Discussion - Chapters 5-8

Brooker Biology 5e Learning Outcomes

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Biology

1.1 Levels of Biology 1. Explain how life can be viewed at different levels of biological complexity.

1.2 Core Concepts of Biology 2. Describe the core concepts of biology as advocated by “Vision and Change.”

1.3 Biological Evolution 1. Explain the two basic mechanisms by which evolutionary change occurs: vertical descent with mutation

and horizontal gene transfer.

2. Describe how changes in genomes and proteomes underlie evolutionary changes.

1.4 Classification of Living Things 1. Outline how organisms are classified.

1.5 Biology as a Scientific Discipline 1. Explain how researchers study biology at different levels, ranging from molecules to ecosystems.

2. CoreSKILLS » Distinguish between discovery-based science and hypothesis testing, and describe the steps

of the scientific method.

1.6 Core Skills of Biology 1. CoreSKILL » Describe the core skills of biology as identified by “Vision and Change.” 2. CoreSKILL » Explain the process of science. 3. CoreSKILL » Describe what a model is in biology, and explain why models are useful. 4. CoreSKILL » List the types of problem-solving skills you will develop by completing BioTIPS.

Chapter 2 The Chemical Basis of Life I: Atoms, Molecules, and Water 2.1 Atoms

1. Describe the general structure of atoms.

2. CoreSKILLS » Interpret the results of an experiment indicating that most of an atom is empty space.

3. Define orbital and electron shell.

4. Relate atomic structure to the periodic table of the elements.

5. CoreSKILLS » Quantify atomic mass using units such as daltons and moles.

6. Explain how a single element may exist in two or more forms, called isotopes, and how certain isotopes

have importance in human medicine.

7. List the elements that make up most of the mass of all living organisms.

2.2 Chemical Bonds and Molecules

1. Compare and contrast the types of atomic interactions that lead to the formation of molecules.

2. Explain the concept of electronegativity and how it contributes to the formation of polar and nonpolar

covalent bonds.

3. Describe how a molecule’s shape is important for its ability to interact with other molecules.

4. Relate the concepts of a chemical reaction and chemical equilibrium.

2.3 Properties of Water 1. Describe how hydrogen bonding determines many properties of water.

2. List the properties of water that make it a valuable solvent, and distinguish between hydrophilic and

hydrophobic substances.

3. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the molarity of a solution, and explain its meaning.

4. Discuss the properties of water that are critical for the survival of living organisms.

2.4 pH and Buffers 1. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions at a given pH.

2. Give examples of how buffers maintain a stable environment in an animal’s body fluids.

Chapter 3 The Chemical Basis of Life II: Organic Molecules

3.1 The Carbon Atom 1. Explain the properties of carbon that make it the chemical basis of all life.

2. Describe the variety and chemical characteristics of common functional groups of organic compounds.

3. Compare and contrast different types of isomers.

3.2 Formation of Organic Molecules and Macromolecules 1. Diagram how small molecules are assembled into larger ones by dehydration reactions and how

hydrolysis reactions reverse this process.

3.3 Overview of the Four Major Classes of Organic Molecules Found in Living Cells 1.Compare and contrast the structures and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

3.4 Carbohydrates 1. 1.Distinguish among different forms of carbohydrate molecules, including monosaccharides,

disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

2. 2.Relate the functions of plant and animal polysaccharides to their structure.

3.5 Lipids 1. List the several classes of lipid molecules important in living organisms.

2. Diagram the structure of a triglyceride and explain how it is affected by the presence of saturated and

unsaturated fatty acids.

3. Explain why some fats are solid at room temperature, and others are liquid.

4. Discuss how fats function as energy-storage molecules.

5. Explain why phospholipids form a bilayer when dissolved in water.

6. Describe the chemical nature of steroids and give an example of their biological importance.

3.6 Proteins 1. Give examples of the general functions that are carried out by different proteins.

2. Describe how amino acids are joined to form a polypeptide, and distinguish between a polypeptide and a

protein.

3. Explain the four levels of protein structure.

4. Outline the factors that determine protein shape and function.

5. Define domain, as it relates to protein structure.

3.7 Nucleic Acids 1. Describe the three components of a nucleotide.

2. Distinguish between the structures of DNA and RNA.

3. Explain how bases form hydrogen bonds with other bases in DNA and RNA.

Chapter 4 Evolutionary Origin of Cells and Their General Features

4.1 Origin of Living Cells on Earth

1. Outline the four overlapping stages that are hypothesized to have led to the origin of living cells.

2. List various hypotheses about how complex organic molecules formed.

3. Explain the concept of an RNA world, and describe how it could have evolved into a DNA/RNA/protein world.

4.2 Microscopy 1. CoreSKILL » Explain the three key parameters in microscopy: resolution, contrast, and magnification. 2. CoreSKILL » Compare and contrast the different types of light and electron microscopes and their uses.

4.3 Overview of Cell Structure and Function

1. Compare and contrast the general features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 2. Explain how the proteome underlies the structure and function of cells.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze how cell size and shape affect the surface area/volume ratio.

4.4 The Cytosol 1. Identify the location of the cytosol in a eukaryotic cell, and list its general functions.

2. Describe the three types of protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton.

3. Explain how motor proteins interact with microtubules or actin filaments to promote cellular

movements.

4.5 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System 1. Describe the structure and organization of the cell nucleus.

2. Outline the structures and general functions of the components of the endomembrane system.

3. Distinguish between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

4. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Palade's study, and explain how they indicate the existence of a

secretory pathway in eukaryotic cells.

5. List three important functions of the plasma membrane.

4.6 Semiautonomous Organelles 1. Outline the structures and general functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts.

2. CoreSKILLS » Evaluate the evidence for the endosymbiosis theory.

4.7 Protein Sorting to Organelles 1. List which categories of proteins are sorted cotranslationally and which are sorted post-translationally.

2. Describe the steps that occur during the cotranslational sorting of proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum.

3. Outline the steps of post-translational sorting of proteins to mitochondria.

4.8 Systems Biology of Cells: A Summary 1. Outline the differences in complexity among bacteria, animal, and plant cells.

2. Describe how a eukaryotic cell can be viewed as four interacting systems: the nucleus, cytosol,

endomembrane system, and semiautonomous organelles.

Chapter 5 Membrane Structure, Synthesis, and Transport

5.1 Membrane Structure 1. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure.

2. Identify the three different types of membrane proteins.

5.2 Fluidity of Membranes 1. Describe the fluidity of membranes.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict how changes in lipid composition affect membrane fluidity.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of experiments that showed the lateral diffusion of membrane proteins.

5.3 Synthesis of Membrane Components in Eukaryotic Cells 1. Outline the synthesis of lipids at the ER membrane.

2. Explain how transmembrane proteins are inserted into the ER membrane.

3. Describe the process of glycosylation and its functional consequences.

5.4 Overview of Membrane Transport 1. Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, passive transport, and active transport.

2. Describe the process of osmosis and how it affects cell structure.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict the direction of water movement in response to solute gradients.

5.5 Transport Proteins 1. Outline the functional differences between channels and transporters.

2. Compare and contrast uniporters, symporters, and antiporters.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Agre, and explain how they indicated the presence of a water

channel.

4. Explain the difference between primary active transport and secondary active transport.

5. Describe the structure and function of pumps.

5.6 Exocytosis and Endocytosis 1. Describe the steps in exocytosis and endocytosis.

Chapter 6 An Introduction to Energy, Enzymes, and Metabolism

6.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions 2. Define energy, and distinguish between potential and kinetic energy.

3. State the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and discuss how they relate to living things.

4. Explain how the change in free energy determines the direction of a chemical reaction and how chemical

reactions eventually reach a state of equilibrium.

5. Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions in terms of the energy of the reactants and

products and the free energy change.

6. Describe how cells use the energy released by ATP hydrolysis to drive endergonic reactions.

6.2 Enzymes and Ribozymes 1. Explain how enzymes increase the rates of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

2. Describe how enzymes bind their substrates with high specificity and undergo induced fit.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the velocity of chemical reactions and evaluate the effects of competitive and

noncompetitive inhibitors.

4. Explain how additional factors, such as nonprotein molecules or ions, temperature, and pH, influence

enzyme activity.

5. Identify the unique feature of ribozymes.

6.3 Overview of Metabolism 1. Explain the concept of a metabolic pathway, and distinguish between catabolic and anabolic reactions.

2. Describe how catabolic reactions are used to generate building blocks to make larger molecules and to

produce energy intermediates.

3. Define redox reaction.

4. Compare and contrast three ways that metabolic pathways are regulated.

6.4 Recycling of Organic Molecules 1. Explain the relationship between the recycling of organic molecules and cellular efficiency.

2. Outline how the building blocks of proteins are recycled.

3. Describe how the components of cellular organelles are recycled via autophagy.

Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

7.1 Overview of Cellular Respiration 1. List and briefly describe the four metabolic pathways that are needed to break down glucose to CO2 and

H2O.

7.2 Glycolysis 1. Outline the three phases of glycolysis and the net products.

2. Describe the series of enzymatic reactions that constitute glycolysis.

3. CoreSKILLS » Explain the underlying basis for the use of positron-emission tomography to detect cancer.

7.3 Breakdown of Pyruvate 1. Describe how pyruvate is broken down and acetyl CoA is made.

7.4 Citric Acid Cycle

1. Explain the concept of a metabolic cycle.

2. Describe how an acetyl group enters the citric acid cycle, and list the net products of the cycle.

7.5 Overview of Oxidative Phosphorylation 1. Describe how the electron transport chain produces an H+ electrochemical gradient.

2. Explain how ATP synthase utilizes the H+ electrochemical gradient to synthesize ATP.

7.6 A Closer Look at ATP Synthase 1. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of an experiment that verified that ATP synthase uses an H+

electrochemical gradient to make ATP.

2. Describe the structure of ATP synthase.

3. Explain how a series of three conformational changes enables ATP synthase to make ATP.

4. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of an experiment that showed that ATP synthase is a rotary machine.

7.7 Connections Among Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Metabolism 1. Explain how carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism are interconnected.

7.8 Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation 1. Describe how certain microorganisms make ATP using a final electron acceptor of an electron transport

chain that is not oxygen.

2. Explain how muscle and yeast cells use fermentation to synthesize ATP under anaerobic conditions.

Chapter 8 Photosynthesis

8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 1. Write the general equations that represent the process of photosynthesis.

2. Explain how photosynthesis powers the biosphere.

3. Describe the general structure of chloroplasts.

4. Compare and contrast the two phases of photosynthesis: the light reactions and the Calvin cycle.

8.2 Reactions That Harness Light Energy 1. Define the general properties of light.

2. Explain how pigments absorb light energy, and list the types of pigments found in plants and green algae.

3. Outline the steps in which photosystems II and I capture light energy and produce O2, ATP, and NADPH.

4. Describe the process of cyclic photophosphorylation, in which only ATP is made.

8.3 Molecular Features of Photosystems 1. Explain how PSII absorbs and captures light energy and how it produces O2.

2. Diagram the variation in the energy of an electron varies as it moves from PSII to PSI to NADP+.

8.4 Synthesizing Carbohydrates via the Calvin Cycle 1. Outline the three phases of the Calvin cycle.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Calvin and Benson, and explain how they identified the components

of the Calvin cycle.

8.5 Variations in Photosynthesis 1. Explain the concept of photorespiration.

2. Compare and contrast how C4 and CAM plants avoid photorespiration and conserve water.

Chapter 9 Cell Communication

9.1 General Features of Cell Communication 1. Explain the two general reasons for cell signaling: responding to environmental changes and cell-to-cell

communication.

2. Compare and contrast the five ways that cells communicate with each other based on the distance

between cells.

3. Outline the three-stage process of cell signaling.

9.2 Cellular Receptors and Their Activation 1. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the affinity, measured as a dissociation constant, that a receptor has for its

signaling molecule, or ligand.

2. Explain how a signaling molecule activates a receptor.

3. Identify three general types of cell surface receptors.

4. Describe intracellular receptors, using estrogen receptors as an example.

9.3 Signal Transduction and the Cellular Response 1. For signaling molecules that bind to receptor tyrosine kinases or G-protein-coupled receptors, describe

the signal transduction pathways and how those pathways lead to a cellular response.

2. Relate the function of second messengers to signal transduction pathways.

3. List examples of second messengers, and explain how they exert their effects.

9.4 Hormonal Signaling in Multicellular Organisms 1. Explain how the cellular response to a particular hormone can vary among different cell types.

2. Describe how a cell’s response to a hormone depends on the genes it expresses.

9.5 Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death 1. Define and describe apoptosis.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of experiments indicating that certain hormones control apoptosis.

3. Outline the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis.

Chapter 10 Multicellularity

10.1 Extracellular Matrix and Cell Walls 1. Explain the functional roles of the extracellular matrix in animals.

2. Outline the major structural components of the ECM of animals.

3. Describe the structure and function of plant cell walls.

10.2 Cell Junctions 1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of anchoring junctions, tight junctions, and gap

junctions found between animal cells.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of experiments that determined the size of gap junction channels.

3. Describe the structure and function of the middle lamella and plasmodesmata that connect adjacent

plant cells.

10.3 Tissues 1. List the six basic cell processes that produce tissues and organs.

2. Outline the structures and functions of the four types of animal tissues: epithelial, connective, nervous,

and muscle tissues.

3. Summarize the structures and functions of the three types of plant tissues: dermal, ground, and vascular

tissues.

Chapter 11 Nucleic Acid Structure, DNA Replication, and Chromosome Structure

11.1 Biochemical Identification of the Genetic Material 1. List the four key criteria that the genetic material must fulfill.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of experiments that identified DNA as the genetic material.

11.2 Nucleic Acid Structure 1. Outline the structural features of DNA at five levels of complexity.

2. Describe the structure of nucleotides, a DNA strand, and the DNA double helix.

3. CoreSKILLS » Discuss and interpret the work of Franklin; Chargaff; and Watson and Crick.

11.3 Overview of DNA Replication 1. CoreSKILLS » Discuss and interpret the experiments of Meselson and Stahl.

2. Describe the double-stranded structure of DNA, and explain how the AT/GC rule underlies the ability of

DNA to be replicated semiconservatively.

11.4 Molecular Mechanism of DNA Replication 1. Describe how the synthesis of new DNA strands begins at an origin of replication.

2. List the functions of helicase, topoisomerase, single-strand binding protein, primase, and DNA

polymerase at the replication fork.

3. Outline the key differences between the synthesis of the leading and lagging strands.

4. List three reasons why DNA replication is very accurate.

5. Explain how DNA replication occurs at telomeres in eukaryotic chromosomes.

11.5 Molecular Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 1. Describe the structure of nucleosomes and the 30-nm fiber, and explain how the 30-nm fiber forms radial

loop domains.

2. Outline the various levels of compaction that lead to a metaphase chromosome.

Chapter 12 Gene Expression at the Molecular Level I: Production of mRNA and Proteins

12.1 Overview of Gene Expression 1. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of the experiments of Garrod and of Beadle and Tatum.

2. Outline the general steps of gene expression at the molecular level, which together constitute the central

dogma.

3. Explain how proteins are largely responsible for determining an organism’s characteristics.

12.2 Transcription 1. Give a molecular definition of the term gene.

2. Outline the three stages of transcription and the role of RNA polymerase in this process.

3. Explain how genes within the same chromosome vary in their direction of transcription.

4. Compare and contrast transcription in bacteria and eukaryotes.

12.3 RNA Modification in Eukaryotes 1. Describe the addition of the 5′ cap and 3′ poly A tail to eukaryotic mRNA.

2. Explain the process of splicing that produces mature eukaryotic mRNA.

12.4 Translation and the Genetic Code 1. Explain how the genetic code specifies the relationship between the sequence of codons in mRNA and

the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the experiments of Nirenberg and Leder that led to the deciphering of the genetic

code.

12.5 The Machinery of Translation 1. Describe the structure and function of tRNA.

2. Explain how aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases attach amino acids to tRNAs.

3. Outline the structural features of bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes.

4. CoreSKILLS » Analyze how ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is used to evaluate evolutionary relationships among

different species.

12.6 The Stages of Translation 1. Describe the three stages of translation.

2. Summarize the similarities and differences between translation in bacteria and eukaryotes.

3. Explain how some antibiotics inhibit the growth of bacteria by interfering with translation.

Chapter 13 Gene Expression at the Molecular Level II: Non-coding RNAs

13.1 Overview of Non-coding RNAs 1. Describe the ability of ncRNAs to bind to other molecules and macromolecules. 2. Outline the general functions of ncRNAs. 3. Define ribozyme. 4. List several examples of ncRNAs, and describe their functions.

13.2 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Chromatin Structure and Transcription 1. Explain how the ncRNA known as HOTAIR plays a role in gene repression.

13.3 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Translation and mRNA Degradation 1. CoreSKILL » Analyze experimental evidence that double-stranded RNA is more potent in silencing mRNA

than antisense RNA is. 2. Outline the steps of RNA interference.

13.4 Non-coding RNAs and Protein Sorting Describe the function of SRP, and explain the roles of SRP RNA with regard to its function. 13.5 Non-coding RNAs and Genome Defense

1. Explain how the CRISPR-Cas system defends bacteria against bacteriophages. 13.6 Roles of Non-coding RNAs in Human Disease and Plant Health

1. List examples in which ncRNAs are associated with human diseases. 2. List examples in which ncRNAs play a role in plant health.

Chapter 14 Gene Expression at the Molecular Level III: Gene Regulation

14.1 Overview of Gene Regulation 1. Discuss the various ways that organisms benefit from gene regulation.

2. Identify where gene regulation can occur in the pathway of gene expression for bacteria and eukaryotes.

14.2 Regulation of Transcription in Bacteria 1. Explain how regulatory transcription factors and small effector molecules are involved in the regulation

of transcription.

2. Describe the organization of the lac operon and how it is under negative and positive control.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of the experiments of Jacob, Monod, and Pardee.

4. Describe how the trp operon is under negative control.

14.3 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes I: Roles of Transcription Factors and Mediator 1. Explain the concept of combinatorial control.

2. Describe how RNA polymerase and general transcription factors initiate transcription at the core

promoter.

3. Compare and contrast how activators, coactivators, repressors, TFIID, and mediator play a role in gene

regulation.

14.4 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes II: Changes in Chromatin Structure and DNA Methylation 1. Describe the flanking of eukaryotic genes by nucleosome-free regions, and explain how nucleosomes are

altered during gene transcription.

2. Explain how DNA methylation affects transcription.

14.5 Regulation of RNA Modification and Translation in Eukaryotes 1. Outline the process of alternative splicing, and explain how it increases protein diversity.

2. Explain how RNA-binding proteins regulate the translation of specific mRNAs, using the regulation of iron

absorption in mammals as an example.

Chapter 15 Mutation, DNA Repair, and Cancer

15.1 Consequences of Mutations

1. List several ways that mutations can alter the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

2. Outline how mutations in protein-encoding genes may affect the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. 3. Explain how mutations that occur outside of the coding sequence can affect the expression of a gene.

4. Compare and contrast the effects of mutations in somatic cells versus germ-line cells.

15.2 Causes of Mutations 1. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the replica plating experiments of the Lederbergs.

2. Describe the difference between spontaneous and induced mutations.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of an Ames test for determining if a substance is a mutagen.

15.3 DNA Repair 1. List the general features of DNA repair systems.

2. Describe the steps of nucleotide excision repair.

3. Explain the connection between defects in DNA repair systems and the inherited human disease

xeroderma pigmentosum.

15.4 Cancer 1. Outline the steps in the development of cancer.

2. Describe the general functions of oncogenes.

3. List the four common types of genetic changes that convert proto-oncogenes into oncogenes.

4. Identify the two general functions of the proteins encoded by tumor-suppressor genes.

5. Describe three common ways that tumor-suppressor genes are silenced.

Chapter 16 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Meiosis

16.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle 1. CoreSKILLS » Describe the features of chromosomes, and explain how sets of chromosomes are examined

microscopically.

2. Outline the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.

3. Explain how cyclins and cdks work together to advance a cell through the eukaryotic cell cycle.

16.2 Mitotic Cell Division 1. Describe how the replication of eukaryotic chromosomes produces sister chromatids.

2. Explain the structure and function of the mitotic spindle.

3. Outline the key events that occur during the phases of mitosis.

16.3 Meiosis 1. Describe the processes of synapsis and crossing over.

2. Outline the key events that occur during the phases of meiosis.

3. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis, focusing on key steps that account for the different outcomes

of these two processes.

16.4 Sexual Reproduction 1. Distinguish between the life cycles of diploid-dominant species, haploid-dominant species, and species

that exhibit an alternation of generations.

16.5 Variation in Chromosome Structure and Number 1. Describe how chromosomes can vary in size, centromere location, and number.

2. Identify the four ways that the structure of a chromosome can be changed via mutation.

3. Compare and contrast changes in the number of sets of chromosomes and changes in the number of

individual chromosomes.

4. Give examples of how changes in chromosome number affect the characteristics of animals and plants.

Chapter 17 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

17.1 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance 1. List the advantages of using the garden pea to study inheritance.

2. Describe the difference between dominant and recessive traits.

3. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype.

4. CoreSKILLS » Predict the outcome of genetic crosses using a Punnett square.

5. State Mendel’s law of segregation and law of independent assortment.

17.2 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 1. Outline the principles of the chromosome theory of inheritance.

2. Relate the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis to Mendel’s laws of inheritance.

17.3 Pedigree Analysis of Human Traits 1. CoreSKILLS » Apply pedigree analysis to deduce inheritance patterns in humans.

2. Distinguish between recessively inherited disorders and dominantly inherited disorders.

17.4 Sex Chromosomes and X-Linked Inheritance Patterns 1. Describe different systems of sex determination in animals and plants.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict the outcome of crosses when genes are located on sex chromosomes.

3. Explain why X-linked recessive traits are more likely to occur in males.

17.5 Variations in Inheritance Patterns and Their Molecular Basis 1. Relate dominant and recessive traits to protein function.

2. Define pleiotropy, and explain why it occurs.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict the outcome of crosses that exhibit incomplete dominance and codominance.

4. Discuss how the environment plays a critical role in determining the outcome of traits.

17.6 Gene Interaction 1. Describe how the alleles of one gene can mask or be epistatic to the alleles of a different gene. 2. Explain why polygenic traits usually show a continuum of phenotype variation.

17.7 Genetics and Probability 1. Explain the concept of probability.

2. CoreSKILLS » Apply the product rule to problems involving genetic crosses.

Chapter 18 Epigenetics, Linkage, and Extranuclear Inheritance

18.1 Overview of Epigenetics 1. Define epigenetics and epigenetic inheritance. 2. Outline the types of molecular changes that underlie epigenetic effects on gene expression.

18.2 Epigenetics I: Genomic Imprinting 1. CoreSKILL » Predict the outcome of crosses for imprinted genes. 2. Explain the molecular basis of genomic imprinting.

18.3 Epigenetics II: X-Chromosome Inactivation 1. Explain how X-chromosome inactivation may affect the phenotype of female mammals. 2. Describe the process of X-chromosome inactivation at the cellular level.

18.4 Epigenetics III: Effects of Environmental Agents 1. Explain how chemicals in the diet may affect an individual’s phenotype. 2. List examples of chemicals that cause epigenetic changes that may contribute to cancer.

18.5 Extranuclear Inheritance: Organelle Genomes 1. Describe the general features of mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes. 2. CoreSKILL » Predict the outcome of crosses that exhibit maternal inheritance. 3. List human diseases associated with mutations in mitochondrial genes.

18.6 Genes on the Same Chromosome: Linkage and Recombination 1. Describe how linkage violates the law of independent assortment. 2. Explain how experimental crosses can demonstrate linkage.

3. CoreSKILL » Calculate the distance between genes that are linked on the same chromosome.

Chapter 19 Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria

19.1 General Properties of Viruses 1. Compare and contrast how viruses differ with regard to their host range, structure, and genomes.

19.2 Viral Reproductive Cycles 1. List the steps in a viral reproductive cycle, and distinguish between the lysogenic and lytic cycles.

2. Describe how emerging viruses such as HIV arise and spread through a population.

3. Explain how an understanding of viral structure and reproduction can aid in the development of drugs to

combat viruses.

4. Outline two hypotheses regarding the origin of viruses.

19.3 Viroids and Prions 1. Distinguish between a viroid and a virus.

2. Describe the structure of prions, and explain how they cause disease.

19.4 Genetic Properties of Bacteria 1. Outline the key features of a bacterial chromosome.

2. Explain the two processes that compact the bacterial chromosome.

3. Outline the structure and functions of plasmids.

4. Diagram the process of cell division in bacteria.

19.5 Gene Transfer Between Bacteria 1. Compare and contrast the three forms of gene transfer—conjugation, transformation, and

transduction—in bacteria.

2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Lederberg and Tatum, and explain how they led to the discovery of

conjugation.

3. Describe the process of horizontal gene transfer.

Chapter 20 Developmental Genetics

20.1 General Themes in Development 1. List several invertebrate, vertebrate, and plant model organisms, and describe the reasons why biologists

study them.

2. Outline the process of pattern formation in plants and animals.

3. Describe the four ways that cells respond to positional information.

4. Explain how morphogens and cell-to-cell contacts convey positional information.

5. Outline four phases of pattern formation in animals, and describe how they are controlled by

transcription factors.

20.2 Development in Animals I: Pattern Formation 1. CoreSKILLS » Explain how the analysis of mutants has been an important tool in our understanding of

development in animals.

2. Distinguish the functions of maternal effect genes, segmentation genes, and homeotic genes in animal

development.

20.3 Development in Animals II: Cell Differentiation 1. Define the general properties of stem cells.

2. Describe how transcription factors control cell differentiation.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of experiments that indicated that master transcription factors control

cell differentiation.

20.4 Development in Plants

1. Outline the stages of pattern formation in plants.

2. CoreSKILLS » Explain the ABC model for flower development.

Chapter 21 Genetic Technologies and Genomics

21.1 Gene Cloning 1. Outline the steps of gene cloning using vectors.

2. Distinguish between a genomic library and a cDNA library.

3. Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments.

4. Describe the steps of gene cloning using polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

21.2 Genomics: Techniques for Studying and Altering Genomes 1. Distinguish between genomics and functional genomics.

2. Outline the steps of DNA sequencing using the dideoxy chain-termination method.

3. Explain what a DNA microarray is and how it is used to identify the genes expressed by a sample of cells.

4. Describe how CRISPR-Cas technology can be used to edit genes.

21.3 Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes 1. List the key characteristics of bacterial and archaeal genomes.

2. Describe the method of shotgun DNA sequencing.

21.4 Eukaryotic Genomes 1. Describe the key features of eukaryotic genomes.

2. Explain how gene duplications occur and lead to the formation of gene families.

3. List the goals and results of the Human Genome Project.

21.5 Repetitive Sequences and Transposable Elements 1. Describe the characteristics of repetitive sequences. 2. Name the two major types of transposable elements and explain how they move about the genome.

Chapter 22 An Introduction to Evolution

22.1 Overview of Evolution 1. Define evolution.

2. Describe the factors that led Darwin to the theory of evolution.

3. Explain the process of natural selection.

22.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 1. Summarize the different types of evidence for evolutionary change, including studies of natural selection,

the fossil record, biogeography, convergent traits, selective breeding, and homologies.

2. Provide examples of three types of homologies.

22.3 The Molecular Processes That Underlie Evolution 1. Explain how paralogs and orthologs are produced.

2. Distinguish between vertical evolution and horizontal gene transfer.

Chapter 23 Population Genetics

23.1 Genes in Populations 1. Define a gene pool.

2. Distinguish between allele and genotype frequency.

3. CoreSKILLS » Use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele and genotype frequencies of a given

population.

4. List the conditions that must be met for a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

5. Describe the factors that cause microevolution to occur.

23.2 Natural Selection 1. Explain how natural selection can result in a population that is better adapted to its environment and

more successful at reproduction.

2. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the fitness values of given genotypes.

3. List and distinguish the four different types of natural selection.

23.3 Sexual Selection 1. Define sexual selection.

2. Distinguish between intrasexual and intersexual selection.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Seehausen and van Alphen and explain how they relate to sexual

selection.

23.4 Genetic Drift 1. Define genetic drift, and explain its effects on allele frequencies over time.

2. Compare and contrast the bottleneck and founder effects.

3. Explain how neutral mutations can spread through a population.

23.5 Migration and Nonrandom Mating 1. Describe how gene flow affects genetic variation in neighboring populations.

2. Define inbreeding, and explain how it may have detrimental consequences.

Chapter 24 Origin of Species and Macroevolution

24.1 Identification of Species 1. Outline the characteristics that biologists use to distinguish different species.

2. Describe different species concepts.

3. Compare and contrast prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.

24.2 Mechanisms of Speciation 1. Describe how allopatric speciation can occur and how it can lead to adaptive radiation.

2. Outline three different mechanisms of sympatric speciation.

24.3 The Pace of Speciation 1. Compare and contrast the concepts of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

24.4 Evo-Devo: Evolutionary Developmental Biology 1. Describe how the spatial expression of genes, such as BMP4 and Gremlin, affects pattern formation.

2. Explain the relationship between the number of Hox genes and the body pattern of an animal species.

3. Outline how differences in the growth rates of body parts can change the characteristics of species.

4. Describe how the study of the Pax6 gene suggests that the eyes of different animal species evolved from

a common ancestor.

Chapter 25 Taxonomy and Systematics

25.1 Taxonomy 1. Identify the three domains of life.

2. Explain the hierarchy of groupings in taxonomy.

3. Describe how species are named using binomial nomenclature.

25.2 Phylogenetic Trees 1. Define phylogeny, and explain how it is depicted in phylogenetic trees.

2. Explain the process of cladogenesis, the primary way that new species arise.

3. Describe how homology is used to construct phylogenetic trees.

25.3 Cladistics 1. Distinguish between shared primitive characters and shared derived characters.

2. Outline the steps involved in using a cladistics approach to construct a phylogenetic tree, and explain

how the principle of parsimony is used to choose among phylogenetic trees.

3. Describe how maximum likelihood is also used to discriminate among phylogenetic trees.

4. CoreSKILLS » Explain how DNA can be analyzed to explore relationships among extant and extinct

species.

25.4 Molecular Clocks 1. Explain how molecular clocks are used in the dating of evolutionary events.

2. CoreSKILLS » Compare and contrast the use of different genes to produce phylogenetic trees.

25.5 Horizontal Gene Transfer 1. Explain how horizontal gene transfer affects evolution and how it affects the relationships among

different taxa.

Chapter 26 History of Life on Earth and Human Evolution

26.1 The Fossil Record 2. Describe how fossils are formed.

3. CoreSKILLS » Explain how radiometric dating is used to estimate the age of a fossil.

4. 22.02.03 List several factors that affect the completeness of the fossil record.

26.2 History of Life on Earth 1. List the types of environmental changes that have affected the history of life on Earth.

2. Describe the cell structure and energy utilization of the first living organisms that arose during the

Archaean eon.

3. Explain how the origin of eukaryotic cells involved a union between bacterial and archaeal cells.

4. Describe the key features of multicellular organisms, which arose during the Proterozoic eon.

5. Outline the major events and changes in species diversity during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic

eras.

26.3 Human Evolution 1. List the common characteristics of primates and describe their evolutionary relationships. 2. Explain how human species evolved from other primate species, and describe how they spread across the

Earth. 3. Provide examples of how populations of Homo sapiens are still evolving. 4. Compare and contrast modern human variation at the phenotype and genotype levels.

Chapter 27 Archaea and Bacteria

27.1 Diversity and Evolution 1. CoreSKILLS » Make a drawing that shows the evolutionary relationship among the domains Archaea,

Bacteria, and Eukarya.

2. Describe how many species of archaea are able to grow in extreme habitats.

3. Discuss the medical, environmental, and evolutionary importance of cyanobacteria and proteobacteria.

4. List common mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer.

27.2 Structure and Movement 1. Discuss structural adaptations that have increased the complexity of prokaryotic cells.

2. Explain how mucilage influences the behavior of bacterial cells.

3. CoreSKILLS » Make a drawing that shows the structural differences between Gram-positive and Gram-

negative bacterial cells, and predict how these features might influence disease treatments.

4. List the different means by which prokaryotic cells can move.

27.3 Reproduction

1. Explain how populations of prokaryotic organisms increase in number.

2. CoreSKILLS » Describe how bacteria can be counted in medical and environmental samples.

3. Give examples of how some bacteria survive under stressful conditions.

27.4 Nutrition and Metabolism 1. List the major modes of nutrition used by prokaryotic species.

2. CoreSKILLS » Compare and contrast the effects of oxygen on the metabolism of different types of

prokaryotic species; then predict the outcome when a gas gangrene patient is treated with oxygen.

3. Outline the process of biological nitrogen fixation, and explain why it is important and how oxygen

interferes with this process.

27.5 Ecological Roles and Biotechnology Applications 1. Discuss the roles of bacteria and archaea in the carbon cycle.

2. List examples of bacterial-eukaryote symbiosis and of pathogenic microbes.

3. List ways in which bacteria contribute to industrial and biotechnology applications.

Chapter 28 Protists

28.1 An Introduction to Protists 1. List three features that define protists.

2. Label protists informally by ecological role, habitat, and type of motility.

28.2 Evolution and Relationships 1. Describe a distinctive structural characteristic for each of seven eukaryotic supergroups.

2. List at least one species of each eukaryotic supergroup that is important to human life.

3. CoreSKILLS » Draw a diagram showing how the process of endosymbiosis has affected eukaryotic

diversity, and predict how this process could continue to affect biodiversity in the future.

28.3 Nutritional and Defensive Adaptations 1. List four mechanisms of protist nutrition.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict how photosynthetic protists might respond to a persistent period of darkness.

3. Give examples of major types of protist defensive adaptations.

28.4 Reproductive Adaptations 1. Briefly describe asexual reproduction and three types of sexual life cycles observed in some protists.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict the number of chromosome sets (n or 2n) of an organism, given information about

the type of cell that undergoes meiosis.

3. Give examples of how protist life cycles are important to humans.

Chapter 29 Fungi

29.1 Evolution and Distinctive Features of Fungi 1. CoreSKILLS » Use information about groups of fungi to draw a diagram showing their evolutionary

relationships.

2. Outline the distinctive features of fungi, including how they obtain food.

3. Discuss how fungal feeding is related to fungal growth.

29.2 Overview of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction in Fungi 1. Give examples of fungal asexual reproduction.

2. Identify some of the distinctive sexual reproductive processes in fungi.

3. Explain why humans may safely consume some fungal fruiting bodies, whereas other fungal fruiting

bodies are toxic to humans.

29.3 Diversity of Fungi

1. Outline the distinguishing features of the fungal phyla Mucoromycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota.

29.4 Fungal Ecology and Biotechnology 1. List several ecological roles of fungi.

2. Give examples of fungal diseases of plants and animals, including humans.

3. List several uses of fungi in biochemistry, biological studies, and industrial processes.

Chapter 30 Microbiomes: Microbial Systems On and Around Us

30.1 Microbiomes: Diversity of Microbes and Functions 1. Define microbiome. 2. List some reasons why microbiomes are considered to be complex systems. 3. Discuss how biologists use ribosomal RNA gene sequences and whole metagenomic sequencing to

catalog the diverse types of microbes in a microbiome. 4. Explain how biologists identify microbiome functions.

30.2 Microbiomes of Physical Systems 1. List some types of microbiomes that are found within physical systems. 2. Explain how microbiome analyses can help monitor environments for microbial activities that affect

human health. 30.3 Host-Associated Microbiomes

1. Define the terms holobiont and hologenome. 2. Describe a few examples in which animal and plant hosts acquire microbiomes, and how microbiomes

change during evolution. 3. Make a list of the benefits that are derived from the associations between microbiomes and their hosts. 4. CoreSKILL » Analyze the data that host microbiomes play a role in human health.

30.4 Engineering Animal and Plant Microbiomes 1. Explain why engineering animal and plant microbiomes may be useful. 2. Describe how biologists produce synthetic microbiomes. 3. Describe how artificial selection can be used to identify the most beneficial microbiomes for plants and

animals.

Chapter 31 Plants and the Conquest of Land

31.1 Ancestry and Diversity of Modern Plants 1. List key derived features that land plants share with their closest algal relatives.

2. Name several characteristics unique to land plants.

3. Compare and contrast the features of vascular and nonvascular plants.

4. CoreSKILLS » Explain how cuticles, epidermal stomata, and internal conduction systems work together in

vascular plants to maintain stable water content.

31.2 How Land Plants Have Changed the Earth 1. Describe examples of how plants have altered the Earth's physical environment and also affected other

life on Earth. 31.3 Evolution of Reproductive Features in Land Plants

1. Compare and contrast a haploid-dominant life cycle and alternation of generations. 2. List critical innovations in bryophytes that result in reproductive features different from those of

streptophyte algae. 3. Discuss additional reproductive changes that occurred during the evolution of vascular plants.

31.4 Evolutionary Importance of the Plant Embryo 1. Describe how a plant embryo benefits from the maternal gametophyte. 2. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Browning and Gunning, and explain the role of placental transfer

tissues in the movement of nutrients from mother plant to embryo.

31.5 The Origin and Evolutionary Importance of Leaves and Seeds

1. Describe how the leaves of ferns and seed plants likely evolved from branched-stem systems.

2. Discuss how seeds develop from fertilized ovules.

3. Name several advantages that seeds provide.

31.6 A Summary of Plant Features 1. Compare and contrast the distinguishing features of green algae and modern plant phyla.

Chapter 32 The Evolution and Diversity of Modern Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

32.1 Overview of Seed Plant Diversity 1. Describe the evolutionary relationships among seedless vascular plants and seed plants. 2. List the critical innovations that occurred during the evolution of seed plants.

32.2 The Evolution and Diversity of Modern Gymnosperms 1. Describe how gymnosperms diversified. 2. Identify three gymnosperm phyla, and describe their importance to humans.

32.3 The Evolution and Diversity of Modern Angiosperms 1. List four flower organs and their functions, and explain how each flower part may have first evolved.

2. Describe how diversification of flowers and fruits enhances seed production and dispersal.

3. Name three major types of angiosperm secondary metabolites, and explain how these affect animals.

32.4 The Role of Coevolution in Angiosperm Diversification 1. Explain the concept of coevolution.

2. List examples of coevolution between plants and animal pollinators.

3. List examples of coevolution between plants and animal seed dispersal agents.

32.5 Human Influences on Angiosperm Diversification 1. CoreSKILLS » Describe how molecular information about modern crop plants is used to infer their

evolutionary origin by domestication.

Chapter 33 An Introduction to Animal Diversity

33.1 Characteristics of Animals 1. List the key characteristics of animals that distinguish them from other organisms.

2. Provide a brief overview of the history of animal life on Earth.

33.2 Animal Classification 1. Discuss why choanoflagellates are believed to be the closest living relatives of animals.

2. Describe each of the major morphological and developmental features of animal body plans that form

the basis of the classification of animals.

33.3 The Use of Molecular Data in Constructing Phylogenetic Trees for Animals 1. Discuss how molecular data are used to construct and revise phylogenetic trees.

2. List the morphological features of the Ecdysozoa and the Lophotrochozoa.

Chapter 34 The Invertebrates

34.1 Ctenophores: The Earliest Animals 1. Outline the unique features of ctenophores.

34.2 Porifera: The Sponges 1. Outline the body plan and unique characteristics of sponges.

2. Describe how sponges defend themselves against predators.

34.3 Cnidaria: Jellyfish and Other Radially Symmetric Animals 1. Describe the four main classes of cnidarians, and compare and contrast the polyp and medusa body

forms.

2. Describe how cnidarians defend themselves and capture prey.

34.4 Lophotrochozoa: The Flatworms, Rotifers, Bryozoans, Brachiopods, Mollusks, and Annelids 1. Describe the unique features of platyhelminthes, rotifers, bryozoans, and brachiopods.

2. Outline the main biological features and list the main classes of the mollusks.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze the results of Fiorito and Scotto’s experiments, and explain how they show that

octopuses can learn from one another.

4. List the advantages of segmentation in the annelids.

34.5 Ecdysozoa: The Nematodes and Arthropods 1. List the distinguishing characteristics of nematodes.

2. Describe the arthropod body plan and its major features.

3. Give examples of the arthropod subphyla Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Hexapoda, and Crustacea.

4. List the features that help account for the diversity of insect species.

5. CoreSKILLS » Explain how genetic barcoding can be useful in insect systematics.

34.6 Deuterostomia: The Echinoderms and Chordates 1. Identify the distinguishing characteristics of echinoderms.

2. List the four critical innovations in the body plan of chordates.

3. Describe the two invertebrate subphylum of the phylum Chordata and their relationship to the

vertebrates.

34.7 A Comparison of Animal Phyla 1. Compare and contrast the key characteristics of animal phyla.

Chapter 35 The Vertebrates

35.1 Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone 1. List the main distinguishing characteristics of vertebrates.

35.2 Cyclostomata: Jawless Fishes 1. Identify the two classes of existing jawless vertebrates.

35.3 Gnathostomes: Jawed Vertebrates 1. Describe how jaws evolved.

2. Discuss the distinguishing features of sharks.

3. List the three features that distinguish bony fishes from cartilaginous fishes.

4. Outline the differences between the ray-finned fish and the lobe-finned fish.

35.4 Tetrapods: Gnathostomes with Four Limbs 1. Describe adaptations that were beneficial for a terrestrial lifestyle. 2. List the amphibian orders, and describe the features that differentiate them.

3. CoreSKILLS » Explain how relatively simple experiments with mice showed that mutations in just two

genes can cause large changes in limb development.

35.5 Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Desiccation-Resistant Egg 1. Diagram the structure of the amniotic egg.

2. Identify the critical innovations of the amniotes.

3. Describe the distinguishing features of the major amniote classes.

4. List the features that allowed birds to fly.

35.6 Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes 1. Identify the four features that separate mammals from other vertebrate clades.

2. Describe the main orders of mammals. 3. Outline the phylogenetic relationships among the major clades of mammals.

Chapter 36 An Introduction to Flowering Plant Form and Function

36.1 From Seed to Seed—The Life of a Flowering Plant 1. List ways in which seed plant reproduction and growth resemble or differ from those of animals.

2. Describe how the two major types of flowering plants— monocots and eudicots—differ in form.

3. CoreSKILLS » Distinguish among annual, biennial, and perennial plants, and understand how their

differences influence human uses of plants as food.

36.2 How Plants Grow and Develop 1. CoreSKILLS » Compare and contrast plant body architecture and development with those of animals.

2. Explain how the shoot system differs from the root system.

36.3 The Shoot System: Stem and Leaf Adaptations 1. Discuss why plant shoots are said to have a modular structure.

2. Explain why leaves having different shapes and vein patterns exist in nature.

3. Compare the structure and function of the conducting tissues xylem and phloem.

4. CoreSKILLS » Create a drawing showing how bark and wood originate in woody plants.

36.4 Root System Adaptations 1. List ways that root structure has been modified in different plants in response to different habitats.

2. CoreSKILLS » Make a drawing that shows how root systems and branch roots develop.

3. Explain how mobile proteins influence root development.

Chapter 37 Flowering Plants: Behavior

37.1 Overview of Plant Behavioral Responses 1. List examples of plant responses to internal and environmental stimuli.

2. Describe the three stages of cell signaling.

37.2 Plant Hormones 1. List some examples of plant hormones.

2. Explain how auxin functions in phototropism.

3. Explain how cytokinins, gibberellins, and ethylene are relevant to agriculture.

4. Explain how abscisic acid and brassinosteroids help plants cope with environmental stress.

37.3 Plant Responses to Environmental Stimuli 1. Describe how photoreceptors allow plants to respond to light, including day length.

2. Discuss how plant roots respond to gravity and touch.

3. Give examples of how plants respond to flood and drought.

4. Outline how plants protect themselves against pathogenic attack.

Chapter 38 Flower Plants: Nutrition

38.1 Plant Nutritional Requirements 1. List the major nutritional resources that most plants need for healthy growth.

2. Describe how some plants have adapted to light limitation in shady habitats.

3. CoreSKILLS » Distinguish between plant macronutrients and micronutrients, using quantitative

comparisons.

38.2 The Role of Soil in Plant Nutrition 1. List the benefits of soil organic matter for plant growth.

2. Explain why plants require a source of fixed nitrogen and how they obtain it.

3. Discuss various plant adaptations that increase the ability to obtain phosphorus.

38.3 Biological Sources of Plant Nutrients 1. Explain the importance of mycorrhizal fungi to plants.

2. List the major types of prokaryotic organisms that occur in symbioses with plants, thereby helping them

to acquire nitrogen.

3. Distinguish carnivorous plants from parasitic plants, giving examples.

Chapter 39 Flowering Plants: Transport

39.1 Overview of Plant Transport 1. Describe how plants transport water and minerals from roots to leaves.

2. Describe how plants transport organic molecules from leaves to nonphotosynthetic parts.

39.2 Uptake and Movement of Materials at the Cellular Level 1. Describe the differences among turgid, flaccid, and plasmolyzed plant cells.

2. CoreSKILLS » Explain how water potential and relative water content are calculated.

3. List ways in which plants cope with cellular osmotic stress.

39.3 Tissue-Level Transport 1. Define transmembrane transport, symplastic transport, and apoplastic transport.

2. Explain how the root endodermis functions as a diffusion barrier.

39.4 Long-Distance Transport 1. Describe how bulk flow occurs in the xylem and phloem of flowering plants.

2. Describe how vessel elements differ from tracheids, and how both function in the xylem of flowering

plants.

3. Summarize how the cohesion-tension theory explains long-distance water movement in plants.

4. Explain how stomata and leaf abscission help reduce transpirational water loss.

Chapter 40 Flowering Plants: Reproduction

40.1 An Overview of Flowering Plant Reproduction 1. Explain how the sexual life cycle of flowering plants differs from that of earlier evolved mosses.

2. List the four organs found in many flowers and the functions of each organ.

3. Describe the phenomenon of double fertilization.

4. Describe the parts of an angiosperm seed, and explain how each part is produced and functions.

40.2 Flower Production, Structure, and Development 1. List some examples of particular genes that control flower production or shape.

2. Give an example of how gene expression affects flowering time or flower appearance.

3. CoreSKILLS » Explain recent research findings on how flowers bloom, that is, open up from a closed bud.

40.3 Male and Female Gametophytes and Double Fertilization 1. Explain how sperm production in plants differs from that in animals.

2. Explain how the pistil controls pollen germination.

3. Describe the structure of the female gametophyte.

4. Outline the different fates of the two sperm cells transmitted by each pollen tube.

40.4 Embryo, Seed, Fruit, and Seedling Development 1. Outline the major stages in angiosperm embryo development.

2. List examples of environmental and internal factors that influence seed germination.

3. Explain how seed germination varies among plants.

40.5 Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 1. Explain the benefits of asexual reproduction in flowering plants.

2. List several examples of ways in which plant asexual reproduction is important to agriculture.

Chapter 41 Animal Bodies and Homeostasis

41.1 Organization of Animal Bodies 1. List the different categories of animal tissue, providing general functions and specific examples of each.

2. Name the various organ systems found in many animals, list the components of each, and describe their

general functions.

41.2 The Relationship Between Structure and Function 1. Provide an example of how the structure of an animal’s tissues or organs can help predict their function.

2. CoreSKILLS » Describe the quantitative relationship between the surface area of an object and its volume, and explain the importance of this relationship to animal form and function.

41.3 General Principles of Homeostasis 1. Explain how the concept of homeostasis as it applies to the internal environment of animals.

2. List several variables that are regulated within a homeostatic range in vertebrate animals.

3. Name the four components of a homeostatic control system, and describe the importance of each to the

regulation of an animal’s internal environment.

4. CoreSKILLS » Contrast negative feedback, positive feedback, and feedforward regulation, and explain

how they do or do not contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in animals.

5. Explain the importance of paracrine and hormonal signaling to homeostasis, and provide examples of

each.

41.4 Homeostatic Control of Internal Fluids 1. List ways in which water and ions move across cell membranes and between body fluid compartments. 2. CoreSKILL » Predict outcomes of imbalances of water and ions on animals’ function and survival. 3. Compare and contrast osmotic adaptations of freshwater fish with those of marine fish. 4. List two ways of classifying animals according to how they adapt to osmotic challenges.

Chapter 42 Neuroscience I: Cells of the Nervous System

42.1 Cellular Components of Nervous Systems 1. Explain the difference between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system

(PNS).

2. List the cellular components of the nervous system, and describe the function of each cell type.

3. CoreSKILLS » Identify the different parts of a typical neuron, and explain how the structure of each relates

to its function.

4. Describe the functional relationships among sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

5. CoreSKILLS » Explain what a reflex is, and propose reasons why reflexes are important in animals.

42.2 Electrical Properties of Neurons and the Resting Membrane Potential 1. Explain the meaning of membrane potential.

2. Describe how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained.

3. Describe how an electrochemical gradient determines the direction in which an ion will move.

4. CoreSKILLS » Write the Nernst equation, and use it to predict the direction in which different ions move

across a plasma membrane.

42.3 Generation and Transmission of Electrical Signals Along Neurons 1. Distinguish between ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion channels.

2. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.

3. CoreSKILLS » Describe the steps involved in the generation of an action potential, beginning with the

spread of excitation to the axon hillock.

4. Describe the events in the propagation of an action potential.

5. Explain how myelination influences the speed of an action potential.

42.4 Electrical and Chemical Communication at Synapses 1. Describe the structural features of a synapse.

2. Distinguish between two types of potentials produced in postsynaptic cells: excitatory postsynaptic

potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs).

3. CoreSKILLS » Describe the difference between spatial summation and temporal summation, and make

predictions about postsynaptic potentials in a cell receiving multiple inputs from other cells.

4. List the classes of neurotransmitters, and provide brief descriptions of their generalized functions.

5. Describe the two general types of postsynaptic membrane receptors.

42.5 Impact on Public Health 1. Describe how disorders of neurotransmission can affect human health.

2. List several recreational and illicit drugs, and describe the effects these drugs have on the nervous

system.

3. Give examples of disorders of neural conduction, and describe how they arise.

Chapter 43 Neuroscience II: Evolution, Structure, and Function of the Nervous System

43.1 The Evolution and Development of Nervous Systems 1. List the different types of nervous systems found in animals.

2. Describe the general anatomical organization of the brain in vertebrates.

3. Relate the structural changes in brain complexity that accompanied the evolution of mammals to brain

function.

43.2 Structure and Function of the Nervous Systems of Humans and Other Vertebrates 1. Outline the anatomical organization of the human nervous system.

2. Describe the organization of the peripheral nervous system.

3. Identify the differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

4. Briefly describe the major structures and functions of the human hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

43.3 Cellular Basis of Learning and Memory 1. Define the terms learning and memory, and describe their relationship to one another.

2. Describe how memory is related to changes in the strength of connections between neurons.

3. CoreSKILLS » Describe the evidence that shows that the brain is capable of neurogenesis, and predict how

neurogenesis might be important for human learning and memory.

4. Summerize the similarities and differences in the technologies of CT, MRI, and fMRI.

43.4 Impact on Public Health 1. List the broad groups of diseases affecting the human nervous system.

2. Describe the impact of meningitis and Alzheimer’s disease on public health.

Chapter 44 Neuroscience III: Sensory Systems

44.1 An Introduction to Sensation 1. Describe the relationship between sensation and perception.

2. Explain how sensory receptors pass along the intensity of a stimulus.

3. List the classes of sensory receptors and the stimuli to which they respond.

44.2 Mechanoreception 1. List the types of mechanoreceptors that detect touch, stretch, or movement, and describe how their

structures relate to their functions of hearing and balance.

2. Describe the structure of the mammalian ear, and explain how mechanical forces move through it.

3. Give examples of adaptations for hearing in animals that inhabit different environments.

4. Describe how body position and movement are detected by sense organs.

44.3 Thermoreception and Nociception

1. CoreSKILLS » Distinguish between thermoreception and nociception, and propose reasons why they are

vital to the safety and survival of an animal.

44.4 Electromagnetic Reception 1. Identify ways that animals use electromagnetic receptors to sense their environments.

44.5 Photoreception 1. Describe the structure of invertebrate visual organs.

2. Describe the structure of the vertebrate (single-lens) eye, and explain how its structure is related to its

ability to form images.

3. Compare and contrast the structure and function of rods and cones.

4. Describe the steps involved in the mechanisms by which photoreceptors respond to light in a single-lens

eye.

5. Outline the neural pathway by which visual signals travel to reach the brain.

44.6 Chemoreception 1. CoreSKILLS » Describe olfaction and gustation in animals, and propose reasons why these senses are

advantageous.

2. Explain how olfactory receptors respond to the binding of odor molecules.

3. Outline how receptor cells within taste buds respond to the binding of food molecules.

44.7 Impact on Public Health 1. Identify common types of visual and hearing deficits in humans, the causes of each, and their impacts on

public health.

Chapter 45 Muscular-Skeletal Systems and Locomotion

45.1 Types of Animal Skeletons 1. Distinguish between exoskeletons and endoskeletons.

2. CoreSKILLS » Relate the structure of an exoskeleton to its function, and propose reasons why such a

skeleton provides advantages to an animal.

3. List the major functions of the vertebrate skeleton.

4. Describe the composition of vertebrate bone.

45.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure and the Mechanism of Force Generation 1. List the three types of muscle found in vertebrates, and describe where they are found in the body.

2. Describe how antagonistic muscles function at a joint.

3. Identify the structural components of a muscle down to the level of the sarcomere.

4. Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.

5. Explain how tropomyosin and troponin help regulate muscle contraction.

6. CoreSKILLS » Predict how skeletal muscle contraction would be affected by changes in electrical activity

in motor neurons.

7. Describe the structural features of a neuromuscular junction and the role of acetylcholine in mediating

skeletal muscle excitation.

45.3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Their Functions 1. Outline the general characteristics of the three types of skeletal muscle fibers.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict how muscles may adapt to exercise.

45.4 Animal Locomotion 1. Describe the mechanisms of animal locomotion in water, on land, and in air.

2. CoreSKILLS » Compare the quantitative differences in energy costs of swimming, running, and flying.

3. Explain how evolution has shaped the structures used for locomotion.

45.5 Impact on Public Health

1. Describe the impact of the bone diseases rickets and osteoporosis on public health.

2. Recognize the main symptoms and causes of muscular dystrophy.

Chapter 46 Nutrition and Animal Digestive Systems

46.1 Animal Nutrition 1. List the major categories of nutrients consumed by animals and some of their general functions.

2. Identify four groups of essential nutrients, listing several examples of each.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict some of the consequences of a deficiency of a given nutrient.

46.2 General Principles of Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients 1. Compare the processes of intracellular and extracellular digestion, and explain why one is far more

common than the other.

2. CoreSKILLS » Make predictions about the function of parts of the alimentary canal based on their

structural adaptations.

3. Distinguish between passive and active absorption of food.

46.3 Overview of Vertebrate Digestive Systems 1. Describe the general structure of the vertebrate digestive system.

2. Describe how food moves through regions of the alimentary canal, and explain how each part contributes

to the processes of digestion and absorption.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict problems that might arise if saliva or acid could not be secreted into the mouth or

stomach, respectively.

4. Outline how microorganisms can help digest cellulose in ruminants and other herbivores.

46.4 Mechanisms of Digestion and Absorption in Vertebrates 1. Describe the mechanisms of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in vertebrates,

and explain the importance of enzymes in some of these processes.

2. Explain why some nutrients do not require digestion prior to being absorbed.

3. CoreSKILLS » Propose a hypothesis explaining why most human adults are lactose-intolerant to some

degree.

46.5 Neural and Endocrine Control of Digestion 1. Explain how the nervous system controls different features of the digestive process.

2. Name three major hormones important for the regulation of digestion in vertebrates, and describe the

role of each.

46.6 Impact on Public Health 1. Describe the impact of diarrhea, heartburn, and ulcers on public health.

2. Identify the primary cause of ulcers.

Chapter 47 Control of Energy Balance, Metabolic Rate, and Body Temperature

47.1 Use and Storage of Energy 1. 46.01.01 Describe the processes by which glucose, triglycerides, and amino acids are absorbed during the

absorptive state.

2. Outline the two major ways that vertebrates can increase their blood glucose concentrations during the

postabsorptive state.

3. Define glucose sparing, and explain why it is important.

47.2 Regulation of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States 1. CoreSKILLS » Predict how the blood concentration of insulin will change as the blood concentration of

glucose changes, and vice versa.

2. Describe how the human body regulates the use and storage of glucose.

3. Describe the effect of exercise on energy demands and the mechanisms that are activated to meet those

demands.

47.3 Energy Balance and Metabolic Rate 1. Define basal metabolic rate (BMR), and explain how it is measured.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict the effects of various factors on metabolic rate.

3. Describe how hormones regulate metabolic rate and appetite.

47.4 Regulation of Body Temperature 1. Provide examples of how changes in temperature affect chemical reactions, protein functions, and

membrane structure.

2. List and define the four terms used to categorize organisms based on their source of heat and ability to

maintain body temperature.

3. Identify the four main mechanisms animals use to exchange heat with the environment.

4. CoreSKILLS » Identify several mechanisms by which animals can alter the rate of heat gain or loss, and

describe some ways in which body structures facilitate these mechanisms.

47.5 Impact on Public Health 1. Define body mass index (BMI), and explain how it is used to assess health risks associated with

overweight and obesity.

Chapter 48 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

48.1 Types of Circulatory Systems 1. Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems.

2. Describe the differences between single and double circulations in vertebrates.

48.2 The Composition of Blood 1. List the four components of blood and describe the composition and functions of each.

2. Describe the process of blood clotting in mammals.

48.3 The Vertebrate Heart and Its Function 1. Describe the structure of the vertebrate heart.

2. CoreSKILLS » Outline the sequence of events of the cardiac cycle, and draw conclusions regarding the

functional relationship between electrical and contractile events.

3. CoreSKILLS » Interpret the meaning of the tracings on an electrocardiogram.

48.4 Blood Vessels 1. Explain the structural and functional distinctions among arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and

veins. 48.5 Relationship Among Blood Pressure, Blood Flow, and Resistance

1. CoreSKILLS » Be able to relate blood pressure, blood flow, and resistance in a mathematical way.

2. Distinguish between the effects of vasodilation and vasoconstriction on blood flow.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict the effects of changes in resistance and cardiac output on blood pressure.

48.6 Physical Properties of Gases 1. List the relative amounts of each gas that make up the majority of the air we breathe.

2. Define partial pressure, and explain how it is calculated.

3. Describe the three factors that determine how much gas dissolves in a solution. 48.7 Types of Respiratory Systems

1. Describe the different ways in which animals obtain oxygen from the environment. 2. CoreSKILLS » Diagram the countercurrent exchange that occurs in gill ventilation.

3. State Boyle’s law, and explain how it relates to ventilation in air-breathing vertebrates. 48.8 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Respiratory System

1. Describe the components of the mammalian respiratory system and the structure of the mammalian

lung.

2. Outline the process of ventilation in mammalian lungs. 48.9 Mechanisms of Gas Transport in Blood

1. Describe the characteristics of respiratory pigments. 2. CoreSKILL » Analyze the quantitative relationship between oxygen and hemoglobin, and explain how

certain factors can modify the shape of the dissociation curve. 3. Write the reversible reaction between hemoglobin and O2. 4. Describe the ways in which CO2 is carried in blood.

48.10 Control of Ventilation 1. Describe the role of respiratory centers and chemoreceptors in the regulation of ventilation.

48.11 Impact on Public Health 1. Define hypertension and atherosclerosis, and explain their impacts on human health.

2. List the causes, symptoms, and current medical treatments for myocardial infarction (MI), or heart

attack.

3. Outline the causes, symptoms, and current treatments of asthma.

4. Discuss the impact of smoking tobacco on respiratory health.

Chapter 49 Excretory Systems

49.1 Excretory Systems in Different Animal Groups 1. Describe the forms of nitrogenous wastes generated by animals.

2. Describe the general processes of filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.

3. Identify several invertebrate osmoregulatory organs, and compare and contrast the process of

elimination in each.

4. Recognize the general structural and functional features of kidneys that are common to all vertebrates.

49.2 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Kidney 1. Name the primary components of the urinary system in mammals and describe the major anatomical

features of the human kidney.

2. Describe how the structural features of different parts of a nephron relate to specific functions in the

formation of urine.

3. Explain how the actions of two hormones, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), mediate the final

composition of urine.

4. CoreSKILLS » Predict the effects of changes in the blood concentrations of aldosterone and antidiuretic

hormone on the osmolarity of blood.

49.3 Impact on Public Health 1. Describe several common health issues related to diseases of the kidneys.

2. CoreSKILLS » Diagram the process of hemodialysis, and predict its strengths and limitations.

Chapter 50 Endocrine Systems

50.1 Types of Hormones and Their Mechanisms of Action 1. List some of the major endocrine glands found in animals and the hormones they secrete. 2. List and give examples of the three different chemical classes of hormones, and describe some of their

structural differences.

3. Describe the cellular location of receptors for lipid-soluble hormones and receptors for water-soluble

hormones.

50.2 Links Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems

1. Describe the anatomical connections among the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, and anterior pituitary

gland.

2. Describe the role of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland in regulation of endocrine function.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict what would happen to the secretion of each hormone of the anterior pituitary gland

if the special blood connection between that gland and the hypothalamus was severed.

4. List some of the major functions of the hormones of the posterior pituitary.

50.3 Hormonal Control of Metabolism and Energy Balance 1. Explain how the structure of the thyroid gland is linked to its function (synthesis of thyroid hormone).

2. Describe the important anatomical features of the thyroid gland and the major function of thyroid

hormone in adult animals.

3. List the hormones produced by the pancreas and adrenal glands, and provide a brief description of the

major metabolic functions of each.

4. Core Skill » Identify one or more ways in which type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus can be distinguished if an individual shows symptoms of diabetes.

50.4 Hormonal Control of Mineral Balance 1. Describe the hormonal control of Ca2+ homeostasis.

2. Explain the regulation in the kidneys of Na+ and K+ balance by antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and

atrial natriuretic factor.

50.5 Hormonal Control of Growth and Development 1. List and describe the function of the polypeptide hormones involved in the regulation of growth and

development in vertebrates.

2. Identify the functions of the three major hormones that control growth and development in insects.

50.6 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 1. List the male and female sex steroids, their sites of production, and their functions in reproductive

development.

2. CoreSKILLS » Propose a mechanism by which hormones can link nutrition with reproduction.

50.7 Impact on Public Health 1. Name several hormones used therapeutically, and identify the disease or health problem for which they

are prescribed.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict the risks associated with the misuse of hormones and with exposure to endocrine

disruptors in the environment.

Chapter 51 Animal Reproduction and Development

51.1 Overview of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction 1. Describe several differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

2. CoreSKILLS » Propose a hypothesis explaining why most animals reproduce by sexual reproduction.

51.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization 1. Outline the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

2. CoreSKILLS » Propose reasons why internal fertilization is advantageous.

51.3 Human Reproductive Structure and Function 1. Describe the structure of the human male reproductive tract.

2. Outline the process of hormonal control of the male reproductive system.

3. Describe the structure of the human female reproductive tract.

4. Diagram the sequence of events of the ovarian cycle.

5. Outline the process of hormonal control of the reproductive cycle of the human female.

6. Explain how maternal hormones prepare the uterus to accept the embryo.

51.4 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals 1. Explain the relationship between the fetal and maternal structures of the placenta.

2. Outline the hormonal control of the birth process.

51.5 General Events of Embryonic Development 1. Describe the general events of embryonic development, and identify the end result of each.

2. Describe the process of cleavage, beginning at fertilization and leading to gastrulation.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict the fates of cells in a gastrula as they differentiate into the three major germ layers.

4. Outline the early development of the nervous system during neurulation.

5. Describe the migration and fates of neural crest cells.

51.6 Impact on Public Health 1. Explain the most common causes of human infertility. 2. Compare the different types of birth control, and explain their mechanisms of pregnancy prevention.

Chapter 52 Immune Systems

52.1 Types of Pathogens 1. List the three main types of pathogens that elicit immune responses, and briefly describe how each

damages its host organism.

52.2 Innate Immunity 1. Identify the general characteristics of innate defense mechanisms in animals.

2. Explain how an animal’s body surface provides protection from pathogens.

3. Describe the process of phagocytosis, and explain its importance in innate immune responses.

4. List the cell types involved in innate immunity and identify the functions of each.

5. Identify the correct sequence of the events in the inflammatory response.

6. Describe the role of Toll proteins in innate immunity.

52.3 Adaptive Immunity 1. Describe the components of the immune system that provide adaptive immunity, including the major

classes of lymphocytes.

2. Outline the three stages of the adaptive immune response.

3. Compare and contrast the humoral immune response with the cell-mediated immune response.

4. CoreSKILLS » Explain how the structures of different immunoglobulins allow predictions to be made

about their functions.

5. Explain how genetic rearrangement creates a diverse set of antibodies in mammals.

6. Describe how B and T cells that recognize self molecules are destroyed.

7. CoreSKILLS » Predict the benefit of secondary immune responses, and explain the function of memory

cells in these responses.

52.4 Impact on Public Health 1. CoreSKILLS » Predict the influences of lifestyle on immunity.

2. Explain the role of the immune system in organ transplant rejection and allergic reactions.

3. Describe the effects of HIV on a human immune system, and describe current methods of treating HIV

infection.

Chapter 53 Integrated Responses of Animal Organ Systems to a Challenge to Homeostasis

53.1 Effects of Hemorrhage on Blood Pressure and Organ Function 1. Explain why a decrease in blood pressure can be dangerous. 2. CoreSKILL » Predict changes that may occur to an animal’s blood pressure when its blood volume is

increased or decreased, and explain why.

53.2 The Rapid Phase of the Homeostatic Response to Hemorrhage 1. Define baroreceptors, and describe where they are located in mammals. 2. CoreSKILL » Predict what will happen to the firing rate of baroreceptors if blood volume is increased or

decreased. 3. Describe the baroreceptor reflex in mammals, its dependence on the nervous system, and the changes it

induces in the function of the circulatory system. 4. Compare the distribution of blood to different organs before and after hemorrhage. 5. Explain the mechanisms that cause redistribution of blood between organs. 6. Describe how the structures of the respiratory system contribute to restoring pressure following

hemorrhage. 53.3 The Secondary Phase of the Homeostatic Response to Hemorrhage

1. Explain how the endocrine and urinary systems help restore blood volume. 2. Describe how and why water moves between body fluid compartments after a hemorrhage. 3. Describe the mechanism by which hematocrit decreases and then returns to normal, and explain how

this mechanism depends on the endocrine and muscular-skeletal systems. 4. List some changes in the functions of the reproductive, integumentary, and digestive systems that

compensate for hemorrhage. 53.4 Impact on Public Health

1. Explain the relation between the degree of hemorrhage and its consequences in a human. 2. Describe procedures used to help restore normal circulatory function in humans after a large

hemorrhage.

Chapter 54 An Introduction to Ecology and Biomes

54.1 The Scale of Ecology 1. Describe and differentiate between the different scales at which ecologists work.

54.2 Ecological Methods 1. CoreSKILLS » Explain how the five steps of hypothesis testing discussed in Chapter 1 can be applied to an

ecological research project.

54.3 The Environment’s Effect on the Distribution of Organisms 1. Give examples of how extremes of temperature, both low and high, drastically affect the distribution and

abundance of organisms.

2. Explain how other environmental factors, such as wind, water availability, light availability, salt

concentration, and pH of soil and water, can affect the distributions of organisms.

54.4 Climate and Its Relationship to Biological Communities 1. Explain how global temperature differentials drive atmospheric circulation.

2. Explain how both mountains and large bodies of water can change local temperature and precipitation

patterns.

54.5 Major Biomes 1. CoreSKILLS » Predict how changes in temperature and rainfall affect the distribution patterns of

terrestrial biomes.

2. Discuss how changes in water salinity, oxygen content, depth, and current affect aquatic biomes.

54.6 Biogeography 1. Describe how the distribution of species on Earth may result from continental drift.

2. Explain the concept of biogeographical regions.

Chapter 55 Behavioral Ecology

55.1 The Influence of Genetics and Learning on Behavior

1. Describe the differences among innate behavior, conditioning, and learning.

2. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

3. Give examples of how genetics and learning influence most behaviors.

55.2 Local Movement and Long-Range Migration 1. Distinguish between kinesis and taxis, two different types of local movement.

2. Describe the three mechanisms animals use during migration.

3. CoreSKILLS » Analyze experiments that determine whether animals learn using visual or olfactory clues.

55.3 Foraging Behavior and Defense of Territory 1. Describe and give examples of optimal foraging.

2. Explain how the risk of predation prevents optimal foraging in some species.

3. Outline the costs and benefits of defending a territory.

55.4 Communication 1. Give examples of how animals use chemical, auditory, visual, and tactile communication.

55.5 Living in Groups 1. Outline the costs and benefits of living in groups.

55.6 Altruism 1. CoreSKILLS » Evaluate the arguments for and against the concept of group selection.

2. Describe how the concept of kin selection can explain altruistic behavior.

3. CoreSKILLS » Predict which types of relatives are more or less likely to be the recipients of apparent

altruistic acts.

4. Explain why eusociality is a form of altruism.

55.7 Mating Systems 1. Compare and contrast promiscuous, monogamous, polygynous, and polyandrous mating systems.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict the circumstances that favor polygyny.

Chapter 56 Population Ecology

56.1 Understanding Populations 1. List the different techniques ecologists use to measure population density.

2. CoreSKILLS » Calculate population size using mark-recapture data, and understand the limitations of this

technique.

3. Identify the three main patterns of dispersion observed in nature.

4. Describe the difference between semelparity and iteroparity— two different reproductive strategies.

56.2 Demography 1. Describe the difference between information summarized in a life table and in a survivorship curve.

2. Differentiate among type I, II, and III survivorship curves, and give examples of organisms that exhibit

those survivorship curves.

3. CoreSKILLS » Use survivorship and age-specific fertility data to predict a population's growth.

56.3 How Populations Grow 1. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the population growth of continuously breeding organisms using the per capita

growth rate (r).

2. Distinguish between exponential growth and logistic growth.

3. Explain how density-dependent factors and density-independent factors regulate population size.

4. Compare and contrast life history strategies of r-selected and K-selected species.

Chapter 57 Species Interactions

57.1 Competition

1. Describe the different types of competition that occur in nature.

2. CoreSKILLS » Predict how the competitive exclusion principle can lead to resource partitioning among

species.

3. Give examples of how morphological differences may allow species to coexist.

57.2 Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism 1. List and describe strategies animals use to avoid predation.

2. Give examples of the effects of predators on prey populations.

3. Explain why plants and herbivores are said to be in an “evolutionary arms race.”

4. Describe variations on the parasitic lifestyle.

57.3 Mutualism and Commensalism 1. Distinguish between the different types of mutualism in nature.

2. Give examples of the species interaction called commensalism.

57.4 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Control 1. Explain the differences between bottom-up control and top-down control as conceptual models of how

species interactions limit population size.

Chapter 58 Communities and Ecosystems: Ecological Organization on Large Scales

58.1 Patterns of Species Richness and Species Diversity 1. Identify the latitudinal gradient of species richness.

2. List and describe four hypotheses for observed patterns of species richness.

3. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the Shannon diversity index.

58.2 Species Richness and Community Stability 1. Describe the diversity-stability hypothesis, and evaluate the evidence supporting it.

58.3 Succession: Community Change 1. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.

2. Compare and contrast facilitation, inhibition, and tolerance as mechanisms of succession.

58.4 Island Biogeography 1. CoreSKILLS » Interpret a graph that illustrates the equilibrium model of island biogeography.

2. List the three predictions of the model, and discuss how well the evidence supports each one.

58.5 Food Webs and Energy Flow 1. Compare and contrast food chains and food webs, and distinguish primary producers and primary,

secondary, and tertiary consumers.

2. CoreSKILLS » Calculate the efficiency of consumers as energy transformers in two ways.

3. List and describe the different types of ecological pyramids.

58.6 Biomass Production in Ecosystems 1. Describe the factors that limit primary production in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 2. Explain the fate of most primary production.

Chapter 59 The Age of Humans

59.1 Human Population Growth 1. Describe how differences in age structure and human fertility across different countries affect human

population growth. 2. Explain the concept of an ecological footprint.

59.2 Global Warming and Climate Change 1. Describe how the greenhouse effect contributes to global warming. 2. Explain how global warming may affect sea levels and precipitation patterns. 3. Predict how climate change will change species distribution patterns.

59.3 Pollution and Human Influences on Biogeochemical Cycles 1. Outline the steps of the carbon cycle, and describe the environmental effects of elevated atmospheric

concentrations of CO2.

2. Describe the processes of the water cycle, and explain how they are affected by humans.

3. Describe the role of phosphorus in lake eutrophication.

4. List the five main steps of the nitrogen cycle, and identify the human influences on it.

59.4 Pollution and Biomagnification 1. Define biomagnification, and explain its relationship to pollution.

59.5 Habitat Destruction 1. Identify the main causes of habitat destruction by humans. 2. Explain why tropical deforestation is a particularly destructive form of habitat loss. 3. Describe how the impact of agriculture causes ecological changes.

59.6 Overexploitation 1. Outline the main causes of overexploitation of plant and animal populations. 2. Describe examples of the overexploitation of animals and plants. 3. CoreSKILL » Calculate the maximum sustainable yield of a population based on its carrying capacity and

per capita rate of increase. 59.7 Invasive Species

1. Define introduced species and invasive species. 2. Compare and contrast invasive species as competitors, as predators, and as pathogens.

Chapter 60 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

60.1 Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem Diversity

1. List and describe the three levels of biodiversity.

60.2 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1. CoreSKILLS » Create graphical representations of possible relationships between biodiversity level and

ecosystem function.

2. Describe experimental evidence that shows how species diversity and ecosystem function are linked.

60.3 Value of Biodiversity to Human Welfare 1. Outline the benefits of biological diversity to human welfare.

60.4 Conservation Strategies 1. List and describe the criteria that conservation biologists use to identify areas for protection

2. Explain how the principles of island biogeography and landscape ecology are used to create nature

preserves.

3. Describe different approaches conservation biologists use to protect individual species.

4. Define restoration ecology, and describe the approaches used to restore degraded ecosystems and

populations of species.

5. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using cloning as a conservation strategy to help save endangered species.