Business paper 1500 words 18 hrs

Organizational Behaviour

David A. Buchanan

Cranfield University School of Management

Andrzej A. Huczynski

Formerly University of Glasgow, Adam Smith Business School

Ninth edition

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Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk

First published by Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd 1985 (print) Second edition published by Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd 1991 (print) Third edition published by Prentice Hall Europe 1997 (print) Fourth edition published by Pearson Education Ltd 2001 (print) Fifth edition 2004 (print) Sixth edition 2007 (print) Seventh edition 2010 (print) Eighth edition 2013 (print and electronic) Ninth edition published 2017 (print and electronic)

© David A. Buchanan and Andrzej A. Huczynski 1985, 2010 (print) © Andrzej A. Huczynski and David A. Buchanan 2013, 2017 (print and electronic)

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ISBN: 978–1-292–09288–1 (print) 978–1-292–11749–2 (PDF) 978-1-292-16296-6 (ePub)

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Cover photo: ‘Bunch of banners’ © Lesley F. Buchanan

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Outline contents

Part 1 The organizational context 2

Chapter 1 Explaining organizational behaviour 5 Chapter 2 Environment 39 Chapter 3 Technology 75 Chapter 4 Culture 107

Part 2 Individuals in the organization 142

Chapter 5 Learning 145 Chapter 6 Personality 177 Chapter 7 Communication 212 Chapter 8 Perception 249 Chapter 9 Motivation 276

Part 3 Groups and teams in the organization 312

Chapter 10 Group formation 314 Chapter 11 Group structure 347 Chapter 12 Individuals in groups 383 Chapter 13 Teamworking 417

Part 4 Management and organization 450

Chapter 14 Work design 452 Chapter 15 Elements of structure 484 Chapter 16 Organization design 521 Chapter 17 Organizational architecture 555

Part 5 Leadership processes 594

Chapter 18 Leadership 597 Chapter 19 Change 633 Chapter 20 Decision making 667 Chapter 21 Conflict 701 Chapter 22 Power and politics 736

Glossary 770 Name index 783 Subject index 794

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Chapter 7 Communication

Learning outcomes When you have read this chapter, you should be able to define those key terms in your own words, and you should also be able to:

1. Describe the dimensions of social intelligence, and explain the importance of this capability.

2. Understand the components of the interpersonal communication process.

3. Identify the main barriers to effective interpersonal communication.

4. Understand different questioning techniques, conversation controls and listening skills.

5. Explain the nature and significance of non-verbal communication cues and clusters.

6. Understand the nature and mechanisms of impression management skills and techniques.

7. Assess the concept of emotional intelligence and its practical significance.

8. Explain how corporate communication can influence understanding and encourage compliance with management directions.

non-verbal communication

power tells

high context culture

low context culture

impression management

emotional intelligence

communication climate

social intelligence

communication process

coding

decoding

perceptual filters

noise

feedback (communication)

Key termsKey terms and learning outcomes 212

Why study communication? 213

Interpersonal communication 216

Verbal communication 220

Non-verbal communication 222

Cultural differences in communication style 230

Impression management 231

Emotional intelligence 234

Organizational communication 236

Recap, Revision, Research assignment 240

Springboard, OB cinema, OB on the web 242

Chapter exercises, References 243

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Why study communication? 213

Why study communication?

People management skills To understand the attributes that employers look for in graduates, the Chartered Management Institute ran a series of workshops and a national survey. The employ- ers said:

r� Graduates need to know how to have a difficult conversation about performance. They must also be able to manage a project, work in a team, and com- municate and persuade – both orally and in writing.

r� Nearly two-thirds (65 per cent) of employers agree that graduates lack the interpersonal skills necessary to manage people.

r� The ability to communicate is the most important skill that a graduate can possess, according to employers. This is followed by problem-solving, team-building and motivational skills.

(Chartered Management Institute, 2014, p.8)

Table 7.1: Social intelligence

Social awareness

Primal empathy ‘Reading’ others’ emotions intuitively from small clues (such as a brief facial expression)

Attunement Understanding the other person through complete and sustained attention and careful listening

Empathic accuracy

Explicit understanding, through observation and inference, of what someone feels and thinks

Social cognition Knowing how the social world works, what is expected, reading the social signals

Social facility

Synchrony Smoothly orchestrating our interactions with the right gestures (smiles, nods, posture, timing)

Self-preservation Ability in interactions to trigger desired emotional responses in others, charisma

Influence Shaping the outcomes of interactions with tact and control, tuning actions to fit the circumstances

Concern Capacity for compassion, sharing others’ emotions, elation or distress

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Social intelligence the ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others and to manage our relationships accordingly.

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Communication is not a ‘soft’ function The American consulting company Towers Watson (2013) argues that communication is key to organiza- tional performance. Three factors now put a premium on ‘communication effectiveness’:

r� Workforce: increasingly diverse workforce, with ris- ing expectations of the employment deal.

r� The stakes: the competitive advantage to be gained from ‘discretionary effort’ – the willingness of employ- ees to ‘go the extra mile’ to improve company performance.

r� Shorter timelines: the need to communicate rapidly, driven by developments in technology and globaliza- tion, tighter resources and increased concerns for security.

From a global survey of 650 organizations, they found that those with effective communication practices were three times more likely to show superior financial perfor- mance, compared with those which did not use those practices. The best practices were:

1. helping employees to understand the business;

2. educating employees about organization culture and values;

3. providing information on financial objectives and organizational performance;

4. integrating new employees;

5. c o m m u n i c a t i n g h o w e m p l o y e e a c t i o n s a f f e c t customers;

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Why study communication? 215

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6. providing information about the value of individuals’ total compensation package;

7. asking for rapid feedback from employees about their opinions of the company.

Towers Watson also argues that effective organiza- tions categorize employees into groups based on the value of their skills and on personal characteristics. This employee ‘segmentation’ means that communication

strategy can be tailored to focus on behaviours that are critical to performance. The most effective companies pay close attention to employees when they are plan- ning change, evaluating culture, and assessing readiness and the impact of change. Middle and frontline man- agers need to be good at: articulating what employees need to do differently to be successful, communicating what change means to individual employees, and creat- ing a sense of ownership about change initiatives.

Figure 7.1: The Allen curve

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216 Chapter 7 Communication

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Interpersonal communication

Conversation: a competitive sport in which the first person to draw breath is declared the listener.

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Communication process the transmission of information, and the exchange of meaning, between at least two people.

Stop and think

We all have experience of ineffective communication. Either the other person misunderstood what you had to say, or you misunderstood them. Remember the last time this happened: what went wrong? What caused that communication to fail? Share your analysis with colleagues to see whether there are common causes.

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Interpersonal communication 217

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Stop and think

Which communication skills do employers value most? Which communications skills are taught most often on business school programmes?

Studies have found that listening is the workplace communication skill most valued by employers, followed by conversing (interviewing, for example), and then presenting. However, a study of business schools found that they had their priorities the other way round, concentrating on students’ presentation skills, followed by conversing, and paying little attention to listening skills (Brink and Costigan, 2015).

How does your programme prioritize these skills? Do you need to speak to your instructors about this? How can you fill gaps in your skills development for yourself?

Coding the stage in the interpersonal communication process in which the transmitter chooses how to express a message for transmission to someone else.

decoding the stage in the interpersonal communication process in which the recipient interprets a message transmitted to them by someone else.

perceptual filters individual characteristics, predispositions and preoccupations that interfere with the effective transmission and receipt of messages.

Figure 7.2: Exchanging meaning: a model of the communication process

coding

transmitter

feedback

channel

message

decoding

receiver

context

perceptual filters perceptual filters

context

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Term Popular use Dictionary definition

decimate devastate cut by 10 per cent exotic colourful, glamorous from another country aggravate to annoy, to irritate to make worse clinical cold, impersonal caring, at the bedside of the sick avid enthusiastic greedy

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218 Chapter 7 Communication

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noise factors outside the communication process which interfere with or distract attention from the transmission and reception of the intended meaning.

Decoding UK civil service jargon As a British tourist visiting another country, what help will you get from the UK Foreign Office when something goes wrong? Here is a guide to what you can expect (Burgess, 2015):

What they say What they mean

‘offered consular assistance’

‘we’ve told them our phone number’

‘receiving consular assistance’

‘they’ve spoken to us and been told that it’s nothing to do with us, especially at weekends’

The Home Office also has its own code to indicate when something is going to happen (Kidd, 2015):

What they say What they mean

‘quickly’ two weeks ‘almost there’ four weeks ‘as fast as humanly possible’

nine weeks

‘by the summer’ before the end of November

‘it will take a while’ never

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Interpersonal communication 219

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Feedback (communication) processes through which the transmitter of a message detects whether and how that message has been received and decoded.

Stop and think

With whom do you communicate often? What prevents effective communication in your experience? How can you improve the effectiveness of your communication?

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M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 219 07/26/16 8:38 PM

220 Chapter 7 Communication

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Table 7.2: Questioning techniques

Question types Illustration Uses

Closed Did you enjoy the movie? To get a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer; to obtain factual information; to establish conversation control

Open What did you think of that movie? To introduce a subject; to encourage further discussion; to keep the other person talking

Probe Can you tell me more about that? To follow up an open question; to get more information; to demonstrate interest

Reflective You thought the acting was poor? To show interest and concern; to encourage further disclosure of feelings

Multiple What did you think of the movie, and wasn’t the star excellent in that role, and didn’t you think that the ending was predictable?

Confuses the listener; gives them a choice of question to which to respond

Leading You didn’t see anyone leaving the house?

To get the answer that you expect to hear (so, why ask?)

Hypothetical What would happen if . . .? To encourage creative thinking

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Verbal communication 221

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Stop and think

Record a television police drama, a magazine programme, or a news broadcast. Watch somebody being interviewed: police interviewing suspect, host interviewing celebrity, news reader interviewing politician. What questioning techniques are used. What advice can you give to the interviewer to improve their questioning?

Replay this interview with the sound off. Can you identify any barriers which made this communication less effective – physical layout, posture, timing, non-verbal behaviours? What further advice can you give to the interviewer?

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222 Chapter 7 Communication

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Table 7.3: Conversation control signals

Signal Example Meaning

Lubricators ‘Uh huh’; ‘mmm, mmm’ and other grunts and groans

I’m listening, keep talking, I’m interested

Inhibitors ‘What!’; ‘really’ ‘oh’ and similar loud interjections

I’m surprised, I don’t agree, I’ve heard enough of this

Bridges ‘I’d like to leave that and move on to ask you about . . .’

I’d like to make a clean link to the next conversation topic

Pauses (1) About two seconds silence In normal conversation: same as lubricators

Pauses (2) Silence of three seconds or longer In a threat context: I’m going to wait until I get an answer

Pauses (3) Silence of three seconds or longer In a counselling context: I’ll give you time to think

When bosses lie People speak differently when they lie. By analysing thou- sands of transcripts of quarterly conference calls of Ameri- can chief executives and chief financial officers, David Larker and Anastasia Zakolyukina (2012) found that they could tell when bosses were being truthful about their earnings and profits, and when they were not. The bosses whose profits were later ‘materially restated’ chose differ- ent words. The language that gave the deceptive bosses away included:

r� making more references to general knowledge – ‘you know’ – and referring less to shareholder value, to reduce the risk of lawsuits;

r� using stronger positive-emotion terms such as ‘fantas- tic’ instead of ‘good’ in order to sound more persuasive;

r� using fewer anxiety words, such as ‘worried’, ‘fearful’, ‘nervous’;

r� using the third person (‘it seems as if’), and avoiding the first person (‘I think that’);

r� using fewer hesitation cues such as ‘um’ and ‘er’;

r� making more frequent use of swear words.

This means that we can now tell when bosses are being deceitful, at least until they have taken the training course which advises them to hesitate more, swear less, sound reassuring, and avoid highly emotional words. No more fantastic profit forecasts after that, then.

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Non-verbal communication 223

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non-verbal communication the process of coding meaning through behaviours such as facial expressions, limb gestures and body postures.

Table 7.4: Dimensions of non-verbal communication

occulesics: eye behaviour

kinesics: body and limb movements

proxemics: the use of space

paralanguage: tone and pitch of voice

facial expressions

posture

chromatics: the use of colour

chronemics: the use of time

haptics: bodily contacts

Non-verbal hints for the job interview When you sit down, lean forward slightly; this shows interest. Use open-handed gestures – palm upwards – to convey sincerity. Keep regular eye contact, but not for more than 60 per cent of the time, or you’ll look mad. However, do it for less than 30 per cent of the time and you may seem shifty or bored.

Don’t sit defensively – hands across the body, knees pressed together, hand over your mouth – it can look

neurotic or unstable. Equally, don’t fidget or play with your hair, or grin maniacally. Above all, don’t slouch back in the chair, arms behind your head, with a chal- lenging stare. It threatens the interviewer and makes you look arrogant and difficult (Burne and Aldridge, 1996, p.3).

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224 Chapter 7 Communication

Spot the spy How can you tell if an overseas diplomat is also work- ing as a spy? Is that foreign president confident about the threats he is making to a neighbouring country? To help answer questions like these, governments and security agencies turn to body language. In America, a Pentagon think-tank called the Office of Net Assess- ment spends $300,000 a year studying the body language of foreign leaders. Russian government agencies use Western body language experts to ana- lyse the movement patterns of leaders such as Barack Obama, David Cameron and Angela Merkel. The FBI has a Behavioural Analysis Programme which monitors the body language of diplomats. For example, when diplomats switch from their routine work to covert duties, they become more agitated, and this can be seen in their body movements. ‘Micro-expressions’ lasting fractions of a second can reveal hidden emo- tions (but the context is critical to making this assess- ment). People who are hiding important information often change their dress, facial expressions, gestures, the way they smoke, how they check the time, how close they stand to shop windows, and even the way they walk. For obvious reasons, the FBI do not publish details of these clues (based on The Economist, 2015).

Early Italian hand gestures (from de Jorio, 2001)

Source: Reproduced by the permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.

1

5

7

8

6

4

9

1. Mano in fica (sexual insult) 2. Danaro (money) 3 & 4. Stupido (stupid) 5. Amore (love) 6. Chiedere (asking) 7. Condotta versipelle (deceitful conduct) 8. Schiopetto (finger–snap) 9 & 10. Disprezzo (scorn)

10

3

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Video case: owners capitalize on body language

This four-minute Financial Times video examines the importance of body language to entre- preneurs who are trying to raise capital. Jean Clarke from Leeds University Business School explains the power of body language, particularly gestures, and also the importance of speech and metaphors, in presenting messages in ways that will influence potential funders.

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Non-verbal communication 225

Can you trust me? How can you tell whether or to trust somebody? David DeSteno (2014) filmed people having either online or face-to-face ‘get to know you’ conversations before playing an economic game that involved a choice between collaboration and self-interest. They then asked participants to predict how fairly their partners would behave when it came to handing over money. The predictions of those who had spoken in person were more accurate than the predictions of those who had interacted online. This meant that the former had used non-verbal cues to reach their judgements. Analysis of the recordings of the conversations identified four non-verbal behaviours that signalled untrustworthy behaviour:

leaning away from your partner crossing your arms touching your hands together touching your face

One of these clues on its own may not be significant, but those who showed all four acted in a more self-interested way, by refusing to share profits with their partner in the experiment’s game. DeSteno also found that participants who had face-to-face conversations were not aware that they were using these four clues to make their judgements about trustworthiness; their intuitions were correct, but they were not able to explain why.

Trustworthiness can be encouraged, DeSteno suggests, in three ways. First, avoid threats and punishments, which can prevent untrustworthy behaviour in the short term, but which will make others less likely to support you. Second, express gratitude and generosity, which lead others to act more fairly toward you. Third, emphasize simi- larities, or ‘common ground’, leading others to see you as someone with whom they can have a long-term relation- ship. De Steno (2014, p.115) concludes:

Is it better to trust than not? If you know nothing about potential partners’ situations and can’t interact with them face-to-face, the answer is probably yes. Most accepted models suggest that a bias toward trusting is better when you have no information to go on, as the gains from long-standing relationships tend to outweigh one-time losses. But when you do have a sense of your counterpart’s situation and can connect face-to-face, you should dispel your notions about how trust works and remember these four rules.

CROSSING ARMSLEANING AWAY FROM A PARTNER

HAND TOUCHING FACE TOUCHING

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226 Chapter 7 Communication

Stop and think

Do a deal with a friend or colleague. Agree to monitor each other’s body language and impression management for a week. Give each other regular, honest, critical and constructive feedback on body language and impression management strengths and weaknesses.

The power of paralanguage Why don’t I help you with the assignment tonight?

instead of someone else helping you

Why don’t I help YOU with the assignment tonight?

I had planned to help somebody else

WHY don’t I help you with the assignment tonight?

do you have a problem with this?

Why don’t I HELP you with the assignment tonight?

instead of doing it on your own

Why don’t I help you with the assignment TONIGHT?

and not some other time

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M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 226 07/26/16 8:38 PM

Non-verbal communication 227

8IFO�XF�BSF�MZJOH �XF�NBZ�VODPOTDJPVTMZ�TFOE�OPO�WFSCBM�AEFDFJU�DVFT� �XIJDI�JODMVEF� SBQJE�TIJGUT�JO�HB[F �GJEHFUJOH�JO�PVS�TFBUT �MPOH�QBVTFT�BOE�GSFRVFOU�TQFFDI�DPSSFDUJPOT�� 8IFO�MZJOH �JU�JT�JNQPSUBOU�UP�DPOUSPM�UIFTF�DVFT �FOTVSJOH�UIBU�WFSCBM�BOE�OPO�WFSCBM�NFT� TBHFT�BSF�DPOTJTUFOU��4JNJMBSMZ �XIFO�XF�XBOU�UP�FNQIBTJ[F�UIF�TJODFSJUZ�PS�TUSFOHUI�PG�PVS� GFFMJOHT �JU�JT�JNQPSUBOU�UIBU�UIF�OPO�WFSCBM�TJHOBMT�XF�TFOE�BSF�DPOTJTUFOU�XJUI�UIF�WFSCBM� NFTTBHF�

Lie detectors Adrian Furnham (2005) identifies several (UK) verbal and non-verbal ‘lie detectors’. However, in other cultures, these cues may constitute normal interpersonal behaviour and may not signal deceit.

Verbal cues

Response latency The time between the end of a question and the start of a reply. Liars take longer, hesitate more.

Linguistic distance Not saying, ‘I’, but talking in the abstract: for example, ‘one might believe that . . .’

Slow, uneven speech As an individual tries to think through their lies. They might also suddenly talk quickly, attempting to make a sensitive subject appear less significant.

Too eager to fill gaps in conversation Liars keep talking when it is unnecessary, as if a silence signifies that the other person does not believe them.

Too many pitch raises Instead of the pitch dropping at the end of a reply, it is lifted in the same way as asking a question.

Non-verbal cues

Too much squirming Someone shifting around in their seat is signalling their desire not to be there.

Too much eye contact, rather than too little Liars tend to overcompensate. They need to look at you to monitor how successful they are being.

Micro-expressions Flickers of surprise, hurt or anger that are difficult to detect. Sudden facial expressions of pain are often giveaways.

An increase in comfort gestures These often take the form of self-touching, particularly around the nose and mouth.

More stuttering and slurring Including what are known as ‘Freudian slips’.

A loss of resonance in the voice It tends to become flatter and more monotonous.

Stop and think

Say out loud exactly the same sentence, ‘This is a really interesting textbook’, in two different ways, with opposite meanings.

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 227 07/26/16 8:38 PM

228 Chapter 7 Communication

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Source: Mike Seddon

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Interpreting gesture clusters

Cluster signals Indicating

Flexible open posture, open hands, display of palms and wrists, removing jacket, moving closer to other person leaning forward in chair uncrossed arms and legs smiling nodding eye contact

Openness

Rigid, closed posture, arms and legs tightly crossed, eyes glancing sideways, minimal eye contact, frowning, no smiling, pursed lips, clenched fists, head down, flat tone of voice

Defensiveness

Drumming fingers, head cupped in palm of hand, foot swinging, brushing or picking lint from clothing body pointing towards e it repeatedly loo ing at watch the e it a boo

Boredom, impatience

Small inward smile, erect body posture, hands open and arms extended outwards, eyes wide and alert, lively walk, expressive and well-modulated voice

Enthusiasm

Knitted forehead, deadpan expression, tentative nodding or smiling, one slightly raised eyebrow, strained voice, saying ‘I understand’ while looking away

Lack of understanding

Blank expression, phoney smile, tight posture, arms stiff at side, sudden eye shifts, nervous tapping, sudden mood shifts, speech toneless and soft or too loud and animated

Stress

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 228 07/26/16 8:38 PM

Non-verbal communication 229

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power tells non-verbal signals that indicate to others how important and dominant someone is, or how powerful they would like us to think they are.

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Saying ‘sorry’ without saying anything In Japan, the way in which bosses bow indicate how sorry the company is for mistakes, such as Toyota’s recall of  million cars in due to faulty accelerator pedals.

A slight bow from the waist, not held for very long, indicates a mild apology.

A deeper bow, at an angle of about 45 degrees, and lasting for about one and a half seconds, suggests contri- tion, without accepting personal responsibility.

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 229 07/26/16 8:38 PM

230 Chapter 7 Communication

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&EXBSE�)BMM� ���� ����� �EJTUJOHVJTIFE�CFUXFFO�high context culture�BOE�low context culture�

high context culture a culture whose members rely heavily on a range of social and non-verbal clues when communicating with others and interpreting their messages.

Low context culture a culture whose members focus on the written and spoken word when communicating with others and interpreting their messages.

A full 90-degree bow, held for up to seven seconds, indicates personal and/or official responsibility for an inci- dent that has caused significant damage, and for which the person is asking forgiveness.

The most extreme form of bow involves kneeling with one’s head on the floor for perhaps 30 seconds. This indi- cates that ‘The law may punish me, but that does not cover how sorry I am’.

When Toyota recalled its cars, the company president Akio Toyoda performed a 25-degree bow, suggesting that he was ‘quite sorry’: ‘In bowing terms, it holds the same apology value as you might get from a waiter who had forgotten your order’ (Lewis and Lea, 2010).

High context culture Low context culture

Establish relationship first Value personal relations and goodwill Agreement based on trust Slow and ritualistic negotiations

Get down to business first Value expertise and performance Agreement based on legal contract Fast and efficient negotiations

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M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 230 07/26/16 8:38 PM

Impression management 231

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��� treat interpretations as working hypotheses �BOE�LFFQ�UFTUJOH�BOE�RVFTUJPOJOH�ZPVS�DPO� DMVTJPOT�BOE�FYQMBOBUJPOT �VTJOH�GFFECBDL�BOE�DIFDLJOH�XJUI�DPMMFBHVFT�

Aboriginal culture and communication Australian Aboriginal culture uses verbal and non-verbal com- munication in ways that are different from European and North American communication styles (Nelson-Jones, 2000):

r� Aborigines value brevity in verbal communication rather than detailed elaboration, and simple ‘yes’ and ‘no’ replies are common.

r� There is no word for ‘thank you’ in Aboriginal lan- guages. People do things for you as an obligation.

r� In some Aboriginal tribes, it is unlawful to use the name of a dead person.

r� The terms ‘full-blood’, ‘half-caste’, ‘quarter-caste’, ‘native’ and ‘part-Aborigine’ are regarded as offensive by Aborigines.

r� Long silences in Aboriginal conversation are common and are not regarded as awkward.

r� To some Aboriginal people, it is not acceptable to look another straight in the eye.

r� Some Aboriginal groups do not allow men and women to mix freely.

r� Aborigines feel that it is not necessary to look at the person who is speaking to them.

r� Aborigines do not feel that it is necessary to attend meetings (an interview, for example) at specific times.

How do these norms and preferences compare with the communication style of your culture?

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impression management the processes through which we control the image or impression that others have of us.

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232 Chapter 7 Communication

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Stop and think

Is impression management simply a form of deceit? What in your view are the ethical problems raised by the advice that we should consciously manipulate the impression that others have of us through verbal and non-verbal communication?

Do you use, or do you avoid, impression management methods when you are deciding what to wear to go to parties, clubs, job interviews, lectures?

The ethics of impression management At first, Richard Nixon vowed he would not debate John Kennedy. He had little to gain from such an encounter, and much to lose. As vice-president, he was better known than the young senator and uni- versally considered a heavyweight. But in the end his fear of appearing fearful overcame his caution. It was a mistake. The camera is unkind to men who look shifty.

At the first debate in 1960, Nixon was not feeling well. After hearing Kennedy turn down the offer of makeup, he turned it down too, although it might have covered his five o’clock shadow. Kennedy got his aides to apply makeup when Nixon wasn’t looking, and pre- sented a tanned and handsome face to the nation. Nixon looked like a sweaty corpse. Radio listeners thought he did well. But on television, Kennedy won by a mile (The Economist, 2008).

In your judgement, was John F. Kennedy’s behaviour ethical at that debate in 1960?

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Home viewing Catch Me If You Can (2003, directed by Steven Speilberg) is a comedy drama based on the true story of the forger and confidence trickster Frank Abagnale Jr (played by Leonardo Di Caprio) and the FBI agent Carl Hanratty (Tom Hanks) who finally apprehends him, but not before Frank has committed millions of dollars-worth of fraud. Frank is a master of the art of impression management, effortlessly convincing others that he is, at various stages

in his ‘career’ a newspaper journalist, high school teacher, airline pilot, doctor and lawyer. He is so convincing that, when he does at one point decide to reveal the truth, his fiancé’s father (Martin Sheen) does not believe him. Note examples of how Frank combines non-verbal communication, courtship techniques, avoidance of lie detection cues, paralanguage and gesture clusters to manage the impression that he wants to convey.

Deborah Tannen (b.1945)

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234 Chapter 7 Communication

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Emotional intelligence the ability to identify, integrate, understand and reflectively manage one’s own and other people’s feelings.

Table 7.5: The five dimensions of emotional intelligence

Dimension Definition Hallmarks

1. Self-awareness The ability to recognize and understand your moods, emotions and drives, and the effect you have on others

Self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, self- deprecating sense of humour

2. Regulating feelings

The ability to control your disruptive moods and impulses; the propensity to suspend judgement, to think before acting

Trustworthiness and integrity, comfortable with ambiguity, openness to change

3. Motivation A passion to work for reasons beyond status and money; a propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence

High achievement need, optimism even in the face of failure, organizational commitment

4. Empathy The ability to recognize and understand the emotional makeup of others; skill in dealing with the emotional responses of others

Expertise in building and retaining talent; cross-cultural sensitivity; service to clients and customers

5. Social skills Effectiveness in managing relationships and building networks; ability to find common ground, to build rapport

Effectiveness in leading change; persuasiveness; expertise in building and leading teams

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 234 07/26/16 8:38 PM

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236 Chapter 7 Communication

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Who is about to explode? Test your emotional intelligence. Look carefully at the microexpressions in each of these four portraits. Can you tell which one is about to ‘blow’?

What clues did you use to reach that judgement?

(From People Management, December 2014)

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Organizational communication 237

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Thirteen points for an effective communication strategy 1. Convince top management that communication is

important.

2. Build alliances across the organization to support initiatives.

3. Recognize that no one method will be effective.

4. Use a mix of approaches and use all available channels where relevant.

5. Target communication to the audience; different methods for shop floor and managers.

6. Respect cultural diversity and vary approaches accordingly.

7. Make sure that messages are consistent, over time and between audiences.

8. Ensure clarity of message and keep things simple.

9. Train managers in communication skills.

10. Develop and sustain two-way communication, dia- logue and feedback.

11. Ensure that employees feel that they can say what they think without discomfort.

12. Ensure that communication is built into the planning stages of all activities.

13. Review initiatives to check what has worked, what hasn’t, and why.

(Cannell, 2010)

Source: 123RF

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238 Chapter 7 Communication

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Stop and think

How does your educational institution use rewards and sanctions to influence the decisions that you make about the nature and direction of your studies? What signals  do teaching staff send in order to communicate how they expect you to

behave?

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Organizational communication 239

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Communication climate the prevailing atmosphere in an organization – open or closed – in which ideas and information are exchanged.

Awareness

Newsletter Video Electronic mail

Understanding

Roadshows Video conferencing Customer forums

Support

Seminars Training courses Business forums Multimedia

Involvement

Team meetings Feedback forums Speak-up programmes Interactive conferencing

Commitment

Updates Team problem-solving Talkback

D eg

re e

o f

ch an

g e

Degree of involvement

Figure 7.3: The communication escalator

Source: Quirke (2008) © Making the Connections: Using Internal Communication to Turn Strategy into Action, Quirke, B., 2008, Gower Publishing.

Table 7.6: Open and closed communication climates

Open, supportive communication climate Closed, defensive communication climate

Descriptive: informative rather than evaluative communication Judgemental: emphasis on apportioning blame, make people feel incompetent

Solution-oriented: focus on problem-solving rather than on what is not possible

Controlling: conformity expected, inconsistency and change inhibited

Open and honest: no hidden messages Deceptive: hidden meanings, insincerity, manipulative communication

Caring: emphasis on empathy and understanding Non-caring: detached and impersonal, little concern for others

Egalitarian: everyone valued regardless of role or status Superior: status and skill differences emphasized in communication

Forgiving: errors and mistakes recognized as inevitable, focus on minimizing

Dogmatic: little discussion, unwillingness to accept views of others or compromise

Feedback: positive, essential to maintaining performance and relationships

Hostile: needs of others given little importance

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240 Chapter 7 Communication

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Stop and think

How would you describe the communication climate of your educational institution? Of an organization where you have recently worked? Of your current employer?

RECap

1. Describe the dimensions of social intelligence, and explain the importance of these capabilities, especially for managers.

r� The capabilities that make up social intelligence involve a combination of awareness – what we sense about others – and facility – how we act on that awareness.

r� Managers spend lots of time interacting with oth- ers, and it becomes more important to understand the thoughts and feelings of others in a more cul- turally diverse population.

2. Understand the main components of the inter- personal communication process.

r� Communication involves an exchange of meaning, achieved through the processes of coding, trans- mission, decoding and feedback.

r� Face-to-face communication allows instant feed- back; coding and decoding problems arise with other forms of communication where feedback is delayed or absent.

3. Identify the main barriers to effective interper- sonal communication.

r� The main barriers to effective communication include power and gender differences, physical surroundings, language variations and cultural diversity.

r� Barriers can be overcome through face-to-face communication, by checking decoding, by paying attention to context, and by seeing things the way the other person does.

4. Understand the effective use of different ques- tioning techniques, conversation controls and lis- tening skills.

r� Getting appropriate information from someone else involves the effective use of different ques- tioning methods: open, closed, probe, hypotheti- cal and reflective.

r� Effective communication involves the use of a range of simple conversation controls: lubricators, inhibitors, bridges and pauses.

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 240 07/26/16 8:38 PM

Research assignment 241

r� Active listening involves a range of verbal and non- verbal skills.

r� Communication methods differ between high context and low context cultures.

5. Explain the nature and significance of non-verbal communication.

r� Non-verbal communication includes facial expres- sions, eye behaviour, gesture and posture, distance between ourselves and others, and paralanguage.

r� If the verbal and non-verbal messages which we are sending are inconsistent, the verbal will be dis- counted and the non-verbal accepted.

r� Lies can be detected in non-verbal communica- tion, but many clues are culture-specific.

6. Understand the nature and mechanisms of impression management skills and techniques.

r� We influence the image that others have of us through verbal and non-verbal signals.

r� We use impression management to create a favourable image through ingratiation, intimida- tion, self-promotion, exemplification, accounting and supplication.

r� Impression management can be seen as natural and unconscious, or as a deliberate attempt at deceit.

7. Be able to explain the concept of emotional intelligence and its practical significance.

r� Emotional intelligence concerns the ability to identify, integrate, understand and reflectively manage one’s own feelings, and the feelings of other people.

r� As with social intelligence, understanding your own emotions and the emotions of others is a key skill for all of us, particularly for managers, and its importance is heightened in culturally diverse organizational settings.

8. Understand the ways in which corporate com- munication can be used to manipulate under- standing and encourage compliance with management directions.

r� Organizations use a range of social and traditional media for communicating with employees.

r� The communication climate in an organization can be classed as open and supportive, or closed and defensive.

r� Organizational communication is not neutral, but is constructed from a management perspective in an attempt to manipulate the attitudes and behav- iour of recipients.

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Revision

➔

Research assignment

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M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 241 07/26/16 8:38 PM

242 Chapter 7 Communication

Springboard

Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee (2013) Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. London: Harvard Business Review Press. Argues for emotionally intelligent leaders who are self-aware, empathic, motivating, and collabora- tive. Claims that emotions are more significant in a world that is more economically vola- tile and technologically sophisticated.

Andrzej Huczynski (2004) Influencing Within Organizations. London: Routledge. Practical guide to the realities of influence, arguing that job skills alone are not enough to ensure career advancement. Chapters on verbal and non-verbal influencing and impression man- agement.

Erin Meyer (2014) ‘Navigating the cultural minefield’, Harvard Business Review, 92 (5): 119–23. Compares business cultures on eight scales: communicating, evaluating, persuad- ing, leading, deciding, trusting, disagreeing and scheduling. For example, Israel and Rus- sia differ in how they prefer to lead (Russians are more hierarchical than egalitarian), to persuade (Russians prefer principles to applications) and to decide (Russians prefer top- down to consensual decision making).

Helen Rosethorn and Annette Frem (2010) Harnessing the Power of Employee Commu- nication. London: Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development. Emphasizes the importance of internal communication, and develops a strategic approach, linking com- munication with motivation and personal contribution.

4. Does the interviewer display social intelligence, and what evidence can you cite?

5. Does the interviewer display emotional intelligence, and what evidence can you cite?

6. Who controls the flow of conversation – interviewer or interviewee?

Write a report comparing the similarities and differences in these two interviews. Assess the skill and effectiveness of the interviewer in each case. From your assessment what practical advice you would give to these interviewers to help them to improve their technique? What general conclusions can you reach concerning interviewing skills in general, and television interviewing in particular?

OB cinema Burn After Reading (2008, directors Joel and Ethan Cohen): DVD track 6, 0:27:13 to 0:29:08 (2 min- utes). Clip opens with Linda asking for ‘just a tea’; clip ends with Linda saying, ‘Haven’t you heard of the power of positive thinking?’

Gym employee Linda Litzke (played by Frances McDormand) is talking to the gym manager, Ted Treffon (Richard Jenkins).

1. What does Linda want to achieve in this conversation?

2. What tactics does she use?

3. Why does she not achieve her goal?

4. What advice can you give to Linda about managing this conversation more effectively?

5. What does Ted want to achieve in this conversation?

6. What tactics does he use?

7. Why does he not achieve his goal?

8. What advice can you give to Ted about managing this conversation more effectively?

M07_BUCH2881_09_SE_C07.indd 242 07/28/16 4:20 PM

Chapter exercises 243

OB on the web Search YouTube for video clips concerning ‘body language’ and ‘impression management’. There are many to choose from. One of the best (which explores both of these topics) is ‘Body language – indicators of interest’ (15 minutes). These clips mostly offer tips and techniques, and ‘do’s and don’ts’ for leaders and job interviewees in particular. Select two videos on each topic, based on how inter- esting and relevant they appear to you. As you watch, make notes on how you can improve your impression management and body language, particularly with regard to improving your employabil- ity. Note the behaviours that you could use, but also what to avoid.

CHAPTER ExERCISES

1. Impression management checklist

Objective 1. To assess aspects of the way in which you deal with other people.

Briefing As you read each of the following 18 statements, ask yourself whether or not it applies to you, and answer (tick) ‘yes’ or ‘no’ accordingly. You will of course occasionally feel that you want to answer sometimes . ut try in each case to decide where your per- sonal preferences, strengths and priorities really lie. You don’t always get to sit on the fence. This is not a test with right or wrong answers. It is designed for personal reflec- tion and group discussion based on nyder  p. .

Yes No

1. I find it hard to imitate the behaviour of other people.

2. At parties and gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.

3. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.

4. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information.

5. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain others.

6. I would probably make a good actor.

7. In a group of people, I am rarely the centre of attention.

8. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons.

9. I am not particularly good at making other people like me.

10. I’m not always the person I appear to be.

11. I would not change my opinions or the way I do things in order to please someone or win their favour.

12. I have considered being an entertainer.

13. I have never been good at games like charades, or acting.

14. I have trouble changing my behaviour to suit different people and different situations.

15. At a party I let others keep the jokes and stories going.

16. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should.

17. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face, if for an appropriate reason.

18. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.

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244 Chapter 7 Communication

Scoring You get either one point or zero, depending on how you responded to each statement. Simply add up the number of points you got.

Score

Statement Yes No Your score

1 0 1

2 0 1

3 0 1

4 1 0

5 1 0

6 1 0

7 0 1

8 1 0

9 0 1

10 1 0

11 0 1

12 1 0

13 0 1

14 0 1

15 0 1

16 0 1

17 1 0

18 1 0

Total:

Interpretation A score of 13 or more implies strong impression management skills:

Awareness: you are consciously aware of your own and other people’s feelings and behaviour, and of how you affect others.

Flexibility: you are able to adjust what you say and do to match other people’s expec- tations, and to achieve your goals.

Control: you are able consciously to control your behaviour, and thus to control other people; you probably enjoy this.

A score of 7 or less implies weak impression management skills:

Awareness: you are not always aware of your own or other people’s feelings and behaviour, or of how you affect others.

Flexibility: you are unable to adjust what you say and do to match other people’s expectations, and to achieve your goals.

Control: you are unable consciously to control your behaviour, and may feel uncom- fortably manipulated at times.

A score between 8 and 12 implies moderate impression management skills. Read over the interpretations, and judge your strengths for yourself. Which way would you like to go – up or down?

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Chapter exercises 245

Analysis Whatever your own score, consider the following key issues: 1. To what extent are impression management skills learnable and to what extent are

we born with them?

2. Is it unethical to adjust your behaviour in order to modify the feelings and behaviours of others?

3. Regardless of your own impression management score, in what ways would it benefit you to be more aware of how other people use these skills? Give specific examples.

2. How would you respond?

Objectives 1. To analyse the practical uses of questioning techniques and conversation controls. 2. To explore appropriate management options in dealing with employee grievances.

Briefing Individually, read each of the three cases and choose your preferred responses. For groups of three or four. As a group:

1. Decide the objective of the interaction with this person; what do you, as this person’s supervisor, want to achieve by the end of the conversation?

2. What are the key issues relevant to the individual, team and organization in this situation?

3. Which is the best response of the four offered, and why? 4. Develop a fifth response, if you think that is desirable, and explain its strengths. 5. Plenary: Each group presents and explains its conclusions to the group as a whole. 6. Debriefing: Your instructor will lead a discussion of the implications of the different

responses in each case, and of the key learning points from this exercise.

Here are statements from employees, directed at you, their immediate supervisor.

Situation A: Assistant Supervisor, age 30, computer manufacturing plant ‘Yes, I do have a problem. I’d like to know more about what happened with the pro- motions last month. Charlie got the supervisor’s job in motherboard assembly and I didn’t even know he was interested. Why did you give the job to him? I would like to know more about what you think of my promotion prospects here. I’ve been doing this job for about three years now, and I’ve been with the company for almost five years. I haven’t had any complaints about my work. Seems to me I’ve been doing a pretty good job, but I don’t see any recognition for that. What do I have to do to get promoted round here?’

1. You’ll make a great supervisor, Bill, but give it time. I’ll do what I can to make your case. Don’t be discouraged, OK? I’m sure you’ll get there soon, you’ll see.

2. So, you’re not sure about how the company regards your work here?

3. I understand how you feel, but I have to admit it took me five years to make supervi- sor myself. And I guess I must have felt much the same way you do today. But we just have to be patient. Things don’t always happen when we’d like them to, do they?

4. Come on, you’ve been here long enough to know the answer to that one. Nobody got promoted just by waiting for it to happen. Get with it, you’ve got to put yourself forward, make people stand up and take notice of your capabilities.

Situation B: Secretary, age 45, insurance company headquarters ‘Can I ask you to do something about the calendars that Mr Johnson and Mr Hargreaves insist on displaying in their offices? They are degrading to women and I find them offensive. I know that some of the other secretaries who work on their floor feel exactly the same way as I do. I have to work with these men and I can’t stay out of their offices. Don’t we have a company policy or something? I’m surprised you’ve allowed it to go on this long as it is.’

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246 Chapter 7 Communication

1. You and some of the other secretaries find these calendars insulting?

2. Look, you’re taking this all too seriously. Boys’ toys, that’s all it is, executive perks. Doesn’t mean anything, and there’s nothing personal behind it at all. You’ve no cause for concern.

3. You’re right, I don’t like that either, but we’re talking about their own offices here, and I think that they have the right, within reason, to make their own decisions about what pictures to put on the walls, same as you and I do.

4. I’ll see if I can’t get a chance to have a quiet word with them sometime next week, maybe try to persuade them to move their calendars out of sight, OK? I’m sure they don’t mean anything by it.

Situation C: Personnel Officer, age 26, local authority ‘I’ve just about had it. I can’t put up with this kind of pressure for much longer. We just don’t have the staff to service the level of requests that we’re getting and still do a good job. And some of the people we have to deal with! If that old witch in administration calls me one more time about those files that went missing last week, she’s going to get a real mouthful in return. How come you let your department get pushed around like this?’

1. You’re not alone. Pressure is something that we’ve all had to endure at some time. I understand that, it comes with the territory. I think it’s about developing the right skills and attitudes to cope.

2. You’re right, this is a difficult patch, but I’m sure that it will pass. This can’t go on for much longer, and I expect you’ll see things start to come right at the end of the month.

3. Well, if you can’t stand the heat, I suppose you just have to get out of the kitchen. And please don’t refer to people who are senior to you in this organization in that manner ever again.

4. Let me check – this is not about Mrs Smith in admin is it? You’re saying the strain is such that you’re thinking of leaving us?

Employability assessment With regard to your future employment prospects:

1. Identify up to three issues from this chapter that you found significant.

2. Relate these to the competencies in the employability matrix.

3. Decide what actions you need to take to maintain and/or develop those competencies under each of the four headings of the employability matrix.

Personal qualities self-management

work ethic/results orientation appetite for learning interpersonal skills

creativity and innovation

Leadership qualities leadership

people management leading and managing change

project management general management skills

Other attributes political awareness

understand cross-cultural issues how organizations work

critical thinking decision making

Practical skills commercial acumen

customer service skills communication skills problem solving skills

teamworking skills

Employability

The employability matrix

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References 247

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