task 771

Arun1990

BuildingBetterInstruction04_11_18.pdf

Home >Education homework help >task 771

Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 31 Number 56

Feature

Subject: Technology integration, instructional strategies

Audience: Teachers, teacher educators, technology coordinators, library media specialists

Grade Level: K–12 (Ages 5–18)

Technology: All

Standards: NETS•S 3; NETS•T II (http://www.iste.org/standards)

By Kathy Brabec, Kimberly Fisher, and Howard Pitler

Building Better Instruction How Technology Supports Nine Research-Proven

Instructional Strategies

February 2004 Learning & Leading with Technology 7

Feature

F indings from a single research study can tell us a lot, but a meta-analysis of fi ndings from

a number of studies can tell us even more. In A Theory-Based Meta- Analysis of Research on Instruction, Robert J. Marzano analyzed the results of more than 100 research reports on instruction, involving more than 1.2 million subjects. The goal of the analysis was to identify those instructional strategies that have a high probability of enhancing student achievement for all students in all subject areas at all grade levels. (Editor’s note: See Resources on p. 11 for book and other information.)

Based on this meta-analysis, Marzano, Debra Pickering, and Jane Pollock identifi ed and subsequently reviewed nine categories of instruc- tional strategies that are most likely to lead to enhanced student achievement in their book, Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Many teachers are using these strate- gies, and they are asking how tech- nology can be integrated with these strategies to improve student learning. In this article, we review the research- based instructional strategies and give concrete examples of readily available technology that support them.

Nine Strategies 1. Identifying Similarities and Dif- ferences. Classroom practices associ- ated with identifying similarities and differences include comparison tasks, classifying tasks, and the use of meta- phors and analogies. For example, you might ask students to compare ideas or objects, classify or group items into categories, or use a meta- phor or analogy to see how seemingly dissimilar things are related.

2. Summarizing and Note Taking. These strategies are clustered as part of the same instructional category because both require students to distill information. Summarizing requires students to analyze infor- mation at a fairly deep level, thus strengthening their understanding.

Students can summarize infor- mation in different ways, including deleting information that isn’t critical to the overall meaning of the text, substituting some information, and keeping some information.

Note taking is similar to summa- rizing because students must fi rst de- termine what is most important and then state that information succinctly.

3. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition. These strategies deal with students’ attitudes and beliefs. Students who believe the amount of effort they put into a task increas- es their achievement actually do bet- ter, according to Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock. Many students aren’t aware of the importance of believing that their level of effort is related to their achievement. But you can ex- plicitly teach this and share examples with students. You can help students understand the role of effort and how important it is in their learning by asking them to track their effort and achievement using rubrics or charts.

It is equally important to reward students for achieving specifi c goals. Though there are many ways to tell a student he or she has done well, recognition is most effective when it is abstract (e.g., praise) or symbolic (e.g., tokens such as coupons or stick- ers) and contingent on students’ at- taining specifi c performance goals.

4. Homework and Practice. Home- work and practice are considered

together because both provide op- portunities for students to deepen their understanding and strengthen their skills. In terms of homework, one vital point to consider is the im- portance of establishing a homework policy and being sure students and parents understand it. Similarly, it’s important to ensure that the purpose of assignments is clear.

Mastering any skill takes lots of practice. In fact, research referenced in Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock’s book indicated students need to practice a skill 24 times to reach 80% competency, with the fi rst four prac- tices yielding the greatest effect.

5. Nonlinguistic Representations. The primary way teachers present new knowledge to students is through speaking and reading. But psychologists theorize that humans store knowledge in two forms: lin- guistic and nonlinguistic —words and images.

Nonlinguistic representations of knowledge can take a variety of forms, including graphic representa- tions, physical models, mental pic- tures, drawings, and kinesthetic class- room activities. A number of studies indicate that each of these types of activities helps students to develop nonlinguistic representations that en- hance their understanding of content (see Classroom Instruction That Works, pp. 73−74, for a list).

6. Cooperative Learning. Group- ing students for cooperative learning activities can be a very powerful in- structional strategy. Informal, ad hoc groupings may last only a few min- utes or an entire class period. More formal groupings for cooperative learning may last a few days or weeks, as defi ned by a unit of study. Coop-

Feature

Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 31 Number 58

erative groups designed for support, sometimes called “base” groups, may last the entire semester or school year. See the Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota Web site for more on cooperative learning.

7. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback. Setting objectives estab- lishes a direction for learning. Once students understand the parameters of an objective, they should brain- storm to determine what they know and what they want to learn. Specifi c, timely, and regular feedback to stu- dents enhances their learning. Also, feedback should include an expla- nation of why an item is correct or incorrect and be criterion referenced. In other words, students should un- derstand where they stand relative to a specifi c target of knowledge or skill.

8. Generating and Testing Hypotheses. The strategy of generating and test- ing hypotheses is effective because it requires students to apply their knowledge and thus deepens their understanding. Several processes encourage students to generate and test hypotheses, including systems analysis, invention, experimental in- quiry, decision making, and problem solving. Within this strategy, students plan and conduct simple investiga- tions (e.g., formulate a testable ques- tion, make systematic observations, and develop logical conclusions).

9. Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers. These tools give students a preview of what they are about to learn or experience and thus help activate students’ prior knowledge. Cues and questions should focus on what is central and important, as opposed to what is unusual. Higher- level questions can deepen students’ learning, because they require stu- dents to restructure information or apply knowledge. Advance org- anizers are most useful with informa- tion not easily presented in a well-

organized manner. For example, cre- ating an advance organizer for a fi eld trip can provide students with infor- mation about what they are about to see and do.

Note in the table on p. 9 how strongly these can affect student achievement. Translating effect sizes into percentile gains makes the poten- tial benefi ts of a given instructional strategy clearer and more dramatic.

Supportive Technologies Technology should always be viewed as a tool, rather than an end in itself. However, many times, a single tech- nology application or process will help address a number of different instructional strategies. This section explores examples of such technology.

Word Processing. Almost all teachers have access to a word processing pro- gram. The rubric on p. 9 was created using Microsoft Word’s Table feature. Students might use a rubric like this to rate their effort and achievement on particular assignments and keep track of these ratings over time. They might then use Word’s Graph Chart feature to better see the relationship between their effort and achievement.

An English teacher might use an advance organizer to facilitate the writing process. You could fi rst use the organizer to help students select a writing topic. Students would identify fi ve possible topics, which they would add in the circles; they would then identify at least three facts about each topic, which they would add in the squares. Using an organizer like this can help students make better topic choices. After students select a topic to write about (e.g., endangered ani- mals), they can use the same advance organizer to develop the introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and the conclusion.

Word processors can be excellent tools for summarizing. One approach frequently used is to delete informa-

tion that isn’t critical to the overall meaning of the text, substitute some information, and keep some informa- tion. Using the Track Changes tool in Word, students can easily delete words and phrases, view the revised text, and make changes as needed.

Technology can also be a helpful tool for analogies. You could create an analogy task template using the drawing tools in a word processing program. Once the template is cre- ated, you or your students can easily change the text.

Using the annotation feature in Word allows for peer editing and helps facilitate an ongoing dialogue between teacher and student, provid- ing timely feedback.

Microsoft Word and PowerPoint also can be used to create graphic organizers. You can use the Organiza- tion Chart feature to illustrate two common structures for organizing information.

Web Resources. The High Plains Regional Technology in Education Consortium (HPR*TEC) has a range of excellent online tools for teachers. NoteStar, for example, allows teachers to create online research projects for their students. Students can then use NoteStar’s features to take notes from online sources and organize their notes by topic or subtopic. NoteStar automatically embeds the Web site annotation into each note. NoteStar also enables students to summarize easily. Students can copy and paste directly from a Web site and add their own information, making sure to note which information is quoted and from where.

Another HPR*TEC resource is RubiStar. This online resource provides generic rubrics that can be printed as is or customized. Ru- brics can be excellent tools in setting objectives and providing feedback. Find a great rubrics library online at Discovery School.

Feature

February 2004 Learning & Leading with Technology 9

To help students understand the roles and responsibilities involved in cooperative grouping, you might encourage them to create a rubric to assess their group’s effectiveness in working together. Find rubrics related to cooperative learning skills on the University of Northern Iowa’s profes- sional development Web site. These rubrics can serve as references for students as they construct their own rubrics.

You might fi nd it helpful to study the Web sites of textbook publishers, which often include statements of general concepts, organized by chap- ter and unit. Suggested activities can provide cues for students to activate prior knowledge and anticipate new content; unit and chapter outlines available on these sites also can serve as advance organizers. Some great examples include Glencoe, Harcourt, and Macmillan/McGraw-Hill. Many education publishers have Web sites that support their texts. Don’t over- look these valuable resources.

A unit strategy that promotes cooperative learning and generating and testing hypotheses is the Web- Quest. Not to be confused with a Web scavenger hunt, a WebQuest is an organized activity following a specifi c model. Visit Bernie Dodge’s WebQuest Page for an overview of this model and hundreds of Web- Quests, organized by grade level and discipline.

Homework policies and daily as- signments can be posted on a school’s Web site for easy access. Also, for a fee, several companies host school and teacher Web pages (e.g., eBoard.com, Myclass, and Blackboard).

Organizing and Brainstorming Soft- ware. Software for these activities can be integrated into a number of the instructional strategies. For example, Kidspiration, Inspiration, and Kid Pix offer great graphic organizers for identifying similarities and differ- ences. These applications come with

Effort Achievement

4 I worked on the task until it was 4 I exceeded the objectives completed. I pushed myself to of the task or lesson. continue working on the task even when diffi culties arose or a solution was not immediately evident. I viewed diffi culties as opportunities to strengthen my understanding.

3 I worked on the task until it was com- 3 I met the objectives pleted. I pushed myself to continue of the task or lesson. working on the task even when diffi culties arose or a solution was not immediately evident.

2 I put some effort into the task, 2 I met a few of the objectives of but I stopped working when the task or lesson but did not diffi culties arose. meet others.

1 I put very little effort into the task. 1 I did not meet the objectives of the task or lesson.

Scale: 4 = excellent 3 = good 2 = needs improvement 1 = unacceptable

An effort and achievement rubric. Adapted from Classroom Instruction That Works (p. 52), by R. J. Marzano, D. J. Pickering, & J. E. Pollock.

templates that allow younger students to drag pictures and older students to type words into the appropriate boxes as they sort, classify, and compare items. Students can also create Venn diagrams and comparison tables.

Inspiration is another great re- source for classroom activities that require students to summarize text. Rapidfi re is a brainstorming tool within Inspiration that allows teachers

and students to quickly and automati- cally create concept webs. In particu- lar, teachers can show students how to use the Rapidfi re feature to create a summary web. With a single click of a button, students can switch between concept web and outline views. This approach also reinforces nonlinguistic representation.

You also might use Inspiration to construct a KWHL chart, which

Effectiveness of Nine Strategies

Category Average Associated Effect Size Percentile Gain

Identifying similarities and differences 1.61 45

Summarizing and note taking 1.00 34

Reinforcing effort and providing recognition .80 29

Homework and practice .77 28

Nonlinguistic representation .75 27

Cooperative learning .73 27

Setting goals and providing feedback .61 23

Generating and testing hypotheses .61 23

Cues, questions, and advance organizers .59 22

When conducting a meta-analysis, the results of a given study are translated into a unit of measurement referred to as an effect size. An effect size is a measure in standard deviation units of the increase or decrease in achievement of the experimental group. An effect size can also be translated into percentile gains. Table is adapted from Classroom Instruction That Works (p. 7), by R. J. Marzano, D. J. Pickering, & J. E. Pollock.

Feature

Learning & Leading with Technology Volume 31 Number 510

main idea of a unit or research paper and present it to an authentic audi- ence. Many teachers fi nd cooperative learning to be an ideal strategy for the creation of multimedia projects. Find a Grade 2 student project about geometric shapes using PowerPoint online at ALI’s student project site.

Strategies Applied The nine instructional strategies re- viewed in this article are most success- ful when students learn to apply them consistently themselves. You should fi rst model the use of the strategies and then assist students in learning and practicing them. As you create lesson plans, consider using three ap- proaches in incorporating the effec- tive strategies.

1. Focus on the strategies. A teacher decides to concentrate on the strat- egy of setting goals and providing feedback. He then identifi es les- sons where the strategy applies and determines how technology can be integrated into the lessons.

2. Focus on the available technology. Although technology use shouldn’t trump content or strategy, it can be used to lead the way in lesson planning. For instance, a primary teacher preparing to teach the concept of a community might

Earth’s land surfaces are also in motion. For example, the North American continent continues tomove west over the Pacifi c Ocean basin, roughly at a rate equal to the growth of our fi ngernails. Earthquakes result when plates grind past one another, ride up over one another, collide to make mountains, or split and separate. These movements are known as plate tectonics. Developed within the last 30 years, this explanation has unifi ed the results of centuries of study of our planet, long believed to be unmoving.

Source: Original text from Solar System Bodies: Earth, by NASA. See http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/features/planets/earth/earth.html/.

An example of a teacher-provided advance organizer. Summarizing text using Word’s Track Changes tool.

students can use to answer the ques- tions: What do you know? What do you want to know? How will you fi nd out? What did you learn? KWHL charts can be used to set goals and provide feedback to students.

Students can use a program such as TimeLiner for several strategies, espe- cially summarizing and note taking, advance organizers, and nonlinguistic representation.

Data Collection Tools. Handheld devices and appropriate software give teachers and students the mobility to collect, share, and analyze data. The Palm Web site spotlights several success stories. These examples show how PDAs help teachers and students generate hypotheses, take notes, iden- tify similarities and differences, and provide immediate feedback.

Students can use several tools to formulate and test their hypotheses. Scientifi c instruments from compa- nies such as Vernier allow students to collect real-time data. Students can use probes with provided templates and experiments to test hypotheses in real-world settings. Vernier probes also connect to Texas Instruments scientifi c calculators.

Scalar and others make USB microscopes that capture still imag- es and movies and save them to the

computer. These images can be used to create nonlinguistic representations of science concepts.

Health and physical education teachers can use instruments such as pedometers and heart rate moni- tors to collect data on student activity levels to generate and test hypotheses about exercise and health. One good example is the Digi-Walker.

Multimedia. Nonlinguistic represen- tation is a natural match for digital media creation. Software tools such as iMovie and Windows Movie Mak- er allow students to create and share video presentations that illuminate concepts or tell stories in unique or compelling ways. Digital still cameras allow students to capture visual phe- nomena easily, such as photographing plants at various growth stages. Find examples of excellent digital still and video projects online at the Apple Learning Interchange (ALI).

Presentation tools such as Power- Point and HyperStudio can support the use of all nine strategies. These programs contain templates that make it easy to get started in multi- media creation. You can use presenta- tion software to model appropriate use of the strategies for students and colleagues. Students can use presen- tation software to summarize the

Endangered Animals

Intro

More than 1,000 animal species are endangered

worldwide.

This affects us all in many ways.

Everyone can help solve the problem.

Feature

February 2004 Learning & Leading with Technology 11

inventory available technology and discover that PowerPoint and a computer projector are readily ac- cessible. She decides that the strat- egies of setting goals and identify- ing similarities and differences are compatible with using a computer projector in a whole-class situation. For the goal-setting activity, she constructs and shows a PowerPoint slide show that illustrates the big ideas in the community unit. After students have examined several examples of communities, she uses graphical organizer or concept- mapping software, such as Kid- spiration, in a whole-class activity during which students determine how the communities studied are similar and different.

3. Focus on the unit. A teacher pre- senting a unit on the Lewis and Clark expedition decides that many of the strategies and available technologies can be integrated in the unit. For example, he decides to integrate summarizing and note taking using word process- ing and Web features, identifying similarities and differences using Venn diagrams, and nonlinguistic representations using graphic or- ganizers. Starting with a unit focus is the most ambitious approach. Teachers who are comfortable us-

ing multiple technologies in a unit fi nd this approach a good way to incorporate instructional strategies throughout that unit.

Conclusion Millions of dollars are spent annually on classroom technology, but having technology available in classrooms is only half the battle. The classroom strategies we have outlined here pro- vide guidance and tools for helping students increase their capacity for learning in a deliberate and focused way. We’ve suggested ways to inte- grate technology in the implementa- tion of those research-based classroom strategies and ways to apply the strat- egies consistently.

Lesson planning should focus fi rst on content and classroom strategies, then on ways in which technologies can enhance the lesson. Building les- sons on a solid, research-based foun- dation of effective strategies, adding appropriate technologies, and consis- tently applying those strategies should help ensure high-quality instruction that has the potential of maximizing student achievement.

Resources Books Marzano, R. J. (1998). A theory-based meta-

analysis of research on instruction. Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Research for Educa- tion and Learning.

Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: As- sociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Education Publishers Glencoe: http://www.glencoe.com Harcourt: htttp://www.harcourschool.com Macmillan/McGraw-Hill: http://www.

mmhschool.com

Hardware Digi-Walker: http://www.digiwalker.com Scalar: http://www.scalaramerica.com/

USB.htm Texas Instruments: http://www.

ti.com Vernier: http://www.vernier.com

Software HyperStudio: http://www.hyperstudio.com Inspiration/Kidspiration: http://www.

inspiration.com TimeLiner: http://www.tomsnyder.com

Online Tools Apple Learning Interchange (Grade 2 student

project): http://ali.apple.com/ali_sites/deli/ exhibits/1000171/Student_Work.html

Bernie Dodge’s WebQuest Page: http:// Webquest.sdsu.edu

Cooperative Learning Center: http://www. co-operation.org

Discovery School: http://school. discovery.com/schrockguide/assess.html

NoteStar: http://notestar.4teachers.org Palm Education Success Stories: http://www.

palmone.com/us/education/studies RubiStar: http://rubistar.4teachers.org University of Northern Iowa’s Professional

Development Rubrics: http://www. uni.edu/profdev/rubrics.html

Web Page Hosts Blackboard: http://www.blackboard.com eBoard.com: http://www1.eboard.com Myclass: http://www.myclass.net

Kathy Brabec is a senior con- sultant with Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) in Aurora, Colorado. She has worked in K–12 education since 1971. Kathy has taught English,

social studies, and elementary, middle, and high school educational media. She has helped teachers and students use technology since the mid-1980s.

Kimberly Fisher is a senior consultant with McREL in Aurora, Colorado. Kimberly has been in educational tech- nology for more than 20 years, teaching elementary school, then working for Jostens Learn-

ing as a trainer and instructional designer. She also enjoyed time as an educational technology consultant to the Colorado Department of Education.

Dr. Howard Pitler is director of educational technology for McREL in Aurora, Colorado. Prior to joining McREL, he was an elementary and middle school principal in Wichita, Kansas, for 15 years. He is

an Apple Distinguished Educator and former National Distinguished Principal.

Kathy Brabec is a senior con- sultant with Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) in Aurora, Colorado. She has worked in K–12 education since 1971. Kathy has taught English,

social studies, and elementary, middle, and

ing as a trainer and instructional designer. She

Dr. Howard Pitler is director of educational technology for McREL in Aurora, Colorado. Prior to joining McREL, he was an elementary and middle school principal in Wichita, Kansas, for 15 years. He is

an Apple Distinguished Educator and former

You can use drawing tools to create analogy tasks.

Relationship: containers that hold things.

www.iste.org/LL

glass water

jewel case CD-ROM