.

Implementation of the change plan: Should be driven more on the desired behavior and less on the rationale and thoughts.

Achieving behavior according to the vision:

Organization change begins with a vision of the future, which alone is not sufficient.

Behavioral movement in the direction of the vision is required. However, the change in mental set comes after behavior has occurred.

Evidences for behavior change first and mental set next:

Emotional behavior precedes emotional experience.

Testing by Stanley Schachter: an emotion was induced, but the attribution as to which emotion the subject experienced came after the inducement and the enacted behavior.

Actual causes of our behavior are rarely conscious to us.

Organization Change Theory (4 of 4)

Three criteria for a causal link.

Behavior via nonconscious means.

Linkage between vison and action.

Nonlinear concepts and series of loops.

7.4. Explain organization change theory.

Organization Change Theory

Three criteria to perceive a causal link:

(a) priority, (b) consistency, and (c) the lack of other possible attributed causes.

First, we must have the thought shortly before the action.

Second, the thought should be compatible with the action.

Third, the thought should be the only apparent cause of action.

Most behavior is via nonconscious means:

Controlling our behavior consciously is quite limited.

Most of our daily psychological lives function through nonconscious means, via “automaticity.”

Conclusion 1: Linkage between vison and action:

A conscious, deliberate, and rational process creates linkage for organizational members between vision or mission (concepts, cognitions) and action (behavior).

Conclusion 2: Rely on nonlinear concepts:

We must rely on theory and concepts that are nonlinear.

We can strengthen some attractors and eliminate others.

Organization change as a series of “loops”: taking initiatives and then looping back to correct details missed on the first attempt or loop.

Current Thinking on Organization Change and Research

Episodic changes.

Continuous changes.

Unfreeze–movement–refreeze.

Freeze–rebalance–unfreeze.

7.5. Describe the current thinking on organization change and research.

Current Thinking on Organization Change and Research

Episodic change:

Organizational changes that tend to be infrequent, discontinuous, and intentional.

Episodic change arises as a result of inertia and an organization’s inability to respond to external environmental changes adequately.

Continuous change:

“Ongoing, evolving, and cumulative.”

Continuous change is driven by alertness and the inability of organizations to remain stable.

Unfreeze–movement–refreeze: Episodic change follows the stages as unfreeze–movement–refreeze.

Freeze–rebalance–unfreeze:

To freeze continuous change is to find the patterns in day-to-day life in the organizations and to reinforce them.

To rebalance is to change the patterns so that fewer restraints and barriers are present and the continuous change can flow more freely.

To unfreeze after the rebalancing is to innovate and find new ways of ensuring continuous change.