Writing a brief position paper in John West ( History 1 )

Reacting to the Past Mini-Game in Development

Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676-1677

Game Book

Compiled and edited by Dr. Kathryn Sikes HIST 2010: U.S. History I (Colonization to 1877)

Middle Tennessee State University 2018

“Virginia and Maryland As It is Planted and Inhabited This Present Year 1670,” inset from a map drafted by Augustine Herrman.

Table of Contents SECTION I ......................................................................................................................... 1 Prologue to the Game .......................................................................................................... 1 About Reacting to the Past .................................................................................................. 3 Rules of the Game ............................................................................................................... 3 Schedule .............................................................................................................................. 5 Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................ 5 Editor’s Note on Primary Source Excerpts that Appear in this Booklet ............................. 6 Letter from Richard Frethorne to His Parents, March 20, 1623 ......................................... 6

SECTION II ...................................................................................................................... 10 A Servant Uprising in Virginia, 1640 ............................................................................... 10 Anthony Johnson vs. John Casar, 1655 ............................................................................ 11 Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General Assembly, 1661-1676 .............................. 13 SECTION III ..................................................................................................................... 16 Historical Timeline Leading up to Game Play ................................................................. 16 Political Background on Bacon’s Rebellion ..................................................................... 17 Interpreting the Causes and Legacy of Bacon’s Rebellion ............................................... 19 Bacon’s Rebellion Writing Assignment Topics ............................................................... 20 English Navigation Acts (Optional Reading) ................................................................... 22 A Discourse and View of Virginia, 1663 (Optional Reading) .......................................... 23 Enquiries to the Governor of Virginia, 1670 (Optional Reading) .................................... 26

SECTION IV .................................................................................................................... 30 Strange News From Virginia, 1677 .................................................................................. 30 A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, 1677 ................................................ 32 The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion, 1705 ........................... 33 Account of the Indian Troubles, June 1676 ...................................................................... 36 Declaration and Remonstrance, June 1676 ....................................................................... 37 Letter from Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister, June 1676 ..................................................... 39

SECTION V ...................................................................................................................... 41 The Declaration of the People, July 1676 ......................................................................... 41 Petitions of Grievances, February 1677 ............................................................................ 43

SECTION VI .................................................................................................................... 45 Minutes of the Virginia General Assembly, February 1677. ............................................ 45 The Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation), May 1677 ..................................... 47

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 53 Recommended Further Reading (NOT REQUIRED) ...................................................... 53 Editor’s Notes on Source Material .................................................................................... 53 Other Works Used in the Development of this Game ...................................................... 58

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SECTION I “This plantation is wholly built upon smoke, tobacco being the only means it has produced.” – Charles I, letter to the Governor and Council of Virginia, 1627 “As for the usage of the Servants, it is much as the Master is, merciful or cruel. Those that are merciful, treat their Servants well, both in their meat, drink, and lodging, and give them such work, as is not unfit for Christians to do. But if the Masters be cruel, the Servants have very wearisome and miserable lives.” – Richard Ligon describing the “usage” of indentured servitude on British colonial plantations in A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados, 1657. Prologue to the Game (by Kathryn Sikes)

The year is 1676. The sun has awoken you early this hot summer morning on the banks of the James River in the land of Virginia. You stretch your arms as you prepare to meet the day. Absently tapping yesterday’s ashes out of your pipe, you fill it again with fresh, sweet tobacco as you mull over the troubling events of the past few months. The young rebel Nathaniel Bacon has defied the aging royal governor, Sir William Berkeley by launching an unauthorized war on Virginia Indians. Now, after many months, this insurrection threatens the very stability of the colony. Bacon’s forces are poised to attack the Governor’s own army in a cascade of violence that is eerily reminiscent of the late civil wars in England, where anarchy ruled in the absence of a monarch. Everything is at risk, and you know you must now take a stand. Lighting up, you take the first puff of the day to help you think…

This colony may now be English under King Charles II’s restored throne, but its people are a cosmopolitan mix, braving a new world of strangely intertwined global connections. As you in inhale deeply to ease your nerves, you overhear two men speaking Algonquian in the distance. They are probably Indian “bowmen” hired to exterminate Virginia’s wolves on plantations that they once called “Tsenacommacah,” which translates loosely in English as “the land where we live close together.” Or, perhaps they are hunting deer or beaver for the fur trade that lines the purses of the colony’s elite men of wealth (including the Governor). You consider that Indian political power within the colony continues to dwindle. Once united under Powhatan and his successor, the brilliant war werowance Oppecancough, Virginia Indians splintered into tribal factions a generation ago, each tribe following its own leader. Without a common political alliance and a unified agenda to protect them in negotiations with Governor Berkeley and his Council, they now struggle to broker a peace that will end Bacon’s ruthless raids.

Everyone is aware that despite Bacon’s standing as the planter of a large estate who has previously held political office, the bulk of his army is made up of servants, the lower class majority of the Virginia colony. These laborers are easily tempted by the spoils of war to leave a life where most of their waking hours are spent plowing, planting,

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weeding, and watering endless fields of tobacco to be exported for a profit that they will never see themselves. They are English, Scottish, Irish, and African in origin, and despite their diverse roots, they often work, eat, and sleep side by side. In this common laborers’ life, they share a growing resentment of elite landholders’ abuses of power. Periods of their indenture contracts are often extended. In fact, you seem to recall that just before the rebellion broke out in February, Virginia’s legislature, the General Assembly, was compelled to pass a law “limiting masters’ dealing with their servants," to prevent masters from tricking servants serving under indenture into extending their time under false bargains. With extensions of time, headright lands and “freedom dues” are also delayed, as is the hope of freedom to raise families and prosper. Bacon has exploited these simmering antipathies to his advantage in seeking volunteer mercenaries for his cause. Some of the men fighting side by side for Bacon are being called “slaves for life!” What have they to lose? Their time in service cannot possibly be extended as punishment for this mutiny! Bacon knows the value of a soldier who would rather die than continue as he is, and he promises these men immediate gains in the form of seized Indian land, crops, and war captives.

The landholding “planters” (who have been so eager to gather laborers to work their land and so reluctant to let them go) have strong incentives behind their actions. Cheap labor is the only thing keeping them afloat. The plummeting price of tobacco along with high export and import taxes has many at their wits’ end. The English Navigation Acts of the 1650s-1660s have exacerbated this. Because they legally require colonists to ship their goods only in English ships (and no longer in Dutch or other foreign vessels), English shipping merchants now have a monopoly on Virginia’s tobacco trade. Without any competition, they may raise the prices on shipping and imported goods as high as they please, and offer very low compensation for tobacco in return. This has left small planters discontent, to say the least.

Even Virginia’s elites with large estates on the best riverfront land are in turmoil. While they also often grumble of the high taxes and duties, many of them have been able to offset these costs by extending credit to smaller planters, keeping men of modest means in their debt and their service. They generally view Bacon as reckless. To join him in open defiance of Berkeley is surely treason against King and country. After all, the Royal Governor, Sir William, was appointed by the King and is the King’s representative in his absence. Bacon’s actions also threaten the fur trade with the Indians from which many wealthy established planters profit, but his growing popularity among the populace is undeniable and the large forces he has amassed may compel even members of the Governor’s council to change their allegiance if they wish to keep their heads attached to their bodies! Further, the growing civil war within the colony threatens them with the loss of their public offices, their servants, and perhaps even their lands and homes if they fail to judge the political situation correctly by following a man who eventually loses his authority. Some who are favored with power and wealth simply want to continue in that life of comfort. The question, as Bacon gathers his armies against the Governor’s, is what is the best means to that end?

Deep in thought, you extinguish the glowing ember in your pipe bowl and head to Jamestown. It is time lobby others to your cause. Too much is at stake to remain passive.

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About Reacting to the Past Reacting to the Past (RTTP) is a series of historical role-playing games. Bacon’s Rebellion 1676-1677 is a new “mini-game” in the early stages of development. You are welcome to give feedback and suggestions in the interest of improving the game before it is “play-tested” beyond MTSU. In RTTP games, students are placed in moments of historical controversy. The class becomes a public forum for the discussion of larger historical issues. Students, in role, become particular persons from the period. Their purpose is to convey the interests and motives of their characters, advance policy agendas, and achieve their victory objectives. To do so, they will read primary sources, write brief position papers, and participate in debates and negotiations, all the while working to win the game. Because you are making real decisions for your character, not merely reenacting what actually happened, outcomes sometimes differ from the actual history. This is necessary in order to understand your character’s challenges and motives, and the contingency of history. (The course of historical events could have taken a different turn.) A post- mortem session at the end of the game will set the record straight. Rules of the Game

• Once the game begins, certain characters will preside over the day’s events.

Students are in control! Your professor will not lead the class during game play. Instead, (s)he will remain to the sidelines and act as the Game Master (GM). As GM, (s)he will establish the ground rules and the day’s agenda. (S)he may also lend advice if asked, pass notes to spur a character to action, announce the effect of a character’s actions, or in unusual cases interrupt if any proceedings that have gone off track.

• Read your character’s required assigned background material and primary documents before the game begins. You may reread these materials throughout the game. A second reading while in role will deepen your understanding and alter your perspective: ideas take on a different aspect when seen through the eyes of a partisan actor.

• In order to achieve your objectives, outlined in your role sheet, you must persuade others to support you. You must speak with others, because no character rolesheet contains all that you need to know to succeed, and no interest group will have the strength to prevail without learning from allies. Collaboration and coalition- building based on common interest are at the heart of this game.

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• Characters who die may continue to “haunt” the game, lending advice to their allies in order to try to achieve their objectives. They may not, however, sign any “mockuments” (fake documents), vote, or take any physical or economic action.

• Remember this is only a game and that you and the other players are merely

playing roles. When they offer criticisms, they are not criticizing you as a person. Their characters simply don’t share your characters’ views. Similarly, you must never criticize another person in the game, but you will likely be obliged to criticize their viewpoint. (For example, never say, “Sally is being ridiculous,” but feel free to say, “Governor Berkeley’s argument is ridiculous!”

• No personal insults.

Ø For example, you may play a character who thinks Berkeley is corrupt and who opposes the English laws Berkeley is in charge of overseeing in Virginia. You should state this forcefully and give your reasons. However, you may not call Governor Berkeley names, swear at him, etc. This is the General Assembly, not a playground.

Ø Under no circumstances are any characters, whatever their historical views, permitted to use racist terms in the classroom. For example, your character may have thought of the Pamunkey as “savages” (a term that initially meant “natural,” wild, or non-Christian but is now derogatory and offensive). In game play, however, it is your character’s motives and reasoning that count, not their ability to offend, so you may not use the word “savage” simply to provoke anger. You must give economic or political reasons why you want to drive the “friendly” Pamunkey out of the colony. Base your statements on facts, not emotionally provocative language.

• Do not bring your true identity into the game.

Ø For instance, it would be completely inappropriate to bargain for

allegiances or votes by saying “Come on… we’re friends on the same basketball team outside of class and you need me on your good side on the court!”

Ø Even if you are confused or need to check something specific, try not

to break character. Stay in the 17th century. You can express confusion as your character and solicit help from another character you trust.

• Have fun! You get the chance to glimpse what it would be like to be somebody

else during this game! (And it’s not permanent!)

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Schedule DAY 1 From Indian War to Civil War (June 1676)

Native Virginians report on the Indian War that has been raging throughout the colony. Nathaniel Bacon and his forces have assembled at Jamestown, where the Governor is presiding over the General Assembly. . The Indian raids now threaten to become a civil war. You will seek your allies today, and agree upon the most pressing issues and demands. The Governor and Bacon must solicit allegiances in order to gather their forces.

DAY 2 Rebels on Trial (November 1676)

Loyalist members of the General Assembly capture some rebels and try them in General Court. The accused have the right to defend themselves in court before verdicts and sentences are announced.

DAY 3 Negotiating the Treaty of Middle Plantation (May 28, 1677).

Indian leaders must negotiate with the English to end the state of war in the colony.

Learning Objectives This game will help you to understand the following:

Ø The structure of Virginia’s colonial government and restrictions on colonial voting rights.

Ø How radical new concepts of race that shaped American history

replaced older power structures based on class, religion, native language, and foreign status.

Ø The variety of systems of labor present in British colonies (including

indenture, war captivity, sentences of service upon conviction, and chattel slavery).

Ø The motivations behind colonial alliances with Native people (such as

the fur trade) as well as the issues leading to warfare against them.

Ø Common challenges faced by colonized Native people that recur throughout American history (including disputes over Indian political sovereignty and dispossession of land by force).

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Editor’s Note on Primary Source Excerpts that Appear in this Booklet Primary sources are those that were written before or during the time period that our game takes place. They are the best evidence for what happened in the late 1670s because they are the eyewitness accounts of people who were there. In this booklet, the titles of historical document excerpts are always followed by the date in the 1600s when they were originally written so that you know they are primary sources. Some of these sources may even have been written by the person whose character you are about to play in our game. Because today’s English is a bit different from the English of the 1600s, all of the excerpts of historical documents that appear in this gamebook have been modernized for clarity. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar have been altered somewhat to make these texts easier for 21st-century students to understand. Some abbreviations have been spelled out. Italicized font indicates quotation of the primary source. Any preceding editor’s notes on the significance of the source appear in plain font. An ellipsis (…) indicates where the document has been excerpted and text has been omitted. Brackets [ ] indicate where an older word or ambiguous phrase has been replaced with modern wording to read more clearly. For further information on the original sources (full published transcripts) for these excerpts, see the section “Editor’s Notes on Source Material” that appears in the bibliography at the end of this booklet. Letter from Richard Frethorne to His Parents, March 20, 1623 Richard Frethorne was an English servant indentured to Martin’s Hundred, a plantation near Jamestown, in the aftermath of the 1622 Powhatan Indian Uprising, when Opechancanough (Cockacoeske’s uncle) had led the Powhatan tribes in coordinated attacks against English plantations like Martin’s Hundred to try to force the colonists to leave Virginia or submit to Powhatan rule. Richard is estimated to have been around 12- 14 years old when he wrote this frantic plea to his parents to raise money for his return home. Loving and kind father and mother, My most humble duty remembered to you hoping in God of your good health… This is to let you understand that I, your Child, am in a most heavy case by reason of the nature of the country. [It] is such that it caused much sickness, as the scurvy and the bloody flux, and diverse other diseases, which makes the body very poor, and weak, and when we are sick there is nothing to comfort us; for since I came out of the ship, I never ate anything but peas, and loblolly (that is water

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gruel). As for deer or venison, I never saw any since I came into this land. There is indeed some fowl, but we are not allowed to go and get it, but must work hard, both early and late, for a mess of water gruel and a mouthful of bread and beef. A mouthful of bread for a penny loaf must serve for 4 men which is most pitiful. If you did know as much as I, when people cry out day and night: Oh that they were in England without their limbs and would not care to lose any limb to be in England again! Yea, though they beg from door to door, for we live in fear of the enemy [Virginia Indians] every hour, yet we have had a combat with them on the Sunday before Shrovetide [the beginning of Lent], and we took two alive and made slaves of them, but it was by policy, for we are in great danger, for our plantation is very weak, by reason of the dearth, and sickness of our company… When two more should go, yet there came some for other men yet to live with us, of which there is but one alive, and our Lieutenant is dead, and his father, and his brother, and there was some 5 or 6 of the last year’s 20 of which there is but 3 left, so that we are fain to get other men to plant with us, and yet we are but 32 to fight against 3000 if they [Virginia Indians] should come, and the nearest help that we have is ten miles [from] us, and when the rogues overcame this place last, they slew 80 persons.

How then shall we do? For we lie even in their teeth! They may easily take us but that God is merciful, and can save with few as well as with many; as he showed to Gilead and like Gilead[s] soldiers if they lapped water, we drink water which is but weak, and I have nothing to comfort me, nor there is nothing to be gotten here but sickness, and death, except that one had money to lay out in some things for profit. But I have nothing at all! No not a shirt to my back but two rags, nor no clothes, but one poor suite, nor but one pair of shoes, but one pair of stockings, but one cap, but two bands, my cloak is stolen by one of my own fellows, and to his dying hour would not tell me what he did with it but some of my fellows saw him have butter and beef out of a ship, which my cloak I doubt paid for, so that I have not a penny, nor a penny worth to help me to either spice, or sugar, or strong waters, without the which one cannot live here, for as strong bear in England doth fatten and strengthen them so water here doth wash and weaken this here, only keep life and soul together. But I am not half a quarter so strong as I was in England, and all is for want of victuals [food], for I do protest unto you, that I have eaten more in day at home then I have allowed me here for a week.

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You have given more than my day’s allowance to a beggar at the door; and if Mr. Jackson had not relieved me, I should be in a poor case, but he like a father and she like a loving mother does still help me, for when we go up to James Towne that is 10 miles [from] us, there lie all the ships that come to the land, and there they must deliver their good[s]. And when we went up to town as it may be on Monday, at noon, and come there by night, then load the next day by night noon, and go home in the afternoon, and unload, and then away again in the night, and be up about midnight, then if it rained, or blowed ever so hard we must lie in the boat on the water, and have nothing but a little bread, for when we go into the boat we have a loaf allowed to two men, and it is all if we stayed there 2 days, which is hard, and must lie all that while in the boat, but … Goodman Jackson pitied me & made me a cabin to lie in always when I come up, and he would give me some poor [sailor’s] home with me which comforted me more than peas or water gruel. Oh they be very godly folks, and love me very well, and will do anything for me, and he much marveled that you would send me a servant to the company, he says I had been better knocked on the head, and indeed so I find it now to my great grief and misery, and say that if you love me you will redeem me suddenly, for which I do entreat and beg, and if you cannot get the merchant[s] to redeem me for some little money then for God[s] sake get a gathering or entreat some good folk to lay out some little sum of money, in meal, and cheese and butter, and beef, any eating meat will yield great profit, oil and vinegar is very good. But father, there is great loss in leaking… For God’s sake send beef and cheese and butter or the more of one sort and none of another, but if you send cheese it must be very old cheese, and at the cheese monger’s you may buy good cheese for two pence farthing or half a penny that will be liked very well, but if you send cheese you must have a care how you pack it in barrels, and you must put cooper’s chips between every cheese or else the heat of the [ship’s] hold will rot them, and look whatsoever you send me be it newer so much look what I make of it I will deal truly with you I will send it over, and beg the profit to redeem me, and if I die before it … I have entreated Goodman Jackson to send you the worth of it, who hath promised he will.

If you send, you must direct your letters to Goodman Jackson, at Jamestown… because there be more of his name there. Good father do not forget me, but have mercy and pity my miserable case. I know if you did but see me you would weep to see me, for I have but one suit, but it is a strange one. It is very well guarded… For God’s sake pity me! I pray you to remember my love to all my friends and kindred. I hope all my Brothers and Sisters are in good health, and as

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for my part I have set down my resolution that certainly will be, that is, that the answer of this letter will be life or death to me, therefore good father send as soon as you can, and if you send me anything let this be the mark. Richard Frethorne Martin’s Hundred How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Frethorne, Richard, “Letter from Richard Frethorne to His Parents, March 20, 1623,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 6-9. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Frethorne “Letter,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Frethorne, Richard. “Letter from Richard Frethorne to His Parents, March 20, 1623.” In

Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 6-9. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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SECTION II The following two court records provide vivid accounts of attempts by early colonial laborers to escape to freedom. They illustrate several important points: 1) Servants resisted their “masters;” 2) Runaway laborers of any ethnic background could have their time of service extended, or they could be condemned to serve a second indenture to the colonial government following the completion of their first contract; 3) Laborers of European and African descent who lived and worked together often collaborated to oppose the landholding “planter” class—they did not lead racially segregated lives; 4) Court-ordered punishments of runaway Europeans and Africans at this early date are similar—they do not yet show racial discrimination under the law; and 5) The earliest Catholic West Central African arrivals to Virginia (men like Anthony Johnson) must have been treated as indentured laborers, not “slaves for life,” because they became free landowners later on. Johnson’s legal rights as a landowning “master” were upheld by the court in a manner that was typical for men of English ancestry. Collectively, these court decisions show that the system of hereditary slavery for life based on race that would develop later was not yet in place, or at least it was not widespread prior to the 1660s. A Servant Uprising in Virginia, 1640 General Court of Virginia Whereas complaint has been made to this Board by Capt. William Pierce Esquire that six of his servants and a negro of Mr Reynolds has plotted to run away unto the Dutch plantation from their said masters and did assay to put the same in Execution upon Saturday night being the 18th day July 1640 as appeared to the Board by Examinations of Andrew Noxe, Richard Hill, Richard Cookson and John Williams and likewise by confession of Christopher Miller, Peter Wilcocke, and Emanuel the foresaid Negro who had at the fore said time, taken the skiff of the said Capt. William Pierce their master, and corn powder and shot and guns, to accomplish their said purposes, which said persons sailed down in the said skiff to Elizabeth river where they were taken and brought back again, the Court taking the same into consideration, as a dangerous precedent for the future time (if unpunished) did order that Christopher Miller a Dutchman (a prince agent in the business) should receive the punishment of whipping and to have thirty stripes, and to be burnt in the cheek with the letter R and to work with a shackle on his leg for one whole year, and longer if said master shall see cause and after his full time of service is Expired with his said master to serve the colony for seven whole years, and the said Peter Wilcocke to receive thirty stripes and to be Burnt in the cheek with the letter R and, after his term of service is Expired with his said master to serve the colony for three years and the said Richard Cookson

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after his full time expired with his master to serve the colony for two years and a half, and the said Richard Hill to remain upon his good behavior until the next offence and the said Andrew Noxe to receive thirty stripes, and the said John Williams a Dutchman and a surgeon after his full time of service is Expired with his master to serve the colony for seven years, and Emanuel the Negro to receive thirty stripes and to be burnt in the cheek with the letter R. and to work in shackle one year or more as his master shall see cause, and all those who are condemned to serve the colony after their times are expired with their masters, then their said masters are required hereby to present to this board their said servants so condemned to the colony. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. General Court of Virginia, “A Servant Uprising in Virginia, 1640,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 10-11. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. General Court of Virginia, “Uprising,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: General Court of Virginia. “A Servant Uprising in Virginia, 1640.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 10-11. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

Anthony Johnson vs. John Casar, 1655 Northampton County Court The deposition of Captain Samuel Goldsmith taken (in open court) 8th of March:

[Goldsmith] says, that being at the house of Anthony Johnson, Negro, (about the

beginning of November…) a Negro called John Casar came to [Goldsmith], and

told him that he came into Virginia for seven or eight years (per Indenture) and

that he had demanded his freedom of his master Anthony Johnson; and further

said that Johnson had kept him his servant seven years longer than he ought,

and desired that [Goldsmith] would see that he might have no wrong.

Whereupon [Casar] demanded of Anthony Johnson his Indenture, he answered,

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he never saw any. The said Negro (John Casar) replied, he came for a certain

time and had an Indenture. Anthony Johnson said he never did see any but that

he had him for life. Further [Goldsmith] said that Mr. Robert Parker and George

Parker … knew that the said Negro had an Indenture… And the said Anthony

Johnson did not tell the negro [Casar] go free…

This day Anthony Johnson, Negro, made his complaint to the Court against Mr. Robert Parker and declared that he detained his servant John Casar, Negro… The court, seriously considering and maturely weighing the premises, do find that the said Mr. Robert Parker most unjustly [kept] the said Negro from Anthony Johnson, his master, as appeared by the deposition of Captain Samuel Goldsmith ... It is therefore the judgment of the Court and ordered that the said John Casar, Negro, forthwith return unto the service of his said master Anthony Johnson and that Mr. Robert Parker make payment of all charges in the suit. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Northampton County Court, “Anthony Johnson vs. John Casar, 1655,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 11-12. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Northampton County Court, “Johnson vs. Casar,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Northampton County Court. “Anthony Johnson vs. John Casar, 1655.” In Bacon’s

Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 11-12. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General Assembly, 1661-1676 New laws affecting laborers below were passed in the fifteen years immediately preceding Bacon’s Rebellion. Both the legal concept of race and the practice of racial prejudice begin to appear and develop, with radical consequences for colonial laborers and Virginian society as a whole. March 1661: English Running Away with Negroes Be it enacted that in case any English servant shall run away in company with any Negros who are incapable of making satisfaction by addition of time, …the English so running away in company with them shall serve for the time of the said Negro’s absence…

December 1662: Negro Women’s Children to Serve According to the Condition of the Mother WHEREAS some doubts have arisen whether children got by any Englishman upon a Negro woman should be slave or free, Be it therefore enacted and declared by this present grand assembly, that all children born in this country shall be held bond or free only according to the condition of the mother… If any Christian shall commit fornication with a Negro man or woman, he or she so offending shall pay double the fines… September 1667: An Act Declaring that Baptism of Slaves Does Not Exempt Them from Bondage WHEREAS some doubts have risen whether children that are slaves by birth, and by the charity and piety of their owners made partakers of the blessed sacrament of baptism, should by virtue of their baptism be made free, It is enacted and declared by this grand assembly… that the conferring of baptism does not alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom. Diverse masters, freed from this doubt, may more carefully endeavor the propagation of Christianity by permitting children, though slaves, or those of greater growth if capable to be admitted to that sacrament.

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October 1669: An Act About the Casual Killing of Slaves WHEREAS the only law in force for the punishment of [unmanageable]servants resisting their master, mistress or overseer cannot be inflicted upon Negroes, nor the obstinacy of many of them by other than violent means suppressed, Be it enacted and declared by this grand assembly, if any slave resists his master … and by the extremity of the correction should chance to die, that his death shall not be accounted [as a] felony, but the master (or that other person appointed by the master to punish him) be acquitted from molestation, since it cannot be presumed that …malice (which alone makes murder felony) should induce any man to destroy his own estate. October 1670: No Negroes nor Indians to Buy Christian Servants WHEREAS it hath been questioned whether Indians or Negroes manumitted, or otherwise free, could be capable of purchasing Christian servants, It is enacted that no Negro or Indian though baptized and enjoying their own freedom shall be capable of any such purchase of Christians, yet [they will not be barred] from buying any of their own nation. September 1672: An Act for the Apprehension and Suppression of Runaways, Negroes and Slaves FORASMUCH as it has been manifested to this grand assembly that many Negroes have lately been, and [are now] out in rebellion in sundry parts of this country, and that no means have yet been found for the apprehension and suppression of them from whom many mischiefs of very dangerous consequence may arise to the country if either other Negroes, Indians or servants should happen to fly forth and join with them; for the prevention of which, be it enacted by the governor, council and burgesses of this grand assembly, and by the authority thereof, that if any Negro, mulatto, Indian slave, or servant for life, runaway and shall be pursued by the warrant…it shall and may be lawful for any person who shall endeavor to take them, upon the resistance of such Negro, mulatto, Indian slave, or servant for life, to kill or wound him or them so resisting…”

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February 1677: An act limiting masters dealing with their servants WHEREAS several complaints are made that … masters during the time of … their servants servitude, and more especially some small time before the expiration of their time of service, do by indirect means, make sundry and diverse bargains and agreements with their servants to their own unreasonable advantage, and to the servants great injury, hurt, and damage…. Be it enacted by the governor, council and burgesses of this grand assembly… that …it shall not be lawful for any master of servant or servants, before the time of his first service by indenture is expired and fully ended, to make any bargain or agreement with his servant or servants, either for such servants clothes, corn or otherwise, except …. in the presence of and with the approbation and good liking of some one or more justices of the peace in the county were such master resides, upon the penalty of forfeiting such time of service as shall be due to the master ….. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Virginia General Assembly, “Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General Assembly, 1661-1676,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 13-15. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Virginia General Assembly, “Labor Laws,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Virginia General Assembly. “Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General Assembly,

1661-1676.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 13-15. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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SECTION III Historical Timeline Leading up to Game Play (by James Rice and Martha McCartney) Adapted from Virginia Foundation for the Humanities’ Encyclopedia Virginia. 1675 - By this year, Nathaniel Bacon, with William Byrd, is participating in trade with some of the Indians on the southwestern border of settled Virginia. His antipathy of Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley, who also participates in the trade, may date to this time. March 3, 1675 - Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley appoints Nathaniel Bacon one of several new members of the Governor’s Council. July 1675 - Skirmishes between frontier settlers [including Thomas Matthew] and Doeg and Susquehannock Indians in the Potomac River valley stimulate widespread fear of organized Indian raids. Sometime in Spring 1676 - Nathaniel Bacon and his followers attack the Pamunkey, take captives, and kill some of Cockacoeske's people. To save her own life, the queen abandons her goods and possessions and retreats to the depths of the Dragon Swamp, where she nearly starves to death. March 1676 - The General Assembly meets in Jamestown to prepare for defending the colony. [At the Governor’s urging], the assembly enacts laws to erect forts along the fall line [the western falls of Virginia’s rivers] to try to keep friendly Indians at peace with the colonists and to cut off the Indian trade temporarily to reduce contacts that might flare into conflicts. May 1676 - Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley expels Nathaniel Bacon from the Council and brands him a rebel. Bacon is the leader of militiamen in the upper reaches of the James River valley and is preparing, against the governor's instructions, to attack friendly Indians [including the Pamunkey!]. Sometime in June 1676 - Cockacoeske appears before a committee of burgesses and Council members in Jamestown to discuss how many warriors she could provide to defend the colony against frontier tribes. She gives a speech describing the deaths of Pamunkey warriors killed fighting alongside the colonists. June 5, 1676 - The House of Burgesses gathers in Jamestown. Among the participants is Nathaniel Bacon of Henrico County who, with James Crewes, is engaged in a rebellion against Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley in part over Bacon's intentions to attack Virginia Indians. June 23, 1676 - Nathaniel Bacon returns to Jamestown with 500 men and demands Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley commission him as a general to lead the colony against the Indians.

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Political Background on Bacon’s Rebellion (by James Rice) Reprinted from Virginia Foundation for the Humanities’ Encyclopedia Virginia.

The rebellion traces its origins to 1675 and a trading dispute between the Algonquian-speaking Doeg Indians and the Potomac River planter and merchant Thomas Mathew. As relations worsened, Mathew and his neighbors killed several Indians as they were making away with livestock. The Doegs retaliated by killing one of Mathew's herdsmen. Virginia militia pursued the Doegs to Maryland and attacked their cabin, along with the cabin of innocent Susquehannock Indian hunters, who were taken completely by surprise. In the ensuing war the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks were forced from their town in southern Maryland, taking refuge in the southern piedmont of Virginia and raiding the English frontier.

Virginians, meanwhile, sharply disagreed over the best way to fight the Susquehannock War. When, in March 1676, Governor Sir William Berkeley and the General Assembly set about planning a series of frontier forts and patrols, many objected, arguing that the forts would be expensive and useless. They suspected all Indians, even allied nations living within the colony, of being enemies of the English. In Nathaniel Bacon, an ambitious young newcomer to Virginia who had recently been appointed to the governor's Council, they found a leader. With William Byrd I, Bacon had engaged in the Indian trade. When the Indian raids reached as far south as the falls of the James River and the overseer at one of Bacon's properties, known as Bacon's Quarter, was killed, Bacon's sympathies forever shifted away from the governor and Council and toward those who wanted immediate action against the Indians.

Bacon took command of a band of volunteer militiamen from Charles City and Henrico counties and repeatedly demanded from the governor a commission to "go out forth against the Indians." This behavior greatly annoyed Berkeley, who failed to understand why anyone would allow themselves to be "seduced and carried away by so young, inexperienced, rash, and inconsiderate [a] person" as Bacon. As if he were attempting to live up to that assessment, Bacon proceeded without a commission, pursuing the Susquehannocks to the Roanoke River. There he persuaded the Occaneechi nation, which had long been an important partner in the Virginia trade in skins, furs, and Indian slaves, to attack the Susquehannocks. After the Siouan-speaking Occaneechis returned with Susquehannock prisoners Bacon turned on his allies, indiscriminately killing Occaneechi men, women, and children, and looting their town.

In May, Berkeley declared Bacon to be in rebellion, expelled him from the Governor’s Council, and called for the election of a new House of Burgesses, to convene June 5. Simultaneously, Berkeley invited the forthcoming assembly to join him in petitioning Charles II for a new governor. (If he were at fault, Berkeley figured, then let the people say as much.) Bacon, still a wanted man, was elected a burgess from Henrico County, and his men now controlled much of the colony. In fact, Bacon's armed retainer in Henrico prevented the sheriff there from reading the governor's proclamation condemning Bacon and his men, and they may have intimidated voters into casting their ballots for him.

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The rebels arrived in Jamestown on June 6, but when Bacon attempted to take his seat in what has come to be known as Bacon's Assembly he was captured and, on bended knee, he capitulated. Berkeley returned him to his seat on the governor's Council, but when an assembly member called for Bacon to be granted his long-sought-after commission to fight the Indians, the governor, after some back and forth, refused. Expelled from the Council a second time, Bacon fled Jamestown, assembled a 500-man volunteer army, and returned to the capital on June 23, just as the assembly was wrapping up its business.

In a dramatic scene before the statehouse, burgesses crowded at the windows and watched as Bacon's men drew their arms and Berkeley bared his chest, daring Bacon to shoot him. Up to this point, the burgesses had not been particularly friendly to Bacon, going so far as to issue an endorsement of Berkeley's leadership, but now they feared for their lives. One of the burgesses waved a white handkerchief in surrender, and soon they had agreed to alter the pending legislation to name Bacon "commander in chief of the force raised, and to be raised during this Indian War." Bacon also pushed through a statute pardoning "all treasons" committed since March 1. Berkeley reluctantly agreed.

A war of words followed, with each side making its case in public proclamations and appeals to key officials in London. Encouraged by inhabitants' complaints about Bacon's heavy-handed recruitment and requisitioning of supplies for the Indian war, Berkeley again declared Bacon a rebel late in July. Upon hearing of this, Bacon marched his army to Middle Plantation (present-day Williamsburg), and Berkeley fled to the Eastern Shore. On July 30, Bacon issued the first of a number of declarations of his grievances, which he signed "General, by the consent of the People." And on August 3 he gathered at Middle Plantation many of the colony's leading men, securing the sworn allegiance of seventy of them. The next day, thirty of those seventy called for a new assembly under Bacon's authority. In the meantime, the rebels confiscated the property of twenty leading Berkeley loyalists, whom they identified as traitors. The Susquehannock War had become a civil war.

Dispatching ships to patrol Virginia's waters and to track down Berkeley, Bacon turned his attention once again to the Indians. After a halfhearted gesture toward the Occaneechis and Susquehannocks, whose location was a mystery at this point, Bacon went in hunt of the Pamunkey Indians. Once led by the fearsome Opechancanough, the Pamunkeys had been close allies of the English since their defeat in the Third Anglo- Powhatan War (1644–1646). Now they fled their lands on the Pamunkey River above West Point and led the rebels north into the woods and swamps. After weeks of searching, Bacon's soldiers began to look ineffectual, even inept. Early in September they finally stumbled upon the Pamunkey encampment, killing some, capturing forty-five, and scattering the rest.

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Interpreting the Causes and Legacy of Bacon’s Rebellion (by James Rice) Reprinted from Virginia Foundation for the Humanities’ Encyclopedia Virginia.

From the American Revolution to the 1950s, the most common understanding of Bacon's Rebellion was that it was a precursor of the American Revolution, a premature revolt against British tyranny that represented but a temporary setback for American liberty. …This interpretation still enjoys some popularity. Since the 1950s, however, historians have soundly rejected this interpretation for the simple reason that there is no evidence to support it and much evidence to the contrary. Bacon himself worked hard at presenting his rebellion as being in the king's interests, repeatedly representing it as an uprising against a corrupt governor and his followers, who were the real traitors against the Crown.

The causes and consequences of Bacon's Rebellion were not so simple. Considered from the perspective of the Pamunkeys, Occaneechis, and Susquehannocks, it was obviously about Indians. It was sparked by conflicts with Indians, and Bacon and his followers devoted considerable energy to pursuing Indians. Although the rebellion was suppressed, subsequent governors generally heeded the call of Bacon and his successors for a harsher Indian policy. As Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood summarized the situation, "a Governor of Virginia has to steer between Scylla and Charibdis, either an Indian or a Civil War," for Bacon's Rebellion was caused by Berkeley's "refusing to let the People go out against the Indians." Not coincidentally, Virginia Indians' fortunes declined precipitously in the generation following the rebellion.

Considered from the perspective of Virginia society, the conflict brought to a head problems that had been brewing long before the rebellion. In his History and Present State of Virginia (1705), Robert Beverley Jr., the son of a loyalist officer [Major Beverly] who was at the forefront of the fighting during the winter of 1676–1677, attributed the rebellion to three major causes in addition to "the disturbance given by the Indians": First, The extreme low price of tobacco, and the ill usage of the planters in the exchange of goods for it, which the country, with all their earnest endeavors, could not remedy. Secondly, The splitting the colony into proprieties [the granting of the land on the to private individuals], contrary to the original charters; and the extravagant taxes they were forced to undergo, to relieve themselves from those grants. Thirdly, The heavy restraints and burdens laid upon their trade by act of Parliament in England.

In short, Virginians faced a combination of falling tobacco prices and a heavy tax burden. …As the royal commissioners recognized, taxes [to pay the expenses of the members of the General Assembly] were "Grievous and Burdensome." … Berkeley frankly acknowledged the discontent among the populace, particularly among the small planters who could least afford these extraordinary taxes. Much of the discontent, however, focused not on Berkeley but on the local elites who controlled county governments, which actually levied most of the taxes. When the royal commissioners solicited grievances from the counties after Bacon's Rebellion, they were met by a torrent of complaints about high local taxes that did not seem to benefit the people at large and

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could only be paid in tobacco—a crop the large planters had in abundance, but which others could produce only with great difficulty.

Under these circumstances, Berkeley's plan to build frontier forts struck many frustrated and frightened planters as unhelpful. They figured that it would be cheaper, and perhaps more satisfying, to simply attack Indians wherever they could be found. Bacon's success came largely because of his ability to direct these people's fear and anger toward two targets: Indians and Berkeley, who was, according to Bacon's wife, Elizabeth Duke Bacon, "the Indians' friend and our enemy." Although Virginia's elites were divided over the rebellion and provided the leadership for both sides, small planters who were disproportionately threatened by the Indian war and burdened by taxes tended to lean toward Bacon's side in the conflict.

The rebellion had also taken place in the midst of a fundamental shift in Virginia's labor force, several decades after leading planters had collectively decided to replace white indentured servants with more easily controlled enslaved Africans, but roughly twenty years before the supply of slaves would make that possible. By 1700 the slave population had soared, British immigration had slowed, and many poor whites had either become better established or had departed the colony. At the turn of the century white Virginians were increasingly united by white populism, or the binding together of rich and poor whites through their sense of what they considered their common racial virtue and their common opposition to the interests of Indians and enslaved Africans. Thus Bacon's Rebellion was, as one writer has put it, a critical element in "the origin of the Old South." Bacon’s Rebellion Writing Assignment Topics During our game, you will write a brief position paper in character. This may be a letter to another character or to a family member or friend beyond the colony. Or, it may be a speech (for example, to the General Assembly). In either case, you must present a logical argument to persuade your reader, proven with source quotations, that is consistent with your character’s views. Further suggestions are included on your role sheet. We will work up to your fist draft in stages, in class. See your syllabus for due dates. Step 1: Thesis Ideas (Worksheet due for Short Assignment credit) Pick an argument that is consistent with your character’s views. This is your chance to present the case for what you want and believe to be right! Before you write a single sentence, you will begin by brainstorming some ideas and making some notes to inform your reading. Make a list of at least three possible thesis statements for your chosen essay topic. Choose your best and cross out the theses you have eliminated based on the following factors: 1) It must be relevant; 2) It must be debatable (not a statement of fact—other

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characters should disagree with you!); 3) You must be able to support it with specific examples; 4) It must be interesting!

Step 2: Citation Worksheet (for Short Assignment credit) You will be asked to make a list of relevant primary source quotations from this gamebook that support your thesis, and note how they may be useful in building your argument. Remember that primary source excerpts in this booklet are easily identified because the date (any date close enough to 1676 to be within the same person’s lifetime) is included in the item’s title. All primary sources are followed by a textbox with tips on how they should be cited in your paper according to Chicago Manual of Style. Secondary sources (works written by historians James Rice, Martha McCartney, or the editor) are not dated in the title and are not have tips on citation following them. Please do not cite secondary sources or any sources that have not been assigned in this class without permission of your professor. Step 3: Writing your Letter or Speech This assignment asks you to respond to the evidence of Bacon’s Rebellion in colonial Virginia by writing a passionate thesis-driven argumentative keyhole-style essay from your character’s viewpoint. (Five paragraphs is best). It must be typed in a legible font, about 1000-1300 words in length. Your thesis statement in your introductory paragraph should be supported in the body of your essay with at least 3 points or examples. As always, you are welcome and encouraged to stop by office hours or make an appointment to discuss the thesis you intend to argue in your essay. Follow the rules for citation in your paper that we have discussed in class. All quotations or specific information must be followed by an in-text citation (a footnote) with the relevant page number so that your reader can trace your source. The table of sources you worked on in Step 2 will come in very handy! Your essay must also be followed by a bibliography that lists all sources you have cited in text. We will follow Chicago Manual of Style for your footnotes (see the citation tips following each source in this gamebook). More information on using Chicago style for citation may be found at the following link: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-1.html .

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English Navigation Acts (Optional Reading) The following piece of legislation passed on September 13, 1660 is one of a series of acts passed by the English Parliament in the 1660s. “Goods and commodities,” including raw products like tobacco exported from Virginia and other colonies, could now only be shipped to England, where they would be met with heavy duties (taxes). Those tax funds stayed in England and did not return to benefit Virginia or other colonies. For the increase of shipping and encouragement of the navigation of this nation, wherein, under the good providence and protection of God, the wealth, safety, and strength of the kingdom is so much concerned…from thence forward, no goods or commodities whatsoever shall be imported into or exported out of any lands, islands, plantations, or territories to his Majesty belonging or in his possession…in Asia, African, or America, in any other ship or ships, vessel or vessels whatsoever, but in such ships or vessels as do truly and without fraud belong only to the people of England…or are of the built of and belonging to any of the said lands, islands, plantations, or territories, as the proprietors and right owners thereof, and whereof the master and ¾ of the mariners at least are English. A later Navigation Act of 1663 (or the “Act for the Encouragement of Trade”) further stated that colonial products not only had to be transported in English ships, but also pass through English ports even if they were destined elsewhere in Europe. The Navigation Act of 1673 further increased duties (taxes on colonial exports). As a result of these laws passed in London, shipping times and costs skyrocketed for Virginian colonists. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Parliament, “English Navigation Act of September 13, 1660,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 22. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Parliament, “Navigation Act,” 22. Bibliography entry: Parliament. “English Navigation Act of September 13, 1660.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 22. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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A Discourse and View of Virginia, 1663 (Optional Reading) (by Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Virginia) In the following document, Governor Berkeley discusses the deflation of tobacco prices, which has negatively affected “planters” (Virginia landholders cultivating crops for export) and the colony’s economy. … It must be confessed that Barbados fends a better commodity into England, than Virginia yet does; but … it must be acknowledged that one ship from Virginia brings more money to the Crown than five ships of the same burden do from the Barbados. But had we ability or skill to set forward those staple commodities I mentioned, of silk, flax, hemp, pitch, pot-ashes, and iron, a few years would make us able to send more ships laden with these than now the Barbados do with sugar. Amongst many other weighty reasons why Virginia has not all this while made any progression into staple commodities, this is the chief—that our Governors by reason of the corruption of those times they lived in, laid the foundation of our wealth and industry on the vices of men. For about the time of our first seating of the Country, did this vicious habit of taking tobacco possess the English nation, and from them has diffused itself into most parts of the world. This … made our Governor suppose great wealth might be raised … by this universal vice, and indeed for many years they were not deceived, until that increasing in numbers, and many other plantations following the same design, at last brought it as now it is to that lowness of price, that the customs [export and import fees, duties, and taxes paid on the shipment of colonial goods] doubles the first purchase; that is, the merchant buys it for one penny the pound, and we pay two pence for the custom of that which they are not pleased to take from us. This was the first and fundamental hindrance that made the planters neglect all other accessions to wealth and happiness, and fix their hopes only on this vicious weed of Tobacco, which at length has brought them to that extremity that they can neither handsomely subsist with it, nor without it. Another hindrance has been, that there was never yet any public encouragement to assist the planters in those more chargeable [profitable] undertakings, as iron-mines and shipping.

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… Nor is this all… we have suffered the Dutch to enrich themselves on our discoveries, who have in our precincts settled a trade of beaver with the Indians, amounting to two hundred thousand skins a year, and [the Dutch colonists] supply our [Indian] enemies with ammunition and guns in greater proportion then we have them ourselves … Another great impediment has been, the confining the planter to trade only with the English. This no good subject or Englishman will oppose, if it be found either beneficial to the Crown or our mother-nation; but if it shall appear that neither of these are advantaged by it, then we cannot but resent, that four-thousand people should be impoverished to enrich little more then forty merchants, who being the only buyers of our tobacco, give us what they please for it, and after it is here, fell it how they please; and indeed have forth thousand servants in us at cheaper rates, then any other men have slaves, for they find them Meat, Drink, and Clothes, we furnish ourselves and their Sea-men with Meat and Drink, and all our sweat and labor, as they order us, will hardly procure us course clothes to keep us from the extremities of heat and cold: yet if these pressures of us did advance the Customs, or benefit the Nation, we should not repine; but that it does the contrary to both, I shall easily evidence when commanded. …. To remedy this, and to procure us able men to set us in a way of staple commodities, at my departure from Virginia I was desired by the Assembly to make this Proposal to His Sacred Majesty and his Council, to add one penny more to the Customs of our Tobacco, and give it to the Country [the Virginia colony]; which, if granted, will pay all the public charges of the Country , furnish us with Magazines to resist the Indians, build Mills for Iron and Planks, procure us on good Salaries able men for Silk, Cordage, Mines, and Flax; and all this will be done at the expense only of an indulgent Grant: for who pays this but the poor Planter, whose Tobacco must fell for less , the more is imposed on it? But a nearer way to a public unquarrelled contribution they cannot find, having this Axiom firmly fixed in them, That never any Community of people had good done to them, but against their wills. In order to this we shall here declare what we have been necessitated to do these last two years, when war and other emergencies had involved the Plantation into debts inextricable in an ordinary levy; which was to lay a Tax of

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two shillings the Hogshead on every one exported. This though the Merchant made us pay, yet we found it an easier and readier way to defray the public charges: this (if the propositions of the Customs be not granted) we desire His Majesties Council will advance to three or four shilling the Hogshead, which will pay all public Officers, and enable us to begin the making Iron, and other necessary works, for the enriching our native Kingdom and ourselves . …And another Proposal they desired me to make, which is this, That such ships as were built in the Country , might carry their goods to what Port they pleased. This they hoped would be easily granted, because by this means the excellency of their Timber and Masts (of both which there is now a visible scarcity in England) would be known, and when known the Timber of England might be spared for many years, and Ships of the greatest magnitude built there cheaper then possibly they can be in England; but if the first be granted, we shall leave this to the wisdom, exigency and care of those His Majesty employs in those affairs…. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. William Berkeley, “A Discourse and View of Virginia, 1663,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 23-25. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Berkeley, “Discourse and View,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Berkeley, William. “A Discourse and View of Virginia, 1663.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 23-35. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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Enquiries to the Governor of Virginia, 1670 (Optional Reading) (by the Lords Commissioners to King Charles II) These questions were submitted in writing in 1670 to Governor Berkeley by the Lords Commissioners of foreign plantations (government officials in London whose task it was to monitor the progress and profit of the King’s colonies overseas). The governor’s answers date to 1671 and give us a snapshot of the colony’s politics and economy (at least as the Governor chose to present them to the King). It is important to note that by 1671, the Governor does distinguish between “servants” and “slaves,” and the latter are a small minority of the colony’s laborers. Question: What councils, assemblies, and courts of judicature are within your government, and of what nature and kind? Answer: Governor, number of councilors, judicial powers: There is a governor and sixteen counselors, who have from his sacred majesty , a commission …, there are particular courts in every county, which are twenty in number. Appeals to assembly: Every year, at least the assembly is called, before whom lie appeals, and this assembly is composed of two burgesses out of every county. Taxes: There lay the necessary taxes, as the necessity of the war with the Indians, or their exigencies require… Question: Where the legislative and executive powers of your government are seated? Answer: In the governor, council and assembly, and officers substituted by them… Question: What number of horse and foot are within your government, and [are] they … trained bands or standing forces? Answer: All our freemen are bound to be trained every month in their particular counties, which we suppose, and do not much mistake in the calculation, are near eight thousand horse: there are more, but it is too chargeable for poor people, as we are, to exercise them. Question: What castles and forts are within your government, and how situated, as also what stores and provisions they are furnished withal?

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Answer: There are five forts in the country, two in James river and one in the three other rivers of York, Rappahannock and Potomac; but God knows we have neither skill or ability to make or maintain them; for there is not, nor, as far as my enquiry can reach, ever was one engineer in the country, so that we are at continual charge to repair unskillful and inartificial buildings of that nature. Great guns, powder and shot. There is not above thirty great and serviceable guns; this we yearly supply with powder and shot as far as our utmost abilities will permit us … Question: What is the strength of your bordering neighbors, be they Indians or others, by sea and land; what correspondence do you keep with your neighbors? Answer: We have no Europeans seated nearer to us than St. Christopher’s or Mexico that we know of, except some few French that are beyond New England. The Indians, our neighbors are absolutely subjected, so that there is no fear of them. As for correspondence, we have none with any European strangers; nor is there a possibility to have it with our own nation further than our traffic concerns… Question: What monies have been paid or appointed to be paid by his majesty, or levied within your government for and towards the buying of arms or making or maintaining of any fortifications or castles, and how have the said monies been expended? Answer. Besides those guns I mentioned, we never had any monies of His Majesty towards the buying of ammunition or building of forts. What monies can be spared out of the public revenue, we yearly lay out in ammunition. Question: What commodities are there of the production, growth and manufacture of your plantation; and particularly, what materials are there already growing, or may be produced for shipping in the same? Answer. Commodities of the growth of our country, we never had any but tobacco, which in this yet is considerable, that it yields his majesty a great revenue; but of late, we have begun to make silk, and so many mulberry trees are planted, and planting, that if we had skillful men from Naples or Sicily to teach us the art of making it perfectly, in less than half an age, we should make as muck silk in an year as England did yearly expend three score years since; but now we

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hear it is grown to a greater excess, and more common and vulgar usage. Now, for shipping, we have admirable masts and very good oaks; but for iron ore I dare not say there is sufficient to keep one iron mill going for seven years…. Question: What number of planters, servants and slaves; and how many parishes are there in your plantation? Answer: Whole population 40,000; Slaves 2,000; Servants 6,000. We suppose, and I am very sure we do not much miscount, that there is in Virginia above forty thousand persons, men, women and children, and of which there are two thousand black slaves, six thousand Christian servants, for a short time, the rest are born in the country or have come in to settle and seat, in bettering their condition in a growing country. Question: What number of English, Scots or Irish have for these seven years last past come yearly to plant and inhabit within your government; as also what blacks or slaves have been brought in within the said time? Answer. Yearly, we suppose there comes in, of servants, about fifteen hundred, of which, most are English, few Scotch, and fewer Irish, and not above two or three ships of negroes in seven years. Question: What number of people have yearly died, within your plantation and government for these seven years last past, both whites and blacks? Answer: All new plantations are, for an age or two, unhealthy, 'till they are thoroughly cleared of wood; but unless we had a particular register office, for the denoting of all that died, I cannot give a particular answer to this query, only this I can say, that there is not often unseasoned hands (as we term them) that die now, whereas heretofore not one of five escaped the first year… Question: What course is taken about the instructing the people, within your government in the Christian religion; and what provision is there made for the paying of your ministry? Answer: The same course that is taken in England out of towns; every man according to his ability instructing his children. Ministers would deserve better pay if they would pray more & preach less. None but the worst sent over. No free

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schools nor printing; and he prays to God, that he might see neither. We have forty-eight parishes, and our ministers are well paid, and by my consent should be better if they would pray oftener and preach less. But of all other commodities, so of this, the worst are sent us, and we had few that we could boast of, since the persecution in Cromwell's tyranny drove [many] worthy men hither. But, I thank God, there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these hundred years; for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best government. God keep us from both! How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Lords Commissioners, and William Berkeley, “Enquiries to the Governor of Virginia, 1670,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 26-29. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Lords Commissioners and Berkeley, “Enquiries,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Lords Commissioners, and William Berkeley. “Enquiries to the Governor of Virginia,

1670.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 26-29. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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SECTION IV Strange News From Virginia, 1677 (by Ann Cotton?) The following is one of several accounts of a violent rebellion in the colony of Virginia. It is thought to be written by Mrs. Ann Cotton. Being a Full and True Account of the Life and Death of Nathaniel Bacon Esquire, Who was the Only Cause and Original of All the Late Troubles in that Country. With a Full Relation of All the Accidents which Have Happened in the Late War There Between the Christians and Indians THERE is no nation this day under … Heaven can so experimentally speak the sad effects of men of great parts being reduced to necessity, as England…. I shall endeavor to prevent the sad effects of so deplorable a cause, by giving you an account of the remarkable life and death of this Gentleman of whom I am about to discourse. And because when a man has once engaged himself in an ill action, all men are ready to heap an innumerable aspersions upon him, of which he is no ways guilty, I shall be so just in the history of his life as not to rob him of those commendations which his birth and acquisitions claim as due… This Gentleman … had the honor to be descended of an ancient and honorable family, his name Nathaniel Bacon, to which to the long known title of Gentleman, by his long study [at] the Inns of Court he has since added that of Esquire. He was the son of Mr. Thomas Bacon of an ancient seat known by the denomination of Freestone-Hall in the County of Suffolk, a gentleman of known loyalty and ability. His father as he was able … was willing to allow this his son a very gentile competency to subsist upon, but he as it proved having a soul too large for that allowance, could not contain himself within bounds; which his careful father perceiving, and also that he had a mind to travel (having seen diverse parts of the world before) consented to his inclination of going to Virginia, and accommodated him with a stock for that purpose, to the value of 18,000 sterling [a large sum of silver], as I am credibly informed by a merchant of very good wealth, who is now in this city, and had the fortune to carry him thither.

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He began his voyage [to Virginia] about three years since, and lived for about a year’s space in that continent in very good repute… The worthy Governor of that Continent thought it requisite to take him into his Privy Council. That Plantation which he chose to settle in is …situated in the upper part of James River and the time of his Revolt was not till the beginning of March, 1676. At which time the Susquehannock Indians (a known enemy to that country) having made an insurrection, and killed [many] of the English, amongst whom it was his fortune to have a servant slain; in revenge of whose death, and other damages, he received from those turbulent Susquehannock, without the Governor’s consent he furiously took up arms against them and was so fortunate as to put them to flight. But not content [with that], the .. Governor hearing of his eager pursuit after the vanquished Indians, sent out a select company of soldiers to command him to desist…. He instead of listening …., persisted in his revenge, and sent to the Governor to entreat his commission [written permission to make war against the Indians], that he might more cheerfully prosecute his design. …He notwithstanding continued to make head[way] with his own servants, and other English then resident in Curles against them. In this interim, the people of Henrico had [made] him Burgess of their County, and he … took his own [ship] and came down towards James Town, conducted by thirty odd soldiers, with part of which he came ashore to Mr. Laurence’s house…. The Governor thereupon ordered an alarm to be beaten through the whole town… I know it is by some reported that this Mr. Bacon was a very hard drinker…. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Ann Cotton, “Strange News From Virginia, 1677,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 30-31. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Cotton, “Strange News,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Cotton, Ann. “Strange News From Virginia, 1677.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited

by Kathryn Sikes, 30-31. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, 1677 (by Herbert Jeffreys) This account comes from a report penned by Herbert Jeffreys and the other Lords Commissioners after they interviewed numerous eyewitnesses in the Virginia colony. …in July, 1675, certain Doegs [a non-Powhatan tribe]… on the Mary-land side, stealing some hogs from the English … on the Virginia shore … were pursued by the English in a boat, beaten or killed and the hogs retaken from them… The Indians repairing to their town, reported it to their superiors, and how that one [Thomas] Matthews (whose hogs they had taken) had before abused and cheated them, in not paying them for such Indian truck [stuff] as he had formerly bought of them…[They also reported that] they took his hogs for Satisfaction. Upon this (to be revenged on Mathews) an Indian war Captain, with some Indians, came over to Potomac and killed two of Matthew’s servants, and came also a second time and killed his son. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Herbert Jeffreys, “A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, 1677,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 32. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Jeffreys, “True Narrative,” 32 Bibliography entry: Jeffreys, Herbert. “A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, 1677.” In Bacon’s

Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 32. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion, 1705 (by Thomas Matthews) Three decades after the war, this is how Thomas Matthews remembered the incident on his plantation that sparked the beginning of violence that spread throughout the colony. My dwelling was in Northumberland, the lowest county on Potomac river.... where having also a plantation, servants, cattle, etc., my overseer there had agreed with one Robert Hen to come there and be my herdsman. But on a Sabbath day morning in the summer [of] 1675, people on their way to church saw this [man] Hen lying [across] his [doorway], and an Indian [outside] the door. Both [were] chopped on their heads, arms and other parts, as if done with Indian hatchets. The Indian was dead, but Hen when asked who did it answered, “Doegs, Doegs!” and soon died. Then a boy came out from under a bed, where he had hid himself, and told them [that] Indians had come at break of day and done those murders.

From this Englishman's blood did (by degrees) arise Bacon’s Rebellion with ... mischiefs which overspread all [over] Virginia and twice endangered Maryland....

Of this horrid action Col. Mason, who commanded the militia regiment on foot, and Capt. Brent [who commanded] the troop of horse in that county .... raised 30 or more men, and pursued those Indians 20 miles up and 4 miles over that river into Maryland, where landing at dawn of day they found two small paths. Each leader with his party took a separate path and .... found a cabin, which they (silently) surrounded. Capt. Brent went to the Doegs cabin (as it proved to be) who speaking the Indian tongue called to have a ... council called presently such being the usual manner with Indians. The king came trembling forth and would have fled, when Capt. Brent, catching hold of his twisted lock (which was all the hair he wore) told him he was come for the murderer of Robert. Hen. The king pleaded ignorance and slipped loose, [when] Brent shot [him] dead with his pistol. The Indians shot two or three guns out of the cabin, the English shot into it, and the Indians thronged out [the] door and fled. The English shot as many as they could, so that they killed ten, as Capt. Brent told me, and brought away the king’s son of about 8 years old.... The noise of this shooting awakened the Indians in the cabin, which Col. Mason had encompassed, who likewise rushed out and fled, whom his company ... shot ... fourteen before an Indian came, who with both hands shook him (friendly) by one arm saying [in Algonquian, “Susquehannocks, netoughs!” ( i. e. “Susquehannocks, friends!”) and fled,

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whereupon he ran amongst his men, crying out, “for the Lord’s sake, shoot no more, these are our friends, the Susquehannocks!” This unhappy scene ended, Col. Mason took the king of the Doeg’s son home with him... his little prisoner....

After this unfortunate exploit of Mason and Brent, one or two being killed in Stafford, boats of war were equipped to prevent excursions over the river, and at the same time, ... on either side the river, both [Virginia and Maryland] raised their quotas of a thousand men, upon whose coming before the fort, the' Indians sent out 4 of their great men, who asked the reason of that hostile appearance, what they said more or offered, I do not remember to have heard; but our two commanders caused them to be (instantly) slain, after which the Indians made an obstinate resistance shooting many of our men, and making frequent, fierce and bloody sallies...

At the end of six weeks, marched out seventy-five Indians with their women children who by moonlight past our guards hallowing and firing at them ...

These escaped Indians ... took their route over the head of that river, and thence over the heads of Rappahannock and York rivers, killing whoever they found of the uppermost plantations until they came to the head of James river, where (with Bacon and others) they slew Mr. Bacon's overseer, whom he much loved, and one of his servants, whose blood he vowed to revenge if possible.

In these frightful times the most exposed small families withdrew into our houses of better numbers, which we fortified with palisades and redoubts. Neighbors ... joined their labors from each plantation, ... taking their arms into the fields, and setting sentinels; no man stirred out of door unarmed. Indians were [seen], three 4. 5. or 6 in a party lurking throughout the whole land, yet (what was remarkable) I rarely heard of any houses burnt, though abundance was forsaken, nor ever, of any corn or tobacco cut up, or other injury done, besides murders, except the killing of a very few cattle and swine.

Frequent complaints of bloodsheds were sent to Sir William. Berkeley (then Governor) from the heads of the rivers, which were as often answered with promises of assistance.

Those at the heads of James and York rivers … grew impatient at the many slaughters of their neighbors and rose for their own defense. Choosing Mr. Bacon for their leader, [they] sent oftentimes to the Governor, humbly

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beseeching a commission to go against those Indians at their own charge, which His Honor [Governor Berkeley] often promised but did not send.

Thomas Matthews also left us a description of Cockacoeske and her son, John West in negotiations between the Pamunkey and the English:

…The Queen of Pamunkey (descended from Opechancanough former Emperor of Virginia) was introduced. [She] entered the chamber with a comportment graceful to admiration, bringing on her right hand an Englishman interpreter, and on the left her son [John West], twenty years of age. She [had around] her head a [braid] of black and white [shells] three inches broad in imitation of a crown… With court-like gestures and a majestic air in her face, she walked up our long room to the lower end of the table, where she sat down, the interpreter and her son standing by her on either side…. Our chairman asked her what men she would lend us for guides in the wilderness and to assist us against our enemy Indians. She spoke to the interpreter to inform her what the chairman said (though we believed she understood him) [and] he told us [we should] ask [her] son to whom the English tongue was familiar, and who was reputed [to be] the son of an English Colonel, yet neither would he speak to or seem to understand the Chairman but the interpreter told us he referred all to his mother.

How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Thomas Matthews, “The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion, 1705,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 33-34. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Matthews, “Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Matthews, Thomas. “The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion,

1705.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 33-34. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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Account of the Indian Troubles, June 1676 (by Nathaniel Bacon) In the beginning of his mutiny against the Governor, Nathaniel Bacon explained his motives in this account. June 18, 1676 By an Act of State [a law passed by Virginia’s General Assembly], it was provided for the better security of the country that no Trade should be held with the Indians, notwithstanding which our present Governor monopolized a trade with the Indians and granted licenses to others to trade with them for which he had every 3rd skin [beaver or fox pelt], which trading with the Indians has proved so fatal to these parts of the world, yet I fear we shall be all lost for this commerce having acquainted the Indians ... with our manner of living and discipline of war, has also brought them generally to the use of Fire Arms with such dexterity, that ourselves often hire them to kill Deer.... Things standing in this posture, they have entered into general bloody war... the murders and depredations they have committed here are horrible and continual, laying a great part of the country desolate, and forcing the inhabitants to fly from their dwellings to their ruin; the Governor, who from the Neighbor Indians receives this tribute and benefit by the trade, still protecting them for these many years against the people and though the complaints of their murders have been continual yet he hath connived at the great men's [Indian chiefs?] furnishing them with ammunition (which by the Law is death) and the sad effects thereof. Now the Governor having placed me here in a place of trust, I thought it my duty to discharge my conscience in it, by introducing a looking after the welfare of the people here, they being poor, few, and in scattered habitations on the Frontiers and remote part of the country, [among] these Indians ... ; I sent to the Governor for a commission to fall upon them, but being from time to time denied, and finding that the country was basely for a small and sordid gain betrayed, and the lives and fortunes of the poor inhabitants wretchedly sacrificed, resolved to stand up in this ruinous gap, and rather expose my life and fortune to all hazards than basely desert my post and by so bad an example make desolate a whole country in which no one dared to stir against the common Enemy... Upon this I resolved to march out upon the Enemy with which volunteers I could then get, but by so doing found that I not only lost the Governor's favor, but

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exposed my very life and fortune at home as well as abroad... ; but considering the necessity, I still proceeded, and returned with a greater victory from sharper conflict than ever yet has been known in these parts of the world.... How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Nathaniel Bacon, “Account of the Indian Troubles, June 1676,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 35-36. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Bacon, “Indian Troubles,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Bacon, Nathaniel. “Account of the Indian Troubles, June 1676.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 35-36. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

Declaration and Remonstrance, June 1676 (By Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Virginia) This declaration by Sir William denounced Bacon as a rebel for blatantly disobeying the Governor’s orders to keep the peace and instead continuing to wage war upon Virginia Indians. ... about the year 1660…, in consideration of the service I had done the Country in defending them from and destroying great numbers of Indians… and in [consideration] of the equal and uncorrupt justice I had distributed to all men, not only the Assembly, but the unanimous votes of all the Country concurred to make me Governor... ... perhaps I have erred in things I know not of. If I have, I am so conscious of human frailty and my own defects that I will not only acknowledge them, but repent of and mend them…The Rebel Bacon… tells me in [several] of his letters that it is not for his honor to confess a fault, but I am of the opinion that it is only for devils to be incorrigible...

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Now, my friends, I have lived 34 years among you, as uncorrupt and diligent as ever [a] Governor was. Bacon is a man of two years among you, his person and qualities unknown to most of you... ... if Mr. Bacon can show one precedent or example where such [actions] in any nation whatever was approved of, I will mediate with the King... and excuse him. But I can show him a hundred examples where brave and great men have been put to death for gaining victories against the command of their superiors. Lastly... I would have preserved those Indians that I knew were hourly at our mercy, to have [them be] our spies and intelligence to find out our bloody enemies, but as soon as I had the least [bit of information] that they were also treacherous enemies, I gave out commissions to destroy them all... To conclude, I have done what was possible both to friend and enemy, have granted to Mr. Bacon three pardons, which he has scornfully rejected, [intending more to subvert than... to maintain the Laws, by which only, and [with] God assisting grace and mercy, all men must hope for peace and safety.... How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. William Berkeley, “Declaration and Remonstrance, June 1676,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 37-38. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Berkeley, “Declaration and Remonstrance,” [page number you are quoting or citing here]. Bibliography entry: Berkeley, William. “Declaration and Remonstrance, June 1676.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 37-38. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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Letter from Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister, June 1676 (By Elizabeth Bacon) This letter was written by Nathaniel Bacon's wife to her sister back in London, England. June 29, 1676 Dear Sister, I pray God keep the worst Enemy I have from ever being in such a sad condition as I have been in since my previous letter to you, occasioned by the troublesome Indians, who have killed one of our overseers at an outward plantation which we had, and we have lost a great stock of cattle, which we had upon it, and a good crop that we should have made there, such plantation Nobody dares come near, which is a very great loss to us. If you had been here, it would have grieved your heart to hear the pitiful complaints of the people, the Indians killing the people daily the Governor not taking any notice of it for to hinder them, but let them daily do all the mischief they can; I am sure if the Indian were not cowards, they might have destroyed all the upper plantations and killed all the people upon them; the Governor so much their friend, that he would not suffer any body to hurt one of the Indians; the poor people came to your brother to desire him to help against the Indians, and he being very much concerned for the loss of his Overseer, and for the loss of so many men and women and children's lives every day, he was willing to do them all he good he could; so he begged of the Governor for a commission in several letters to him, that he might go out against them, but he would not grant one, so daily more mischief done by them, so your brother not able to endure any longer, he went out without a commission. The Governor being very angry with him put out high things against him, and told me that he would most certainly hang him as soon as he returned... The fight [with the Indians] did continue … a night and a day without any intermission. They did destroy a great many of the Indians, thanks be to God, and might have killed a great many more, but the Governor were so much the Indians' friend and our enemy, that he sent the Indians word that Mr. Bacon was out against them that they might save themselves.

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How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Elizabeth Bacon, “Letter from Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister, June 1676,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 39. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Bacon, “Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister,” 39. Bibliography entry: Bacon, Elizabeth. “Letter from Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister, June 1676.” In Bacon’s

Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 39. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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SECTION V The Declaration of the People, July 1676 (by Nathaniel Bacon) In this document, Bacon set forth the reasons he had been openly disobeying the Governor’s orders and leading an army against him. The Declaration of the People, against Sir William Berkeley, and Present Governors of Virginia

July 30, 1676

For having upon [misleading] pretenses of public works raised unjust taxes upon the [common people].

For advancing of private favorites and other sinister ends, [with] no visible effect in any measure adequate.

For not having during the long time of his government in any measure advanced this hopeful colony, either by fortifications, towns, or trade.

For having abused, and rendered contemptible His Majesty’s justice by advancing to places of [the judiciary], scandalous and ignorant favorites.

For having wronged His Majesty’s prerogative and interest by assuming the monopoly of the beaver trade.

For having in that unjust gain betrayed and sold His Majesty’s country and the liberties of his loyal subjects to the barbarous heathen [this is how you refer to Virginia’s Indians].

For having protected, favored, and emboldened the Indians against His Majesty’s most loyal subjects; never contriving, requiring, or appointing any due or proper means of satisfaction for their many incursions, murders, and robberies committed upon us.

….

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For having expressly countermanded and sent back our army, by [speaking of] the Peaceable demeanors of the said Indians, who immediately prosecuted their Evil intentions—committing horrid murders and robberies in all places, being protected by [Sir William Berkeley]….

For having the second time attempted the same, thereby calling down our forces from the defense of the frontiers, and most weakened and exposed places…

Of these the aforesaid articles we accuse Sir William Berkeley as guilty of each and every of the same as one who hath traitorously attempted, violated and injured his Majesty’s interest here, by the loss of a great part of his Majesty’s colony, and many of his faithful and loyal subjects…

[19 men signed their names here]….

Nathaniel Bacon, 
General, by Consent of the People. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Nathaniel Bacon, “The Declaration of the People, July 1676,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 41-42. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Bacon, “Declaration of the People,” [page number you are quoting or citing here] Bibliography entry: Bacon, Nathaniel. “The Declaration of the People, July 1676.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 41-42. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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Petitions of Grievances, February 1677 (By the People of Virginia) In Sept. 1676, the British Crown received word of the uprising in Virginia and removed Gov. Berkeley from office. The King appointed a committee of Royal Commissioners to visit the colony to investigate the ongoing rebellion, and in Feb. 1677 the Commissioners, their assistants, and several hundred troops arrived in Virginia. The Commissioners received petitions of grievances from private citizens in each county. The final report, entitled A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, By the Royal Commissioners 1677, was presented to the King's Privy Council in Oct. 1677. This petition was submitted to the Royal Commissioners by colonists of the Isle of Wight, Virginia. ... We having a long time lain under great oppressions, and every year being more and more oppressed with great taxes, and still do load us with greater and unnecessary burdens; it was enacted by the Governor and assembly for the building of forts back in the woods upon several great men's Lands, under pretense of security for us against the Indians, which we perceiving and well knowing that their pretense was no security for us, but rather a ruin to the country, which was the cause of our uprising with intents to have our taxes lowered, not that we rose in any ways of Rebellion against our most dear Sovereign Lord the King as by our actions may appear, for we no sooner rose but we sent in a petition any our grievance to Sir William Berkeley, who was not at home but the Lady Berkeley promised that she would acquaint his Honor with our business, and by her request or command, we every man returned home... This petition was submitted to the Royal Commissioners by the Inhabitants of Surry County. Like the residents of Isle of Wight, they emphasize taxes among their “grievances” (or complaints). Note that tobacco often substituted for money in Virginia, since there was a shortage of currency. Taxes and goods were often paid in tobacco. That great quantities of tobacco was levied [taxed] upon the poor Inhabitants of this Colony for the building of houses at James City [Jamestown] which were not habitable by reason [of their not being] finished. That the 2 [shillings per barrel] imposed by the act for the payment of his majesty's officers and other public debts thereby to ease his majesty's poor

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subjects of their great taxes: we humbly desire that an account may be given thereof. That it has been the custom of County Courts at the laying of the levy [tax] to withdraw into a private Room by which means the poor people not knowing for what they paid their levy did always [wonder] how their taxes could be so high… That we have been under great exactions of sheriff's and Clerk's fees for these several years. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. People of Virginia, “Petitions of Grievances, February 1677,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 43-44. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. People of Virginia, “Petitions of Grievances,” [page number you are quoting or citing here] Bibliography entry: People of Virginia. “Petitions of Grievances, February 1677.” In Bacon’s Rebellion,

1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 43-44. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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SECTION VI Minutes of the Virginia General Assembly, February 1677. (By the Virginia General Assembly) The “Queen of Pamunkey” petitioned the Virginia colonial government on behalf of her people at a meeting of the General Assembly. The General Assembly’s response to each of her requests is recorded below. February 20, 1677 To the proposals or petitions of the Queen of Pamunkey To her petition to have her lands restored which she formerly held, alleging her leaving her town was occasioned through her fear of the Rebel Bacon and his accomplices: It is thought reasonable that her land be restored to her provided she comply with the Acts of Assembly made in March last and all other injunctions as shall from time to time be [prescribed] to her by the Grand Assembly. To her second petition praying that her Indians may not be [detained] nor employed by the English: It is thought convenient that no Englishman upon any pretense whatsoever employ any Indians belonging to the Queen of Pamunkey to hunt or otherwise, nor [detain] them in their houses above one night without a certificate from her or by her procurement upon the penalty of thirty pounds of tobacco for every night for entertaining any of her Indians. To her prayer that she may have the goods restored to her which she left at her Town when she fled [that] were taken away by the English: It is thought reasonable that what of her goods can be found was so left aforesaid be again restored and that she stand obliged to deliver up all such horses and other goods as she or any of her Indians took away from the English or have purchased from other Indians.

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To her petition that too many of her Indians may not be required on service at once: It is thought convenient that not above one third of her Indians be required on service. To her petition praying that such of her Indians as are employed in the English service may have the plunder they get from other Indians: It is conceived reasonable that all such Indians that are or shall be employed in the country’s service have what plunder they shall get from other Indians horses, arms and ammunition excepted. And those to be returned or delivered to such person or persons as shall be appointed by the Right Honorable Governor or other authority appointed under him to receive the same. To her petition praying liberty to gather bark from trees from any man’s land to build cabins: It is thought reasonable that she first obtained leave from the owners of such land from which she would gather the same. To her petition praying liberty to hunt on the frontier lands and plantations It is thought reasonable that she have liberty to hunt on the frontiers after she has delivered up her hostages according to the Act. Provided they nor any of them hunt or pass abroad painted [with face paint]. To her petition wherein she prays liberty to fish at Powhite: It is conceived reasonable that liberty be given to her and the Indians to fish in all convenient places provided they never fish without first giving notice to Captain William Byrd or such other as dwell near the said places or some other that belongs to him or them. To her petition praying her Indians may not be abused by the English: It is thought reasonable that if any abuses be offered by the English to them that they have recourse to a Justice of the peace who by his warrant may command

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the person or persons doing the injury to appear at the County Court where they are to afford all due redress. To her petition praying liberty to redeem her Indians and goods: It is thought reasonable that she have liberty so to do (if she can) and were the terms cannot be agreed on that the matter be determinable by the County Court whose order therein shall be binding. How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Virginia General Assembly, “Minutes of the Virginia General Assembly, February 1677,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 45-47. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. General Assembly, “Minutes,” [page number you are quoting or citing here] Bibliography entry: Virginia General Assembly. “Minutes of the Virginia General Assembly, February

1677.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 45-47. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

The Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation), May 1677 (By Virginia Indians and Herbert Jeffreys, Royal Commissioner to King Charles II) Between Virginia's Indian Head Chiefs and Charles II (King of Great Britain, France and Ireland) With the several Indian Kings and Queens and assignors and subscribers hereunto made and concluded at the Camp of Middle Plantation, the 29th day May, 1677; being the day of the most happy birth …. of our said Sovereign Lord, and in the XXIX year of his said Majesty’s Reign.

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[Written] By … his most Sacred Majesty’s Commissioners appointed under the great Seale of England for the Virginia affairs, and the Honorable Council of State of the said Colony. Whereas his most Sacred Majesty has of his own royal grace and mere motion entrusted to my care and endeavors the renewing management and concluding a good peace with the neighbor Indians … I have here caused to be drawn up these ensuing Articles and Overtures for the firm grounding and sure establishment of a good and just peace with the said Indians, and that it may be a secure and homing one founded upon the strong pillars of reciprocal justice by confirming to them their just rights and by redress of their wrongs and injuries [so that] the great God who is god of peace and Lover of Justice may uphold and prosper this, our mutual league and amity. It is hereby concluded, consented to and mutually agreed as follows: The following is an abbreviated version of the 22 agreements that followed between the Indians and the English I. That the respective Indian kings and queens acknowledge their immediate dependency on and their subjugation to the great King of England, his heirs and successors when they pay tribute to the governor for the time being. II. That the said [Indian] kings and queens and their subjects shall hold their land and property … under … His Majesty’s colony, without any fee, gratuity, or reward for the same in the manner of his majesty’s subjects, and paying yearly, three arrows for the same. III. That all in agreement with us [the English] the Indians shall have sufficient land on which to plant [their corn and other crops] and shall never have this land taken from them or disturbed therein so long as they maintain obedience and subjugation to His Majesty, his governor and government and remain in friendship to the English. IV. The mutual discontentment, complaints, [and] jealousies between the English and Indians caused by violent intrusions of various English into their lands, forcing the Indians to seek revenge by killing English cattle and hogs, whereby

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both sides offended and injured each other and caused the peace to be broken. The late unhappy rebellion caused so much ruin and misery, that there must be as much as possible the prevention of injuries and evil consequences. So we conclude and enact that no English shall [settle land] or plant within three miles of any Indian town. Anyone who encroaches on Indian lands shall be removed, and proceedings shall be brought against them by the Governor and the laws enacted by the Assembly. V. That the said Indians shall be protected, their persons and goods defended from injuries by the English. The aggrieved Indians should first address themselves to the governor without rashly taking hostile action themselves. VI. That no Indian king or queen shall be imprisoned without a special warrant from his majesty’s governor and two of the Council. That no other Indian shall be imprisoned without a warrant from a Justice of the Peace and without sufficient cause of commitment. VII. That the said Indians have and enjoy the convenience of oystering, fishing and gathering Tuckahoe [wild edible plants], wild oats, rushes, pecans, or anything else for their natural support that is not useful to the English or from which the English obtain revenues. For any lawful occasion, to always obtain a certificate from a magistrate, to return the certificate when they are through with their business, to then go directly home, not to wear or carry any weapon during the conducting of business, or not to lodge in any Englishman’s house at night. VIII. That no foreign Indian comes to an Englishman’s plantation without a friendly neighborhood Indian in his company and without the previously mentioned certificate. And that no Indian king refuses to send a safe conduct with the foreigner upon the lawful occasion. And that no Indian paint or disguise themselves when they come in. IX. That all Indian Kings and Queens tributary to the English having notice of any march of strange Indians near the English quarters or plantations do forthwith repair to some of the next officers of the militia and acquaint him of their nation, number and design and which way they [intend to travel].

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X. That if necessary a convenient party be presently sent out by the next militia to aide and strengthen and join with friendly Indians against any foreign attempt, incursion, or depredation upon the Indian town. XI. That every Indian fit to bear arms of the neighboring Nations in peace with us, have such quantity of powder and shot allotted him as [the] Right Honorable … Governor shall think fit on any occasion, and that such members of them be ready to go out with our forces upon any march against the enemy and to receive such pay for their good services, as shall be thought fit. XII. That each Indian King and Queen have equal power to govern their own people, except the Queen of Pamunkey, to whom several scattered Indians do now again own their ancient subjection and are agreed to come in and plant themselves under power and government who with her are also hereby included in this present league and treaty of peace and are to keep and observe the same towards the said Queen in all things as her subjects as well as towards the English. XIII. That no person whatever shall entertain or keep any neighbor Indian as servant or otherwise, but by license of the Governor and to be upon the obligation answerable for all injuries and damages by him of them happen to be done on any English. XIV. That no English harbor or entertain any vagrant or runaway Indian, but convey him home by way of pass from Justice to Justice to his own town under penalty of paying so much per day for harboring him as by the Law for entertaining Runaways is recoverable. XV. That no Indian of those in amity [the “friendly” Indians signing this treaty] with us shall serve [under indenture] for any longer time than English of the like ages should serve by act of Assembly, and shall not be sold as slaves. XVI. That every King and Queen in the month of March every year with some of their great men tender their obedience to the Right Honorable his Majesty’s Governor at the place of his residence, whenever it shall be, and then and there pay the accustomed rent of twenty beaver skins, to the Governor … in acknowledgement that they hold the Crowns, and lands of the great King of England.

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XVII. That due care be had and taken that those Indian Kings and Queens their great men and attendants that come on any public business to the Right Honorable Governor Council of Assembly may be accommodated with provisions and houseroom at the public charge. And that no English subject shall abuse, revile, hurt or wrong them at any time in word or deed. XVIII. That upon discord or breach of peace happening to arise between any of the Indians in amity with the English upon the first appearance and beginning thereof, and before they open acts of hostility or war one against another, they shall repair to His Majesty’s Governor by whose justice and wisdom it is concluded such difference shall be made upon and decided, and to whose final determination the said Indian shall submit and conform themselves. XIX. That for preventing the frequent mischiefs and mistakes occasioned by unfaithful and corrupt interpreters, and for more safety satisfaction, and advantage both of the Indians and the English, that there be one of each nation of our neighboring Indians, that that already can or become capable of speaking English, admitted together with those of the English to their own interpreters. XX. That the several Indians concluded in this peace forthwith restore to the respective English parents and owners, all such children servants, and horses…at any time taken from them, and now remaining with … the said Indians… XXI. That the trade with the said Indians be continued, limited, restrained, or laid open, as shall make best for the peace and quiet in the Country, upon which affair the Governor will consult with the Council and Assembly, and conclude thereon at their next meeting. XXII. That it is further agreed that all Indians and English in the Province of Maryland are included in these Articles of peace, and that neither party shall offend the other without breach of His Majesty’s peace.

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How to cite the source above in your paper First footnote: 1. Virginia Indians and Herbert Jeffreys, “The Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation), May 1677,” in Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, ed. Kathryn Sikes (Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018), 47-51. Shortened note if you cite the same source again: 2. Virginia Indians and Jeffreys, “Treaty of Middle Plantation,” [page number you are quoting or citing here] Bibliography entry: Virginia Indians and Herbert Jeffreys. “The Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle

Plantation), May 1677.” In Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676, edited by Kathryn Sikes, 47- 51. Murfreesboro, TN: Middle Tennessee State University, 2018.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Recommended Further Reading (NOT REQUIRED) If the issues raised in this game interest you, and you are curious to read further when this class is over, the following secondary histories are a good place to start. Breen, T. H., and Stephen Innes. “Myne Owne Grounde”: Race and Freedom on Virginia's

Eastern Shore, 1640–1676. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Morgan, Edmund Sears. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia.

New York: Norton, 1975. Rice, James D. Tales from a Revolution: Bacon's Rebellion and the Transformation of Early

America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas's People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia through Four

Centuries. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Smedley, Audrey. Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Boulder, CO:

Westview Press, 2007. Washburn, Wilcomb E. The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia.

Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957. Wertenbaker, Thomas Jefferson. Torchbearer of the Revolution: The Story of Bacon's Rebellion

and Its Leader. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1940. Editor’s Notes on Source Material The following collections of published transcripts were used in preparing background articles, character role sheets, and the adapted primary source excerpts included in this gamebook. Andrews, Charles M., ed. Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675-1690. New York: Scribner, 1915. This collection contains Thomas Matthews’ “The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of

Bacon's Rebellion,” as well as the Royal Commissioners’ (Sir John Berry, Francis Moryson, and Herbert Jeffreys’) “A True Narrative of the Rise, Progresse, and Cessation of the Late Rebellion in Virginia," used to create the gamebook sections “A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia” and “Petitions of Grievances” by county. This report was previously reprinted in Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 4 no. 2 (1896). Because the character of Herbert Jeffreys represents all three Royal Commissioners to Charles II in this game, I have only named Jeffreys among the authors in the excerpt that appears in this gamebook.

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Bernhard, Virginia and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Edmund Cheesman (d. 1677).”

Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Cheesman_Edmund_d_1677

Used in the development of the character of Edmund Cheesman. Billings, Warren M., ed. The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History

of Virginia, 1606-1689, 2nd ed. Williamsburg, Virginia: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.

This volume provides an overview of Virginia’s colonial government as well as records documenting Sir William Berkeley’s dealings with the General Assembly. Documents related to Anglo-Indian conflict prior to and during Bacon’s Rebellion, as well as to indentured and enslaved labor (such as contracts and sales) are reprinted here, and were used for character development. Source material for “A Servant Uprising in Virginia, 1640” may be found among the “Decisions of the General Court of Virginia.” Source material for “Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General Assembly, 1661-1676” appears under “Acts of the General Assembly 1640-1700.: A transcript of the Northampton County Court order for Anthony Johnson vs. John Casar also appears in this volume under the heading “Anthony Johnson’s Servant.”

Billings, Warren M. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Sir William Berkeley (1605– 1677).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Berkeley_Sir_William_1605-1677

Used in the development of the character of Sir William Berkeley. Davis University. “Bacon’s Rebellion.” The History Project. Accessed Aug. 14, 2016.

Berkeley, William. “Declaration and Remonstrance” http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=9 Bacon, Nathaniel. “Account of the Indian Troubles” http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=9 “Letter from Elizabeth Bacon to Her Sister” http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=9 Source: Davis University. “The History Project: Bacon’s Rebellion.” Accessed Aug. 14, 2016. http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=9

Deal, John G. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “William Carver (d. 1676).”

Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Carver_William_d_1676

Used in the development of the character of William Carver.

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Evans, Emory G. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Robert Beverley (bap. 1635– 1687).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Beverley_Robert_bap_1635-1687

Used in the development of the character of Robert Beverley. Fleet, Beverley, ed. Charles City County Orders 1658-1661. Virginia Colonial Abstracts 11,

Richmond, VA, 1941.

Used in the development of the character of Walter Hind. Force, Peter, ed. Tracts and Other Papers Relating Principally to the Original Settlement, and

Progress of the Colonies in North America from the Discovery of the Country to the Year 1776. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1836.

This volume also contains a version of Thomas Matthews’ “The Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion.”

Harbury, Katharine E. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “James Crewes (1622 or 1623– 1677).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Crewes_James_1622_or_1623-1677

Used in the development of the character of James Crewes.

Hening, William Waller. The Statutes at Large, Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia,

from the First Session of the Legislature in the Year 1619, Vol. 2. New York: R.W.G. Bartow, 1823.

This volume contains source material for “Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General

Assembly, 1661-1676.” Jordan, Winthrop D. White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812.

Chapel Hill, NC: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1968. See p. 75-76 for a discussion of primary evidence for the character of Joanne. Julienne, Marianne E. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “William Cole (1638 or 1639–

1694).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Cole_William_1638_or_1639-1694

Used in the development of the character of William Cole. Kimberly, Maria and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “William Drummond (d. 1677).”

Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Drummond_William_d_1677

Used in the development of the character of William Drummond.

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McCartney, Martha W. “Cockacoeske, Queen of the Pamunkey: Diplomat and Suzeraine.” In Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov and M. Thomas Hatley, 243-266. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989.

Used in the development of the characters of Cockacoeske, Queen of Pamunkey, and her

son John West. ———. The Walter Aston Site (44CC178) and Westbury Plantation (44CC103, 44CC179 and

44CC180). Charles City County, Virginia: Report of Archival Research. Virginia Department of Historic Resources, 1989

Used in the development of the character of Walter Hind. McCartney, Martha and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Cockacoeske (d. by July 1,

1686).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Cockacoeske_d_by_July_1_1686

The gamebook section “Historical Timeline Leading up to Game Play” also adapts or

reprints entries from the timeline included in this article. John West’s and Cockacoeske’s role sheets also use information from this page.

McCartney, Martha W., and Lorena Seebach Walsh. A Study of the Africans and African

Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619-1803. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2003.

See p. 53 for a discussion of primary evidence for the character of Joanne. McIlwaine, H. R., ed. Journals of The House of Burgesses in Virginia, 1659/60-1693. Richmond:

Virginia State Library, 1914. This volume contains source material for “Labor Laws Enacted by the Virginia General

Assembly, 1661-1676,” as well as the description of the Queen of Pamunkey and her son John West, as recorded by the Virginia General Assembly, that appears in the section of this gamebook entitled “Minutes of the Virginia General Assembly, February 1677.”

Mintz, Steven, and Sara McNeil, eds. “Navigation Acts.” Digital History. Accessed Aug. 14,

2016. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=4102

Transcribed and digitized excerpts of parliamentary legislation were used in developing the gamebook section “English Navigation Acts.”

Quitt, Martin H. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “William Byrd (ca. 1652–1704).”

Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Byrd_William_ca_1652-1704

Used in the development of the character of William Byrd.

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Rice, James Douglas. “Bacon's Rebellion (1676–1677).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Bacon_s_Rebellion_1676-1677

The gamebook sections “Historical Timeline Leading up to Game Play,” “Political

Background on Bacon’s Rebellion,” and “Interpreting the Causes and Legacy of Bacon’s Rebellion” were adapted or reprinted from this work.

Shifflett, Crandall, ed. Virtual Jamestown. Virginia Center for Digital History, University of

Virginia. Last updated 2007, accessed Oct. 3, 2014. http://www.virtualjamestown.org

Digitized transcripts from this site were consulted for the following documents: Bacon, Nathaniel. “Declaration of the People”: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browsemod?id=J1035 . Berkeley, William. “A Discourse and View of Virginia”: http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1003 . “Enquiries to the Governor of Virginia” in this gamebook awas dapted from accounts of the Virginia General Court “Inquisitions, &c. 1665 to 1676”: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browsemod?id=J1035 . Mathews, Thomas. “Beginning, Progress, and Conclusion of Bacon's Rebellion’: http://www.virtualjamestown.org/exist/cocoon/jamestown/fha/J1057

Smedley, Audrey. Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2007.

See p. 87-103 for a discussion of primary evidence for the character of Joanne. Snyder, Terri L. and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Frances Culpeper Stephens Berkeley

(1634–ca. 1695).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Berkeley_Frances_Culpeper_Stephens_b_ap_1634 -ca_1695

Used in the development of the characters of Lady Berkeley, Philip Ludwell, and Robert

Beverley. Tarter, Brent and the Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Nathaniel Bacon (1647–1676).”

Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 2014. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014. https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Bacon_Nathaniel_1647-1676

Used in the development of the character of Nathaniel Bacon.

58

Trent, William P. and Benjamin W. Wells, eds. Colonial Prose and Poetry: The Beginnings of Americanism: 1650–1710, edited by, 1901.

“Strange News from Virginia,” often attributed to Ann Cotton, appears in this volume.

Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. Encyclopedia Virginia. Accessed Oct. 3, 2014.

https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org

Digitized transcripts from this site were consulted for the following documents: Articles of Peace (Treaty of Middle Plantation): http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Articles_of_Peace_1677 Richard Frethorne’s letter home: http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Letter_from_Richard_Frethorne_to_His_Parents_M arch_20_April_2-3_1623 Herbert Jeffrey’s character role sheet draws upon the following encyclopedia entry with no credited author. (Entries with credited authors are listed by author name).

https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/media_player?mets_filename=evm00002892mets. xml

Other Works Used in the Development of this Game Allen, Theodore W. The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 2: The Origin of Racial Oppression in

Anglo-America. London: Verso, 2012. Beverly, Robert. The History and Present State of Virginia. London, 1705. Billings, Warren M. “The Causes Of Bacon’s Rebellion: Some Suggestions,” Virginia Magazine

of History and Biography, 78 no. 4 (1970): 409–435. ——— .“The Law of Servants and Slaves in Seventeenth-Century Virginia.” Virginia Magazine

of History and Biography 99 (1991) :45-62. ———. The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia,

1606-1689. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1975. ———. Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia. Baton Rouge: Louisiana

State University Press, 2004. Carr, Lois G., Philip Morgan, and Jean Russo. Colonial Chesapeake Society. Chapel Hill:

University of North Carolina Press, 1988.

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Epperson, Terrence W. “A Separate House for the Christian Slaves, One for the Negro Slaves: The Archaeology of Race and Identity in Late Seventeenth-Century Virginia.” In Race and the Archaeology of Identity, edited by Charles E. Orser, 54-70. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2001.

Fausz, Frederick J. “Merging and Emerging Worlds: Anglo-Powhatan Interest Groups and the

Development of the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake.” In Colonial Chesapeake Society, edited by L. G. Carr, P. Morgan and J. Russo, 47-98. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

———. “Patterns of Anglo-Indian Aggression and Accommodation along the Mid-Atlantic

Coast, 1584 - 1634.” In Cultures in Contact: The European Impact on Native Cultural Institutions in Eastern North America, A.D. 1000-1800, edited by W. W. Fitzhugh, pp. 225-268. Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Institution, 1985.

Finestone, Harry. Bacon's Rebellion: The Contemporary News Sheets. Charlottesville: University

of Virginia Press, 1956. Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures. Lincoln,

Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Haile, Edward Wright, ed. Jamestown Narratives: Eyewitness Accounts of the Virginia Colony,

the First Decade, 1607-1617. Champlain, VA: RoundHouse, 1998. Harpole, Thane. “Bacon's Rebellion, 1676: A Review of the Sources and Interpretations.” In A

Study of Virginia Indians and Jamestown: The First Century. Report prepared for the National Park Service (Colonial National Historical Park) by Danielle Moretti-Langholtz et al. Williamsburg, VA.

Heywood, Linda Marinda, and John Kelly Thornton. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the

Making of the Anglo-Dutch Americas, 1585-1660. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Horn, James, and Philip D. Morgan. “Settlers and Slaves: European and African Migrations to

Early Modern British America.” In The Creation of the British Atlantic World, edited by Elizabeth Mancke and Carole Shammas, 32-74. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.

Ligon, Richard. A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados. Originally published, 1657.

Reprinted Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Classics, 2011. McCartney, Martha W. Documentary history of Jamestown Island. Report submitted to Colonial

Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA, 2000. ———. Virginia Immigrants and Adventurers, 1607-1635: A Biographical Dictionary.

Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2007.

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Morgan, Philip D. “British Encounters with Africans and African-Americans Circa 1600-1780.” In Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, edited by Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan, 157-219. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.

Neville, John Davenport. Bacon's Rebellion: Abstracts of Materials in the Colonial Records

Project. Jamestown: Jamestown Foundation, 1976. Oberg, Michael L. Samuel Wiseman's Book of Record: The Official Account of Bacon's Rebellion

in Virginia, 1676–1677. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005. Sluiter, Engel. “New Light on the ‘20 and Odd Negroes’ Arriving in Virginia, August 1619.” The

William and Mary Quarterly 54 no. 2 (1997):395-398. Tarter, Brent. “Bacon's Rebellion, the Grievances of the People, and the Political Culture of

Seventeenth-Century Virginia.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 119 no. 1 (2011):4-41.

Thornton, John. “The African Experience of the '20 and Odd Negroes' Arriving in Virginia in

1619.” In Colonial America: Essays in Politics and Social Development, edited by Stanley Nider Katz, John M. Murrin and Douglas Greenberg, 421-434. Boston: McGraw- Hill, 2001.

Webb, Stephen Saunders. 1676, The End of American Independence. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse

University Press, 1995.