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Brand Loyalty and Celebrity Endorsements in the Sports Apparel Industry Among

American and Kenyan Youth: A Qualitative Comparative Case Study

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

Graduate Faculty of the School of Business Management Technology

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

EDWIN ODIPO NYAMWALA

Prescott Valley, Arizona

January 23, 2017

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Abstract

Kenya and the United States have differences that may affect how products can be

marketed effectively by marketing companies. The problem that this study addressed

was that brand loyalty is often developed globally by marketers with little regard to

the differences in the characteristics of target customers. To address the problem, the

purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the perceptions of

American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports

apparel brands. Youth aging from 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States

comprised the sample given the value that marketers put in these key demographics.

Using purposive sampling strategy, 10 youth from colleges and universities in the city

of Nairobi in Kenya and 10 youth from colleges and universities in the city of

Nashville, Tennessee in the United States comprised the sample for the proposed

study. Data were collected through individual, face-to-face, semi-structured

interviews. Krippendorff’s method for content analysis was used to analyze the data.

The analysis yielded several major themes regarding the perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in sports apparel brands, celebrity endorsement and

cross-cultural marketing. There were both similarities and differences in every major

them between both groups of respondents, which both confirmed, and challenged, the

extant literature on brand loyalty, celebrity endorsement, and cross-cultural

marketing. It was recommended that marketing and advertising campaigns should

understand that the content of their campaign should be based on a contextual

framework of culture and should approach culturally sensitive communications from a

contextual point of view, and that across cultural marketing practitioners should

consider source credibility and trustworthiness, adapting campaigns to target

audiences’ cultural frames and expectations.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the contributions made by our families: The Akoto and

Nyamwala families. They did not write a single word of this work or draw any of the

maps of artworks, but their imprint can be found on everything we do. They support

us, encourage us, and inspire us. They give our work—and our lives—meaning. It is

with all our love and affection that we thank them.

Finally, to the memory of my father, Raphael Odipo Nyamwala, who provided

encouragement and guidance in ways he never imagined

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1

Background .............................................................................................................. 2

Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 5

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................ 7

Research Questions .................................................................................................. 8

Nature of the Study .................................................................................................. 8

Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 10

Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................ 12

Summary ................................................................................................................ 16

Chapter 2: Literature Review ....................................................................................... 17

Documentation ....................................................................................................... 17

Marketing ............................................................................................................... 18

Celebrity Endorsement........................................................................................... 20

Importance of Marketing ....................................................................................... 22

Advertising ............................................................................................................. 23

Peer Pressure and Consumer Conformity .............................................................. 25

Cross-cultural Marketing ....................................................................................... 28

Youth Marketing .................................................................................................... 31

Development of Brand Loyalty and Equity .......................................................... 32

Importance of Brand Loyalty ................................................................................. 33

Consumers’ Perceptions of Brands ........................................................................ 40

Celebrity Endorsements and Brand Loyalty .......................................................... 47

Advantages of Celebrity Endorsements ................................................................. 47

Disadvantages of Celebrity Endorsements ............................................................ 48

Main Qualities of a Celebrity ................................................................................. 50

Celebrity Endorsements’ Effect on Youth ............................................................. 51

Factors that Affect Customer Behavior ................................................................. 54

Marketing Athletic Apparel Brands ....................................................................... 54

Summary ................................................................................................................ 56

Chapter 3: Research Method ........................................................................................ 59

Research Methods and Design ............................................................................... 59

Population .............................................................................................................. 61

Sample.................................................................................................................... 62

Materials/Instruments ............................................................................................ 63

Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ............................................................ 64

Assumptions ........................................................................................................... 66

Limitations ............................................................................................................. 67

Delimitations .......................................................................................................... 68

Ethical Assurances ................................................................................................. 68

Summary ................................................................................................................ 69

Chapter 4: Results ........................................................................................................ 71

Findings.................................................................................................................. 75

Presentation of Findings ...................................................................................... 106

Summary .............................................................................................................. 109

vii

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ................................. 115

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1

Background .............................................................................................................. 2 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 5 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................ 7 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 8 Nature of the Study .................................................................................................. 8 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 10 Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................ 12 Summary ................................................................................................................ 16

Chapter 2: Literature Review ....................................................................................... 17

Documentation ....................................................................................................... 17 Marketing ............................................................................................................... 18 Celebrity Endorsement........................................................................................... 20 Importance of Marketing ....................................................................................... 22 Advertising ............................................................................................................. 23 Peer Pressure and Consumer Conformity .............................................................. 25 Cross-cultural Marketing ....................................................................................... 28 Youth Marketing .................................................................................................... 31 Importance of Brand Loyalty ................................................................................. 33 Consumers’ Perceptions of Brands ........................................................................ 40 Celebrity Endorsements and Brand Loyalty .......................................................... 47 Advantages of Celebrity Endorsements ................................................................. 47

Disadvantages of Celebrity Endorsements ............................................................ 48 Main Qualities of a Celebrity ................................................................................. 50 Celebrity Endorsements’ Effect on Youth ............................................................. 51 Factors that Affect Customer Behavior ................................................................. 54 Marketing Athletic Apparel Brands ....................................................................... 54 Summary ................................................................................................................ 56

Chapter 3: Research Method ........................................................................................ 59

Research Methods and Design ............................................................................... 59 Population .............................................................................................................. 61 Sample.................................................................................................................... 62 Materials/Instruments ............................................................................................ 63 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ............................................................ 64

Assumptions ........................................................................................................... 66 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 67

Delimitations .......................................................................................................... 68 Ethical Assurances ................................................................................................. 68 Summary ................................................................................................................ 69

Chapter 4: Results ........................................................................................................ 71

Findings.................................................................................................................. 75

Presentation of Findings ...................................................................................... 106 Summary .............................................................................................................. 109

viii

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ................................. 115

Implications.......................................................................................................... 117 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 126 Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................... 127 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 128

References .................................................................................................................. 129

Appendix A: Informed Consent Forms...................................................................... 142

Appendix B: Interview Questions .............................................................................. 144

Appendix C: IRB Forms ............................................................................................ 145

.............................................................................................................................. 146

International Research Permit .............................................................................. 147

.................................................................................................................................... 148

List of Tables

Table 1 ......................................................................................................................... 75

Table 2 ......................................................................................................................... 79

Table 3 ......................................................................................................................... 81

Table 4 ......................................................................................................................... 84

Table 5 ......................................................................................................................... 87

Table 6 ......................................................................................................................... 89

Table 7 ......................................................................................................................... 91

Table 8 ......................................................................................................................... 96

Chapter 1: Introduction

In the increasingly complex business world of the 21st century, many strategies

have been advised to gain and retain customers. Phenomena such as globalization, market

saturation, and better information technology have driven strategies such as customer

awareness and long-term customer relationships, which are favored above relatively

short-term strategies to gain new customers, such as product price and quality (Kinuthia,

Mburugu, Muthomi, & Mwihaki, 2012). Indeed, creating brand loyalty in order to retain

customers in the long term has played a key role in long-term business success. To

accomplish this, brands such as those operating within the sportswear industry have

emphasized strategies to appeal to consumers responding to products at the individual

level. Customer loyalty is a significant determinant in the amount of product being

bought and the frequency of repeat purchases.

While these concepts have been examined in the past, few investigators have

focused their attention on comparing brand loyalty among consumers within developed

countries such as the United States, as opposed to their counterparts in developing

countries such as Kenya. Even though there is evidence that market behaviors and trends

can be consistent across different countries (Ko et al., 2012; Pule, Van Heerden, &

Nthangeni, 2012), it is possible that differences also exist (Pule et al., 2012). The

differences can be attributed to various factors, which may include cultural norms, the

economy, and marketing standard practices (Pule et al., 2012). Examining the similarities

and differences in perceptions among youth in the United States and Kenya is important

to avoid generic marketing plans that are not applicable in every geographic context.

Despite the proliferation of global brands intended for mass appeal, cross-cultural

research remains important in order to understand the differences across different market

cultures (Pule et al., 2012). A market strategy that is effective in one market cannot be

assumed to be effective in another market given differences in variables such as culture,

the size of the economy, and other relevant variables (Pule et al., 2012). Promotional

messages of marketing companies need to match with the different demographics or

characteristics of customers in order to be successful in making the target audience buy

the products that they are marketing (Pule et al., 2012).

Background

The focus of this study was to explore the similarities and differences regarding

the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements in athletic apparel brands. Kenya and the United States have economic and

cultural differences that may affect how products can be marketed effectively by

marketing companies (Darley et al., 2013). Kenya and the United States were selected

because sports apparel brands are popular among youth because of comfort and flexibility

(Kinuthia, Mburugu, Muthomi, & Mwihaki, 2012; Ko, Taylor, Sung, Lee, Wagner,

Navarro, & Wang, 2012). Comparing the perceptions of customers of a developed and

developing country can be instrumental in generating information that can be used to

create more effective marketing plans or strategies.

A host of factors, including marketing athletics apparel brands can be positioned

in terms of locus of benefit, objectives, and focus on exchange, influence the marketing

athletic of apparel brands (Ko et al., 2012). Notably, marketing can be commercial,

cause-related, or social. When it comes to social marketing, this type of advertising is

used to influence the voluntary behavior of an audience for its personal and societal

welfare. The authors also noted that this type of marketing has been used increasingly in

the sporting environment in terms of a unique set of objectives and outcomes.

Celebrity endorsement is one of the most popular market strategies used by

companies in various sectors, including in the sports apparel industry (Dwivedi,

McDonald, & Johnson, 2014). Chung, Derdenger, and Srinivasan (2013) examined the

economic value of celebrity endorsements by investigating how Tiger Woods influenced

the sales of Nike golf balls. Using both reduced form and structural analyses, Chung et al.

(2013) found support in the effects of celebrity endorsements, specifically in terms of

convincing consumers to switch brands and to increase the demand for the product. The

researchers reported that from 2000-2010, $9.9 million of the $103 million total sales of

Nike golf balls can be attributed to the celebrity endorsement of Tiger Woods. Celebrity

endorsements are often used as a marketing strategy in the sports apparel industry,

justifying the need to explore how the strategy is perceived by youth from Kenya and the

United States (Dwivedi et al., 2014).

Brand loyalty is one of the important factors that leaders of marketing companies

use because, once loyalty is developed from customers, it increases the likelihood that

customers will continue supporting the product long-term (Chen, Chen, & Lin, 2011;

Mise, Nair, Odhiambo Odera, & Ogutu, 2013). For example, the sports brand ‘Under

Armour’ was able to grow as a company because of research and development and the

company’s intensive focus on developing brand loyalty and brand identity (Miloch et al.,

2012). Brand loyalty takes time and effort from the leaders of manufacturing companies

to develop (Zehir, Şahin, Kitapçı, & Özşahin, 2011). Brand loyalty is often developed

when various antecedents such as consumer satisfaction with products, brand trust, and

perception of high quality of products and services are present (Ha, John, Janda, &

Muthaly, 2011; Zehir et al., 2011).

In terms of the market for sports apparel, there is evidence that market trends

appear to have similarities across different countries (Ko et al., 2012). In the United

States and other parts of the world, individuals often buy sports apparel for leisure

activities and to support a brand (Pule et al., 2012). Similar to other business brands,

sports apparel companies explore different strategies to ensure the success of the brand,

which includes brand diversification and having a distinct product personality

(Giannoulakis & Apostolopoulou, 2011; Tong & Su, 2014).

Research on brand loyalty suggests effectiveness among young adults or youth,

which is a demographic group that is often characterized as fickle (Lazarevic, 2012). The

effectiveness of brand loyalty among young adults can be attributed to the tendency of

the demographic group to develop an emotional attachment to brands (Hwang &

Kandampully, 2012). Young adults are an important demographic group for marketing

companies because of their purchasing power as a group (Grant & Waite, 2003). Young

adults respond to brand loyalty when marketing companies make an effort to connect

with customers (Hwang & Kandampully, 2012).

With an increasingly globalized economy, leaders of marketing companies often

view brand loyalty as a concept that can be universally encouraged or developed

regardless of the characteristics or demographics of their target customers (Frederick &

Patil, 2010). However, the development of brand loyalty in customers is more effective

when marketers pay sufficient attention to the characteristics of their target customers

(Pule et al., 2012). Understanding the decision-making process of young adults regarding

brand loyalty requires understanding their perceptions (Crutzen, Nooijer, Brouwer,

Oenema, Brug, & Vries, 2009). Understanding the target audience of marketing

companies, which in this study included youth from Kenya and the United States, is

important in order to have better marketing plans to develop brand loyalty. Kenya and the

United States were selected because sports apparel brands such as Nike, Adidas, Puma,

Umbro, Speedo, Reebok, and Fila are popular among youth in both countries, because of

comfort and flexibility (Kinuthia et al., 2012; Ko et al., 2012).

Several differences in economy and culture exist between the United Sates and

Kenya, which may affect how brands can be marketed successfully in each context

(Darley, Luethge, & Blankson, 2013; Pule et al., 2012). With Kenya’s status as an

emerging economy compared to the United States’ stronger and more established

economy, the size of the economy is one difference that marketing companies need to

consider, because the ability of youth customers to purchase products can be different

(Pule et al., 2012). Another difference is the cultural contexts that target customers are

exposed to, underscoring the importance of differentiating the target customers from

different market areas to develop marketing strategies that are more effective (Darley et

al., 2013).

Statement of the Problem

Sports apparel is popular in both Kenya and the United States (Kinuthia et al.,

2012). The general problem that this study focused on was that marketers do not

recognize the cultural and economic differences between Kenya and the United States

(Darley et al., 2013). In support of this problem, is the presence of cultural and economic

differences between the countries, suggesting that universal strategies to develop brand

loyalty may not be appropriate and effective (Darley et al., 2013; Pule et al., 2012).

Complicating the problem is that most studies conducted on brand loyalty were based on

Western perspectives and samples, which may not be applicable in other parts of the

world (Mise et al., 2013). Matching the marketing plan with the specific target customers

is an effective method in developing brand loyalty (Pule et al., 2012). This congruence

underscores the importance of understanding the similarities and differences of different

markets from different countries to generate effective marketing strategies. Kenya and the

United States were selected because sports apparel is popular in both countries among

youth because of comfort and flexibility (Kinuthia et al., 2012; Ko et al., 2012).

The specific problem that this study addressed was that strategies such as

celebrity endorsements and brand loyalty are often developed globally by marketers with

little regard to the differences in the characteristics of target customers (Darley et al.,

2013; Frederick & Patil, 2010). The method in which marketers need to address their

customer targets in Kenya and the United States should be different, because of the

differences in the two countries in terms of economy and socio-cultural environment

(Darley et al., 2013). Based on this specific problem, the gap in the literature is the lack

of information regarding the similarities and differences in the perceptions of American

and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. If this study was not

conducted, marketing companies would continue to use generic plans to develop brand

loyalty, failing to incorporate the differences that exist in different target customers in

different countries.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the

perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements

in sports apparel brands. A comparative case study research design is an appropriate

design because it allowed for an in-depth exploration of brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements from the perspectives of youth from the United States and Kenya. Youth

aging from 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States comprised the sample, given the

value that marketers put in these key demographics (Lazarevic, 2012). Youth below 18

years old was excluded from the study, because of the ethical implication of increased

protection for participants who are considered minor. Using purposive sampling strategy,

10 youth from colleges and universities in the city of Nairobi in Kenya and 10 youth from

colleges and universities in the city of Nashville, Tennessee in the United States

comprised the sample for the proposed study.

Nashville and Nairobi were selected as the sites where the samples were recruited

because both are urban cities that are accessible to the researcher. In qualitative studies,

the use of 10 participants for each country was sufficient to reach data saturation, which

is the point in which all information relevant to a phenomenon has been collected

(O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). If data saturation was not achieved at the target sample size,

more participants would have been recruited until no new information was revealed. The

data collection source was individual semi-structured interviews intended to capture the

participants’ perceptions about brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements on sports

apparel products. Data were collected through individual, face-to-face, semi-structured

interviews. Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content analysis was used to analyze the

data to develop categories and themes.

Research Questions

Developing brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements are popular strategies used

by marketing companies to increase sales (Karjaluoto et al., 2015; Love et al., 2015).

Sportswear customers in Kenya and United States may have different perceptions about

brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements because of economic and cultural differences

(Darley et al., 2013). Based on past research indicating that marketing strategies and

trends across different geographic settings can have similarities and differences (Ko et al.,

2012; Pule et al., 2012), the following research questions are proposed:

Q1. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in

sports apparel brands?

Q2. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands?

Q3. What are the similarities and differences in the perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands?

Nature of the Study

Qualitative research methods were used in this study, focusing on the in-depth

exploration of a phenomenon based on the subjective perceptions and interpretations of a

group of people, regardless of whether objective truth is attained or not (Berg & Lune,

2013). Subjective experience and perceptions are the focus of qualitative studies. In

qualitative studies, the goal is to produce data that are comprehensive, inductive, and

holistic in order to serve as the foundation for future quantitative studies (Berg & Lune,

2013). A quantitative research approach would not have been appropriate because the

methods used in quantitative research would not be able to provide in-depth data needed

to describe and explain the research phenomenon of exploring the similarities and

differences regarding the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in

athletic apparel brands. A qualitative research approach was appropriate, because the

purpose of the study requires rich, detailed and in-depth responses from the participants

to answer the research questions.

The research design that was used was a qualitative comparative case study. A

case study research design is a detailed examination of a phenomenon using various

sources in order to achieve comprehensiveness (Yin, 2011). A comparative case study is

the specific type of case study research design that will be used, wherein the goal is to

compare and contrast two phenomena that are related to each other in a systematic

manner. For this study, the phenomena that were compared were the perceptions of youth

from Kenya and the United States regarding brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. A

non-comparative approach would not be able to differentiate the perceptions of American

and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands, which is the purpose of the

study.

For the proposed comparative case study, the boundary was defined as the

perceptions on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements on sports apparel brands of

youth whose ages were between 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States. The unit of

analysis was the perceptions of youth from Kenya and the United States. The unit of

measure was semi-structured interviews intended to capture the perceptions of American

and Kenya youth.

Data collection involved collecting qualitative data online using Survey Monkey,

which included open-ended questions. The information collected determined the reasons

for the popularity of certain brands. For instance, consumers were asked why they prefer

a certain brand over others, or why they preferred to avoid some brands altogether. Many

of these responses related to attitudes and feelings about brand loyalty in the sports

apparel industry, which was consistent with the information needed to answer the

research questions of the study.

Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content analysis was used to analyze the data to

develop categories and themes that reflected the perceptions of youth in Kenya and the

United States about brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. Analyzing data and

obtaining themes were important in terms of understanding the phenomenon explored

(Guion, Diehl, & McDonald, 2013). Of particular importance was the component of

thematizing, where the purpose of the interview was determined, along with analyzing

and verifying the data. The goal of the analysis was the generation of themes that would

provide answers to the similarities and differences regarding the perceptions of American

and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant because the results can provide insights on the perceived

effectiveness of celebrity endorsements and brand loyalty as strategic marketing tools in

two countries that have different economic and cultural backgrounds. Because of

economic and cultural differences, sportswear customers in Kenya and United States

might have different perceptions about brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements (Darley

et al., 2013). The results of the study could lead to a more effective and efficient

marketing plan in the sports apparel industries in Kenya and the United States.

The benefit that can be attained from this study is a greater understanding of the

similarities and differences in brand loyalty beliefs and practices of youth consumers

between the United States and Kenya, which can result in better marketing strategies

appropriate for the target customers. In addition to providing significant information

relating to the ways in which brand loyalty manifests among the two populations, this

information could also be used for secondary purposes, such as identifying effective

marketing and manufacturing strategies in both the United States and Kenya for a more

efficient use of company resources. The results of the study could also contribute to a

greater understanding regarding the effective ways to expand sports apparel businesses in

both countries to increase profits.

There was a need to conduct this study in order to address the gap in the literature

on the lack of information regarding the similarities and differences in the perceptions of

American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. Addressing the

identified gap in the literature could contribute to the expansion of cross-cultural studies

on the applicability of brand loyalty in two different geographic locations. Kenya and the

United States were selected because one is a developing country and the other is a

developed country, but sports apparel is popular in both among youth (Kinuthia et al.,

2012; Ko et al., 2012). The literature on how to develop the brand loyalty of the youth

population in sports apparel products was expanded by exploring the experiences and

perceptions of youth consumers, which is important to generate a more effective

marketing plan based on target customers.

Definition of Key Terms

The following key terms are defined:

Brand Association: The term brand association can be defined as the idea of

associating certain items or persons with a brand (Kunkel, Funk, & King, 2009). This

might include groups such as sports teams, a celebrity, or a specific item of clothing.

Brand Awareness: This term is defined as the extent to which a brand is

recognized by potential customers, and is correctly associated with a particular product

expressed usually as a percentage of the target market (Labrecque, Krishen, &

Grezskowiak, 2011).

Brand Identification: The term is defined as the prominence of a brand in the

public mind. Some brands, for example, are identified readily because of their prevalence

in shops, their high level of association with specific celebrities, or the longevity of their

existence (Labrecque, Krishen, & Grezskowiak, 2011).

Brand Loyalty: The term brand loyalty refers to the specific feelings in a

youthful person that encourage such a person to buy one brand of sportswear in

preference to another (Mante, 2011).

Brand Personality: This term is defined as a set of characteristics that are

attributed to a brand name. A brand personality is something to which the consumer can

relate to, and an effective brand will increase its brand equity by having a consistent set

of traits. Customers are more likely to purchase a brand if its personality is similar to

their own (Labrecque, Krishen, & Grezskowiak, 2011).

Branded Products: For the purpose of this study, “branded products” refer to

sports apparel brands, unless otherwise stated. Other types of branded products may be

used as a demonstration of consumer behavior and loyalty towards their chosen brands.

Specifically, branded products refer to sports apparel that has been labeled and registered

as specific brands, including examples such as Nike, Speedo, Adidas, and the like. More

generally, branded products can also refer to items of clothing that are associated with a

sport event or team rather than being used for a specific sports type (Hwan &

Kandampully, 2012). Sport team brands, for example, will refer to apparel that contains

prints of names and symbols associated with sports teams, while league brands will refer

to the same type of apparel that celebrates leagues (Kunkel, Funk, & King, 2009). The

term “brand association” is encompassed in this concept.

Commitment Measures: This is defined as what one is willing to sacrifice can

measure the commitment they are taking. In this case study, it is what the youthful

consumers are willing to sacrifice in exchange of owning or purchasing a certain brand

(Labrecque, Krishen, & Grezskowiak, 2011).

Consumer: For the purpose of the study “consumer” generally refers to a person

who buys sports apparel for his or her personal use until the product perishes or is

damaged. Replacement of the product will then occur by repurchase either of the same or

a different brand, depending on the brand loyalty that has been created because of the

original purchase (Labrecque et al., 2011).

Consumer Behavior: This is the study of a segment of consumer and the process

they use to select, secure and dispose of a particular brand to satisfy needs and the

impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society (Labrecque, Krishen, &

Grezskowiak, 2011).

Developed Country: The term is defined as a country in which infrastructure and

the economy have achieved a high state of development, such as the United States

(Kunkel, Funk, & King, 2009). These countries are generally also known as “first-world”

countries, where the poverty and unemployment levels are relatively low. Basic

necessities such as food, water, and relative luxuries such as electricity and the Internet

are available to all but the destitute citizens.

Developing Country: The term refers to those countries that are still developing

in terms of their infrastructure, economy, and position in the world market, such as

Kenya (Javana et al., 2013). These countries are sometimes known as “third world”

countries. Often, there are high poverty and unemployment levels in these countries. At

any rate, the unemployment level in such countries tends to be higher than in the

developed world. Furthermore, there is often an interesting cultural integration of the

traditional and influences from the outside developed world.

E-Loyalty: This term refers to the likelihood of a previous online customer to

continue to make repeat purchases online over a long period of time without visiting the

actual brick and mortar store. Great attention is given to marketing and customer services

to retain current virtual customers (Lazarevic, 2012).

Emotional Factors: These are internal, individual factors that influence brand

loyalty for each person. Hwan and Kandampully (2012) investigated specific components

such as self-concept, emotional attachment, and brand love in terms of how these

influence brand loyalty on an emotional level. For young people, emotion plays an

important role in decision-making and in the relationship they build with the products

they choose and prefer to purchase. Their self-concept, for example, may drive the

purchase of a certain brand for its positive perception and wanting to be associated with

such a positive association as a feeling within themselves and among their peers.

Personal Purchase Behavior: The term is defined as the study of an individual

youth and the process they use to select, secure and dispose of different brands to satisfy

their needs and the impact that these processes have on the other youths and society. The

personal purchase behavior of the youth will be put to task in order to understand them

better and the factors that influence their decision when it comes to making a purchase

(Chen et al., 2011).

Psychological Process: This term is defined as the process that is involved in

acquisition and understanding of knowledge, information of beliefs and attitudes and

decision-making and problem solving in settling for a particular type of brands (Hwan &

Kandampully, 2012).

Social Factors: Labrecque, Krishen, and Grezskowiak (2011) explore social

factors as motivation for brand loyalty. Specifically, these refer to the apparently polar

opposites of conformity and escapism. In terms of conformity, a brand would encourage

similarity among its users. In other words, a person with peers who prefer to buy a brand

for certain reasons may buy the same brand to conform to the peer group.

Sportswear/Sports Apparel: This term refers to clothing used for the purpose of

exercising a particular type of sport. Specific types of apparel, for example, are most

appropriate for sports like tennis, swimming, cycling, and the like. While specific sports

were referred to in the study, any type of sport for which special apparel is required was

implied (Kinuthia et al., 2012).

Youth: Youth is operationally defined in this study as any person from 18 to 30

years of age. For the purpose of this study, the youth to be approached was from college

and university settings to facilitate recruitment and reach the target of 20 participants. For

the purpose of this study, consumers refer to youthful consumers of sports brands, unless

otherwise stated (Hwan & Kandampully, 2012).

Summary

Kenya and United States have cultural differences that can affect how brands can

be marketed successfully in each country (Pule et al., 2012). The problem is that

marketing companies often develop brand loyalty without consideration of the

differences of the target customers (Darley et al., 2013; Frederick & Patil, 2010). The

purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the perceptions of

American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports

apparel brands.

The research design that was used was a qualitative comparative case study,

which involved comparing and contrasting two inter-related phenomena in a systematic

method (Yin, 2013). Data collection involved collecting qualitative data online using

Survey Monkey, which included open-ended questions. Content analysis was used to

analyze the data (Krippendorff, 2012). The results of the study are significant because of

the greater understanding that can be gained regarding the similarities and differences in

brand loyalty beliefs and practices of youth consumers between the United States and

Kenya to generate more effective marketing strategies, increase sales, and improve the

efficient utilization of resources.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The purpose of the proposed qualitative comparative case study was to explore

the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands. The sample consisted of 10 youth from Nairobi,

Kenya and 10 youth from Nashville, Tennessee, and Atlanta, Georgia in the United

States, resulting in a sample size of 20 participants. Data were collected through open-

ended interview questions administered online. Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content

analysis was used to analyze the data, resulting in thematic patterns from the interviews

of the 20 participants.

This literature review examined 18 major areas and sub-areas pertinent to the

study and its findings. The review begins exploring the major concept of marketing and

celebrity endorsement, examining the areas of the importance of marketing, advertising,

peer pressure and consumer conformity, cross-cultural marketing, and youth marketing.

The next major area of review is the development of brand loyalty and equity, with

subsections surveying the topics of importance of brand loyalty and consumers’

perceptions of brands. The subsequent section is celebrity endorsements and brand

loyalty, which has five subsections: advantages of celebrity endorsements, disadvantages

of celebrity endorsements, main qualities of a celebrity, and factors that affect consumer

behavior. The final section is marketing athletic apparel brands. The chapter concludes

with a summary of the literature review.

Documentation

To gather relevant materials to complete the literature review, the researcher used

multiple databases to search for materials. Among the databases used were ERIC,

Education Research Complete, Education from SAGE, Education Research Starters, and

Oxford Education Bibliographies. I also used ProQuest Central, Academic Search

Complete, and PsycINFO. Dissertations, peer-reviewed journal articles, and books were

retrieved and reviewed for inclusion.

The following keywords were used: advertising, brand loyalty, brand equity,

branding, brand image, brand extensions, celebrity endorsements, marketing, and the

United States marketing. The advanced search tool was used to eliminate records that

were outside the selected limits. Most of the materials included were published from

2011 to 2015.

Marketing

Marketing strategies have become a mainstay for corporations to remain

competitive in today’s increasingly complex business world. Effective marketing can

lead to the creation of brand personality and equity (Gombeski, Martin, & Britt, 2015;

Keller, & Dato-on, 2015; Krush, Sohl, & Saini, 2015; Ryoo, Jeon, & Lee, 2015).

According to Sung and Kim (2010), the marketing mix of price, person, place, and

product, as well as brand exposure, are the components of brand personality. Marketing

strategies are said to be crucial to the creation of distinctive brand personalities. If the

brand personalities can be sustained over time through strong marketing efforts, a strong

brand personality will be the outcome (Sung & Kim, 2010).

Brand equity, a marketing term describing the advantages of having a well-known

brand name, can be increased by effective marketing strategies as well. Studies showed

that one of the best methods for a company to attain equity within its market is through

branding and marketing. Loyalty created to the brand may benefit the business (Caruana,

Ramasashan, & Krentier, 2015). Caruana et al. (2015) evaluated the relationship between

the three constructs of corporate reputation, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty

in a Singaporean insurance firm. Results showed that corporate reputation can influence

customer loyalty. However, this relationship is mediated by the construct of customer

satisfaction. Customer loyalty is important because repeat business is one of the most

important goals of companies. Loyal customers often spell an increase in the sales and

profits of the company (Caruana et al., 2015; Hsiao & Chiou, 2015). In addition, a loyal

customer base makes an organization attractive to investors (Karjaluoto, Jayawardhena,

Pihlstrom, & Leppaniemi, 2015; Love, Staton, & Rotman, 2015). Karjaluoto et al. (2014)

evaluated the effects of service quality, trust, and perceived value on customer loyalty.

Gathering data from 1385 mobile subscribers, results showed that service quality can

strongly influence the trust levels of the customers. In turn, trust can directly influence

the perceived value of the company in the eyes of the customers. Trust and perceived

value can both influence loyalty of the customers. Because loyal customers are also proud

of being associated with the brand and this can create long-term and sustainable business

for the company (Karjaluoto et al., 2015; Love et al., 2015). Studies showed that that

having a unique brand is critical to a company’s survival, especially when the business

environment is competitive, complex, and unpredictable. To have a unique brand

necessitates the company to be continuously involved in key marketing activities of

product development and innovation (Karjaluoto et al., 2015; Love et al., 2015).

Different types of marketing strategies have been devised to attract and maintain

customers. However, globalization, market saturation, and increasingly sophisticated

strategies are all modern forces that can influence the marketing strategies of firms,

whose goals have shifted from gaining new customers to the creation of longer-term

customer relationships (Clark, Key, Hodis, & Rajaratnam, 2014; Cunningham & Ferrell,

2015; Jefferson & Anthony, 2014; Ozsomer & Yaprak, 2015). Strategies on product

price and quality are not enough anymore as branding and marketing strategies can differ

among countries (Clark et al., 2014; Cunningham & Ferrell, 2015; Jefferson & Anthony,

2014; Ozsomer & Yaprak, 2015). In several instances, marketers need to establish very

different advertising strategies when promoting their products and services to different

nations (Godey et al., 2012; Herstein, 2012; Kleppe & Mossberg, 2015). In Godey et al.’s

(2012) study, wherein the researchers asked 1102 consumers from the seven countries of

China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Russia and the United States of America to complete a

survey on the effects of brand and country-of-origin in purchasing decisions, results

showed that both factors influence consumer’s decisions to buy products, whether luxury

or non-luxury items. This means that marketers now need to appeal to different nations’

cultures, which include their beliefs and customs (Walker, 2011). According to Walker,

because Saudi Arabia prohibits or frowns upon having a woman’s face exposed,

Starbucks—whose logo features a female—changed their logo to a crown swimming in

the sea (Walker, 2011). Moreover, because the behavior of consumers is influenced by

globalization, marketers should also be sensitive to these differences.

Celebrity Endorsement

Marketers use a wide range of methods in order to attract consumers to increase

product purchases; one such long-standing marketing technique is celebrity

endorsements, which companies have been using since the 1920s (Calvert, 2008). A

growing body of recent research has indicated that marketers frequently invest millions of

dollars each year on celebrity endorsers with the goal of influencing the perceptions of

consumer and their purchase decision intentions (Dwivendi, Johnson, & McDonald,

2015; Tantiseneepong, Gorton, & White, 2012; Tran, 2013; Zhou & Whitla, 2013). This

body of research has documented that, among other outcomes, celebrity endorsers can

help establish credibility for advertisements, improve brand recognition, improve the

ability of consumers to recall advertising messages, forge a more positive attitude about a

brand, and differentiate an endorsed brand from its competitors (Belch & Belch, 2013;

Choi & Rifon, 2012; Van der Veen & Song, 2014). Van der Veen and Song (2014)

empirically assessed the mediating effects of the impact of the perceived image of

celebrity endorsers on tourists’ intentions to visit by measuring the effects of celebrity-

endorsed print advertisements for travel destinations. Results showed that celebrity

endorsers significantly shaped people’s attitudes and visit intentions, more so when

compared to non-celebrity endorsed advertisements. Endorsements from celebrities are

thought to create an environment in which consumers are more likely to select an

endorsed brand over others (Choi & Rifon, 2012; Van der Veen & Song, 2014). This

belief has been borne out repeatedly by real-world uses of celebrity endorsements.

Agrawal and Kamakura (1995) determined that even the mere announcement that

a company has entered into contractual arrangements with a celebrity endorser is

sufficient to drive the price of their stocks up. Moreover, there is also a growing

consensus that, despite the high costs that are frequently associated with celebrity

endorsement contracts, the return on investment is worthwhile (Elberse & Verleun,

2012). Elberse and Verleun (2012), who carried out a synthesis of literature analysis,

found that celebrity endorsements can lead to positive pay-off in terms of brand levels

sales and firm-level stock returns. Results also showed that using celebrities as endorsers

as a marketing strategy can lead to increased market shares. Sales increase in absolute

terms relative to their rivals: better financial performance, sales, and stock returns

(Elberse & Verleun, 2012).

It is important for companies that are considering the use of celebrity endorsers to

understand how to use these marketing techniques to their best advantage, since even if

their positive effects have been widely documented, some studies have also found that

celebrity endorsements have their limitations (Bojanic, Voli, & Hunt, 2015; Jain et al.,

2012; Tantiseneepong et al., 2012). For instance, Bojanic et al. (2015) found that

consumers will not always be able to associate a celebrity endorser to a brand.

Importance of Marketing

In the United States and those affected by the global recession, effective

marketing has paved the way for companies to be successful even during the economic

downturn. Civi (2013) designed a study to look at the effects of the 2007-2009 recession

on businesses and consumers across the world. During the recession, potential customers

became unemployed, and some businesses had to close down. With intense feelings of

uncertainty and instability, most consumers started to adopt new purchasing patterns,

choosing cheaper goods and shifting from branded items to the generic ones. Marketers

felt the brunt of the recession; they observed reduced purchasing power, changing

preferences, and the consequent decreasing sales volume and profits. The researcher,

however, found out that even within the dismal business environment, marketers or

companies that employed appropriate and timely marketing strategies were able to

experience new sources of growth opportunities, such as greater sales, higher stock

returns, and larger market shares. Companies that responded quickly and adapted their

marketing strategies to these changing preferences and behaviors of consumers were the

ones that could tap into these new growth opportunities (Civi, 2013). Civi (2013)

conducted a literature review analysis and found that marketing strategies are important

when consumer behaviors are shifting; without adequate and appropriate marketing

efforts, these shifts can possibly negatively influence companies’ businesses. New

marketing strategies should be employed when there are changes in consumer

preferences, especially when the changes are being generated by negative events, such as

recessions.

Advertising

Marketing professionals usually use advertisements to establish and cultivate their

brands among their target consumers’ brand equity (Aaker & Biel, 2013; Buil, de

Chernatony, & Martínez, 2013; Carlson, 2015; Keshari, Jain, & Jain, 2012; Luo & de

Jong, 2012). Buil et al. (2013) in particular, through a survey of 302 UK consumers,

found that consumers’ feelings and perceptions toward advertisements can influence

brand equity dimensions. Moreover, it was found that advertising on certain brands

improves brand awareness. For instance, Choubineh, Zarei, and Ahmadi (2014) examined

the effects of television advertising on the brand equity of a cosmetic brand in Tehran

using a descriptive survey. Gathering 384 customers to complete the survey and SPSS

analysis, the results revealed that television advertising can positively shape brand equity

through brand identity and personality. The findings revealed that advertising can

certainly lead to positive effects for brands, but one limitation is that it did not

differentiate among various forms of advertising, such as print advertisements, radio, and

Internet advertisements, focusing only on television advertisements.

Daily, consumers all over the world are relentlessly attacked with a barrage of

advertisements, testimonials, and advice on usage of commodities. Each of these

exercises is an endeavor to persuade the person to procure a specific commodity in order

to achieve some type of contentment (Ha et al., 2011). The duty of the marketing

professional is to launch a marketing technique aimed toward this objective. An

advertisement has a remarkable influence and is indispensable to the profitability of

enterprises in aggressive markets. For this reason, American companies’ annual spending

on advertisements runs into the billions, specifically to engage the services of marketing

research outfits, gather knowledge, and find out which mode of advertising is the most

effective in leading to higher sales (Ha et al., 2011). The researchers concluded that

advertising is an important component of marketing, and should be a well-thought-out

and planned endeavor (Ha et al., 2011).

Apart from persuading people to patronize the company’s products and services,

advertisements can serve to draw a minuscule minority of early adopters and instant

customers, who are vital to companies in vastly aggressive markets (Bruce, Foutz, &

Kolsarici, 2012). In markets where competition is cut throat, these customers are

analogous to the “sway” electorates during elections. Advertisements can also acquaint

customers to a brand or a company, even if they do not make consumption decisions

immediately (Bruce et al., 2012). A primary feature of advertisements is concerned with

the building the expectations of quality through diverse roles – as a pointer to value,

disseminator of knowledge, as a hindrance to the entry of rivals in the industry, and

others. Usually, first-time buyers are the most influenced by advertisements.

Advertisements can push them to make a purchase, which can possibly lead to

satisfaction and recurring buys. However, while increased preliminary expectations might

end up in preliminary buys, exaggerated expectations result in displeasure and thus lower

buyers in the years to come. This is why companies should make sure the promises they

make in their advertisements can be carried out. The maintenance of expectations before

and after purchase is a crucial element of marketing technique (Bruce et al., 2012).

Customizing advertisements, or constructing messages and presented through

advertisements suited to the target market’s taste, age, and culture allows marketing

personnel the chance to enhance the precision of their goals. At the same time,

customized advertisements can allow the company to interact with their target market

better, enhancing their contentment and encouraging them to purchase the goods and

services that the company is advertising (Trisnawati, 2012). Many studies have

discovered that below 18% of the audience are satisfied with the ads that are aired. The

bulk of the viewers feel irritated and that the advertisement is an invasion to their main

purpose, which is to be amused or communicated with. A minuscule effort has been made

on customization in the realm of television, limited only to the suggestion of television

programs that are in consonance with the choices of the viewers. This is increasingly

ineffective in a time where most possible consumers are online instead of watching

television programs (McCoy, Everand, Galletta, & Moody, 2012; Saiganesh &

Parameswaran, 2012).

Peer Pressure and Consumer Conformity

Marketing strategies and advertisements are also crafted with the idea that normal

consumers can be influenced by other people. This is why the “impact of others” is

strived for by most marketing treatments (Miao & Mattila, 2013). The bulk of the

techniques of marketing involves exhibiting pretty and satisfied individuals enjoying

some commodities, thus enticing consumers toward their products or services in order to

be more like these pretty and satisfied individuals. Most advertisements including famous

people vouching for the quality of the commodity through spoken or non-vocal language.

Adolescents, who are quite impressionable, are the most likely to be influenced by

advertisements featuring famous people (Miao & Mattila, 2013).

Several psychological studies have delved into this concept of compliance, or

adherence, to advertisements when making purchasing decisions, as a marketing weapon

(Kastanakis & Balabanie, 2012). This is especially true among companies of luxury

brands (Kastanakis & Balabanie, 2012; 2014). In a particular study on adolescents,

compliance was established as a guiding feature in the buying of apparel. Studies

illustrated that compliance also influenced children as young as eight years of age and

that with the growing in the age of the children, compliance increasingly impacted the

buying choices they made (Huang, Wang, & Shi, 2012). For instance, Eric (2014)

designed a study whereby a survey was used to explore the complex relationship between

young adults’ family-oriented communications, television viewing, peer communication,

and materialism. From 1002 completed questionnaires, Eric established that the

materialism of adolescents is affected by television viewing, apart from their peers and

family. Evidently, if a person is keen to offer compliance in one sphere, they are

generally keen on compliance in many spheres. This stretches into the spheres of buying

choices, particularly while the persons are anxious regarding how others perceive them.

In general, there are more chances of compliance to happen, provided the person

associates with those who are offering their views, or the people participating in the

advertisements. Studies have shown that peer pressure impacts persons all through their

lives (Huang et al., 2012).

Compliance, in particular, is observable among pre-adolescents because they are

susceptible to peer pressure. Pre-adolescents have stated that peer pressure is “to some

extent” or “moderately significant” in their buying processes. The pre-adolescents

displayed a tendency to purchase and behave in a manner that was in conformity with the

team they were a part of. This pattern of socialization progressed in adolescents. It has

been established that adolescents depend on the views of their associates to arrive at

buying decisions (Huang et al., 2012).

Isaksen and Roper (2012) looked at this phenomenon of companies taking

advantage of teenagers’ emotional insecurities to shape their buying decisions. Their

study was designed to explore British adolescents’ consumption patterns, especially

fashion consumption, and how these affected their self-esteem. Data from 100

adolescents showed that peer pressure and the importance of conformity affected

adolescents’ buying decisions and that companies take advantage of this weakness. The

results revealed that most adolescents believe that having the correct possessions at the

right time is necessary to be widely socially accepted. Having the correct possessions is

also seen as a way to make friends and have higher self-esteem. Adolescents believed

that not having the right items could put their social status in jeopardy. Their

consumption patterns were shaped by fears of social exclusion, negative peer evaluation,

and lowered self-esteem. Even if young consumers were not financially stable, they were

eager and willing to purchase the most expensive brands. Interestingly, Isaksen and

Roper (2012) found that adolescents know that companies can take advantage of their

weaknesses through their marketing activities, but they are unable to resist the branding

and advertising strategies being employed. When an individual has complied and yielded

to the demands of the crowd, they will generally consent to buy the commodity.

Marketing strategies that tap into the human tendency to want to be part of the popular

crowd tend to be more successful.

However, studies have shown that the compliance initiative has less influence on

older and higher-educated adults and professionals. As such, marketers employ special

marketing initiatives for those prospective markets. Therefore, the effects of the

compliance effect on buying choices are not definite (Giovannini, Xu, & Thomas, 2015).

The current study is designed to look at how marketing strategies affect the specific

population group of youth, so it is expected that there are unique features in youth

marketing that would be revealed.

Cross-cultural Marketing

The effectiveness of marketing strategies, especially of multinational companies,

are culturally-sensitive or appeal to the customs and beliefs of the specific cultures of the

countries where marketing efforts are being targeted (Bennur & Jin, 2013). Not all

marketing strategies would work for all countries. Bennur and Jin (2013) studied the

effects of marketing strategies on consumers between two countries, the United States

and India. Using Kano’s theory, the researchers sought to categorize the specific apparel

attributes in the United States compared to India and determined what product attributes

consumers place importance on. The researchers asked 670 college students, 50% from

the United States and 50% from India, to complete questionnaire surveys. The American

students were from a Midwestern university in the United States and the Indian students

were from southern India. The researchers found that marketing strategies’ successes are

indeed affected by culture. For consumers in the United States, the fit of apparel is

considered important. For Indian consumers, however, a brand is more important. A

brand was found to be an indifferent category in the United States, while it was

considered a critical feature among Indian consumers. The researchers concluded that

marketing strategies should take into account specific attributes of different cultures

because consumers of various cultures are influenced differently when making

purchasing decisions. Doing so would ensure that the marketing strategies crafted by the

companies would be effective in reaching their intended outcomes, which are to increase

sales and improve brand equity.

Millan, Pelsmacker, and Wright (2013) also studied marketing strategies across

Eastern European countries, specifically, if cross-cultural differences can affect the

success of these efforts. The researchers tested cross-cultural variations in the customer

behaviors in the Czech Republic and Bulgaria and determined how these can affect

marketing strategies. Millan et al. (2013) found that there are critical and apparent

differences regarding consumer interest in clothing. The two European countries

significantly differed on their preferences and perceptions of the meanings of certain

clothing artifacts, the importance of clothing brands, being brand loyal, as well as certain

clothing attributes. The researchers claimed that marketing strategies can be affected by

the consumption patterns of the two European Union (EU) member states. Clothing

value, expressive symbolism, can shape the effectiveness of marketing strategies. This is

important to note by marketers planning to develop effective marketing strategies;

strategies will not likely appeal to the target customers if they are not aligned with their

customs and beliefs (Millan et al., 2013).

Kim and Johnson (2013) found that cultural orientation can also affect the

effectiveness of cause-related marketing campaigns. Some customers are found to just

support these campaigns as long as they appeal to their local customs and beliefs. Kim

and Johnson, in particular, assessed the how cultural orientation affects consumers’ moral

emotions when faced with moral campaigns, specifically looking at 180 American

consumers versus 191 Korean consumers. Results indicated that ego-focused moral

emotions such as pride affect the purchase intentions of Americans more than Koreans.

On the other hand, another-focused emotions such as guilt affected the Koreans more,

because of their interdependent culture. The findings of the study showed that culture is

an important factor when assessing marketing, branding, and advertising. The findings of

the literature reviewed in this section provided important and relevant implications to

marketers as well as policy makers in the creation of persuasive campaigns and messages

for their target consumers all over the world.

Brand loyalty among Kenyan students with regard to sportswear has been studied

by Kinuthia, Mburugu, Muthomi, and Mwihaki (2012). Kinuthia et al. claimed that,

because sports is an important and strategic market segment in Kenya, it is important to

understand how sportswear brand loyalty is being developed in the country. Kinuthia et

al. looked at how brand loyalty of swimwear among Kenyan University students is

developed, and what factors can influence it. Gathering data from students who took part

in Kenyan University sports competitions held in 2009 at the University of Nairobi

through a survey questionnaire, results indicated that brand loyalty among the Kenyan

students are most affected by price, variety, attractiveness, size, and brand reputation

concerns. International brands such as Speedo are called to evaluate their prices, designs,

and reputation as a brand when marketing to Kenyan consumers. Marketing and branding

efforts that do not take into account the target’s culture and nuances are unlikely to

succeed.

Youth Marketing

Apart from culture, marketing strategies can be defined and affected by age of the

target consumers. Marketing to youth may take a different set of strategies compared to

marketing to other demographics as they are more impressionable, spend more time

exposed to varying media where these marketing pieces are shown and have more

impulsive purchasing behavior. This is nothing new; this has existed since the advent of

television and the identification of teenagers as a distinct consumer group in the 1950s.

Young consumers have unique purchasing behavior and purchasing power that

companies should consider (Ross & Harradine, 2004). Researchers spanning decades

have revealed that children are an important target group for marketers (Brassington &

Pettitt, 2000; Edgecliffe-Johnson, 1999; Gregan-Paxton & Roedder, 1995). According to

Ross and Harradine (2004), children play an increasingly critical role in purchasing

decisions, especially in clothing and apparel. Moreover, in industrialized countries,

children’s purchasing power is also increasing. In the United States, it has been estimated

that the income of children (those up to 12 years old) can be set at $27.5 billion (Ross &

Harradine, 2004).

The majority of youth gain knowledge of a product or brand when they see

inviting images on television, particularly images of new lifestyles, promising the youth

social success through their consumption patterns (Ross & Harradine, 2007). The main

task of the youth marketer is to understand and acknowledge the unique roles that the

young people play in their own consumption behavior and patterns (Ross & Harradine,

2007). When firms investigate how young people make their consumption decisions and

what young people like to consume, it will ensure that youth marketing strategies are

effective, and a long-term, profitable relationship with them can be facilitated. It is in the

best interests of companies to make sure that young consumers will become loyal to their

brands through effective marketing efforts.

Cassidy and van Schijndel (2011) investigated the effects of marketing on youth

and their identity development. Cassidy and van Schijndel (2011) looked at the extrinsic

and intrinsic identities of the teens in a locality in the United Kingdom (UK) using

Erikson’s model of identity. Gathering data using a questionnaire among 79 secondary

school teenage students, the results showed that most of the teenagers aspired to be cool,

and they take advantage of online brand communities such as Bebo to help them achieve

this. The researchers revealed that marketing strategies worked well among the teens,

provided that the marketers were able to encourage feelings of being uncool until they

buy the product (Cassidy & van Schijndel, 2011). Even though the findings of the study

can be considered limited since it only measured and offered a snapshot of the tastes and

personality traits of certain individuals, the study’s findings nevertheless showed that

marketing to the youth is a distinctive activity that must be undertaken, separate from

marketing to people in general. Moreover, the researchers showed that the majority of

youth consumers are trying to build a self-identity, and marketers should capitalize on

this desire. This shows that youth consumers have needs different from adults, and

perceive products differently from the other generations. Marketers should know what

these differences are when crafting their marketing messages for their campaigns to be

effective (Cassidy & van Schijndel, 2011).

Importance of Brand Loyalty

Studies have shown the importance of ensuring brand equity and loyalty. For

instance, Stahl (2012) examined how brand equity affects a company’s capacity to

acquire customers, retain customers, and earn significant profits. Gathering data from a

unique database of the United States automobile market that showed 10 years of

acquisition rate, retention rate, and customer profitability data, as well as measures of

brand equity using Young & Rubicam's Brand Asset Valuator (BAV) for the same time

frame, they found that brand equity can positively affect customer acquisition, retention,

and profit margin of companies. Therefore, marketing strategies need to be crafted and

managed with the intention of improving brand equity. On the other hand, brand loyalty

should be strived for by companies to stay competitive. Brand loyalty enables the

company to exercise price discrimination and lures the customers to desire the brand. For

a brand to rake in monetary profits on a long-term basis, organizations should strive to

ensure brand loyalty and the capability to dominate the price segment demanding a

higher price (Nam, Ekinci, & Whyatt, 2011).

Organizations should strive for brand loyalty, and protect the brand from being

vulnerable to the activities of its rivals and environmental events. To foster loyalty, a

company should strive to have a favorable representation, so as to strengthen its stand,

isolate itself from the competition, and move more quickly towards supremacy in the

industry. Secondly, the brand equity infuses consciousness among the consumers, which

enhances the marketing interaction. Brand loyalty and brand equity are perceived to be

the end products of all sorts of actions to promote the brand. Brand equity and loyalty,

therefore, are perceived to be the end goals of marketers (Nam et al., 2011).

Moreover, brand loyalty is built first through being aware of the brand and by

understanding what is distinctive about the brand. Brand loyalty is linked to brand equity.

Brand equity can be defined as “the marketing and financial values linked with a brand’s

strength in the market, including actual proprietary brand assets, brand-name awareness,

brand loyalty, perceived brand quality, and brand associations” (Pride & Ferrell, 2003, p.

299). According to Aaker (2012), brand association is an element that makes a brand

memorable. Aaker (2012) claimed that brand loyalty represents a constructive mindset

toward a specific brand that leads to customers’ instant purchasing of certain brands.

Researchers showed that, if customers have more positive links and feelings toward a

brand, they become more loyal to a brand.

Conversely, higher brand loyalty can also lead to higher brand equity and positive

association toward a brand. Aaker (1991) believed that brand association and brand

equity are two interrelated variables. As such, studies showed that companies strive for

their brand to be known and achieve equity so that customers may become loyal to this

(Aaker, 2012). The ultimate objective and meaning of brand equity is for the company to

develop brand loyalty. Brand loyalty has been described as a positive mindset towards a

brand, as a consequence of which there is a persistent consumption of the brand over a

period (Romaniuk & Nenycz-Thiel, 2013).

For instance, in online businesses, loyal consumers log on to a website more often

compared to a customer who has not cultivated a sense of loyalty to the brand yet

(Fraering & Minor, 2013; Janita & Miranda, 2013). Loyal consumers generate free

publicity by sharing their experiences, which can be beneficial for both online and offline

businesses seeking to become more established. Recommendations are essential in e-

commerce in particular and can bring in up to 49% of new consumers through this route

in case of certain services (Fraering & Minor, 2013; Janita & Miranda, 2013).

According to studies, the foremost duty of the entrepreneur is to create and

increase the brand awareness and to then construct on this basis the prime framework for

a set of affirmative groups of the brand and loyalty (Malik et al., 2013; Mohan &

Sequeira, 2013). The distinctive instruments in establishing the brand image involve the

selection of the publicity of financial statements, interactions, and interaction medium,

along with the wrapping, marketing medium, and pricing. Effective paperwork in this

respect assists in creating a level of awareness among the target consumer and such

actions lead to imprint the uniqueness of the brand on the mentality of the consumer

(Saleem, Rahman, & Omar, 2015). Saleem et al. (2015) assessed the antecedents of brand

equity such as brand awareness, brand image, and brand loyalty. Questionnaire responses

from 130 consumers across four Pakistani cities showed that positive brand image can

lead to brand loyalty, facilitated by brand awareness and perceived brand quality (Saleem

et al., 2015). Brand awareness and perceived quality can ultimately affect brand image,

which can shape brand loyalty. To build brand loyalty, the researchers claimed that

companies should strive to shape awareness of consumers with respect to the brand and

the brand quality (Saleem et al., 2015).

There are many ways to foster brand awareness. Examples include publication,

oral propagation, and other efforts of the companies. The concepts of aided and unaided

recall can be taken into account when considering brand awareness. Aided recall

measures the extent to which a brand is remembered by consumers using prompts. Some

consumers need to be asked whether they are aware of this brand or this advertisement to

remember a brand; this is called ‘aided recall’. Unaided recall, on the other hand, refers to

the remembering of a brand with no prompts (Brochado, Vinhas da Silva, & LaPlaca,

2015; Krishnan et al., 2013). When one is making a purchasing decision, immediate and

unaided brand recall can be strived for by companies. The concept of aided recall is

considered inadequate and not strived for because the consumer is not capable of forming

an image of the brand without prompts. Companies should strive to have a brand that has

an impact on the consumer so intensive that they would do not need any inducement to

select it when making purchasing decisions. When aided recall is necessary, the bond of

the brand and the related circumstances are comparatively feeble. The consumers capable

of revoking a brand nomenclature without any assistance are considered to possess a

higher level of brand awareness. This unaided recall is sometimes termed as unassisted

revoking. When there is an unaided recall of brands, the intensity of involvement of the

brand name is high. When establishing brand loyalty, this level of brand awareness

should be strived for, because this means the company has been effective in establishing

itself in the potential customers’ consciousness, making the brand the likely top choice

when making a purchasing decision (Brochado, Vinhas da Silva, & LaPlaca, 2015;

Krishnan et al., 2013).

Companies should build awareness among their target consumers so that the

company can demonstrate its distinctiveness from that of other companies in the same

industry (Malik, 2013). It is relatively clear that if prospective consumers are not aware

of the existence of a company, they will not buy from it. Thus, one of the paramount

objectives of any business must be to build brand awareness, involving the aspect of

expenditure to the extent feasible. Awareness has been revealed to be an essential

prerequisite for the success of a company. While consumers who are unaware of a

commodity type have to select a popular brand and an unfamiliar one, they in all

probability will opt for the popular brand. This awareness ultimately breeds loyalty from

customers (Malik et al., 2013). According to Subhani and Osman, (2011), however,

awareness fostered through promotional activities is not enough. Awareness should be

deeper. Companies should strive to update their supply chain system, as opposed to

concentrating on promotional tools to generate brand awareness and brand loyalty.

Consumers have been seen to buy commodities on the suggestion of their

associates, first-hand experience, and conventional advertisement procedures. It is,

therefore, pertinent to build brand awareness techniques through the inculcation of

confidence among consumers. This confidence must be obtained by way of reliability,

and not through simply a captivating advertisement promotional technique (Subhani &

Osman, 2011). Subhani and Osman (2011) studied the consumption patterns of Pakistani

consumers of packaged milk brands and found that brand awareness, due to promotional

tools, hardly had an effect on brand loyalty. Instead, companies with strong supply chain

systems were found to be the ones that managed to capture the awareness and loyalty of

customers.

In the lowest rung, brand awareness is the capability of the customer to recognize

a brand as a constituent of the commodity group. Though this constitutes a smaller

portion of brand awareness, it is still capable of rendering a distinction, especially in

lower involvement levels of buying conditions where the decision regarding a brand is

arrived at the level of sales. Higher brand awareness is displayed in cases where a

customer is capable of reproducing the brand name as a constituent of the commodity

class. Top-rated marketing personnel put an all-out effort to earn the highest place in the

minds of the customer, where the bulk of the customers associate their brand primarily in

an unassisted brand remembrance experiment (Huang & Sarigöllü, 2012; Hakala,

Svensson, & Vincze, 2012).

Exploiting this highest of the mind concept for optimum use, leading brands are

generally the lone brands remembered by a considerable number of customers. Popular

knowledge ordains that brand awareness can be created only through consistent

advertising. Nevertheless, promotional techniques like competitions and jackpots give

recurrent publicity, coupled with the extra benefit of increased consumer association

compared to a conventional advertisement. Event management is viewed increasingly as

a useful instrument for more publicity. The reasons, which render event management so

fruitful, are the capability to associate the brand unequivocally with the lifestyle values

held by the prospective customer (Rossiter, 2014).

Effective marketing strategies are the ones that attain such awareness in the minds

of the consumers. It pays to understand if youth marketing in Kenya can also be this

effective. However, it is almost improbable to attain these proximal linkages with a

traditional advertisement, regardless of the ingenuity, repetition, and publicity.

Eventually, many enterprises are discovering that the payback from donations to

charitable institutions is higher than when the same amounts are allocated in ventures

organized by the corporation’s (Sen et al., 2015). Increasingly, these donations are being

apportioned at the brand stage, where the psychological linkages with the trends are

proximal and firmer. Sound state of the enterprise and brand success standing of the

company will add to brand awareness of the buyers and the popularity of the service

presentations to the prospective buyer’s market.

This section shows that marketing strategies do not lead to success quickly or

continuously. Marketing strategies should be crafted and implemented continuously.

Creating brand awareness and consumer loyalty is a continuing procedure (Sen et al.,

2015). Studies have revealed that building a brand requires a considerable period of time,

and steadiness over this period is crucial (Sen et al., 2015). It remains to be seen if this is

applicable to the Kenyan market.

With successful creation of the brand awareness, an entrepreneur should form a

group of optimistic set of brands in the mind of the consumers. This action is the base of

creation of an optimistic brand image. Flourishing brands are said to be the most

significant possessions of a company (Huang & Sarigöllü, 2012; Hakala et al., 2012).

Particularly, the brand of the company is perceived as the summation of awareness

among the mentality of the consumers, as a consequence of the marketing programs

implemented in favor of these brands. In one way, it is considered as the fruit of the

investment in the direction of marketing of the brand. The marketing efforts like product

improvement, market research, publication, encouragement, distribution, and illustration

have profound impacts on the creation of the brand image in the minds of the market

consumers.

In the current selling age, possessing a carefully-planned, comprehensive brand

technique is the primary necessity for accomplishment in businesses Huang & Sarigöllü,

2012; Hakala et al., 2012). Brands facilitate consumers to effectively predetermine the

practical and emotional attributes of their mental levels. The picture that surfaces allows

the consumers to identify the areas of distinction among the rival brands. Brand image

can be described as the insight regarding a brand as shown by the brand linkages imbibed

by the consumer Huang & Sarigöllü, 2012; Hakala et al., 2012).

Consumers’ Perceptions of Brands

Since the present study is about brand loyalty among a segment of consumer

groups in Kenya, there is a need to review studies on how consumers relate to brands in

general. Brand image is a multi-pronged notion, but no unanimity exists regarding the

method for gauging it on an experimental basis. The concept of brand image, brand

extension, brand equity, and brand loyalty are all interrelated.

Brand image is directly linked to the commodity classification, within the gamut

of which the brand is promoted and sold (Michel & Donthu, 2014). Scholars assert that

there is a set of rules for evaluating images of brands based on the commodity

classification. Evaluating image of a brand based on commodity classification has been

utilized in various manners in the present research. Nevertheless, it has been explained

that the physical characteristics of the commodity must be regarded in addition to the

emotional and meaningful advantages (Wang & Tsai, 2014).

While introducing newer commodities, several companies generally observe a

technique of brand extensions, capitalizing on the strength of the brand equity of the main

brand to improve the chances of prosperity (Pina, Riley, & Lomax, 2013). The popularity

of this technique in the services industry is in some proportion due to the recurrent use of

a colossal branding technique that has made significant reputation behind the broadly

used industry brand. The attractiveness of the brand extension techniques prevalent in the

services sector is due to the reputation of the main company’s commercial name

prevailing over the main threat of buying on indefinite attributes. Especially in cases

where the main brand has a remarkable legacy, this lowers the effortlessness of

competitive faking (Pina et al., 2013).

The assessment of the brand extension by the consumers is more often narrated by

a process of transformation involving the crucial brand elements. The brand associations

are said to differ from consumer to consumer, according to the circumstances where it is

applied, and in differed rivalry situations (Aaker, 2012). Prospectively, the crucial brand

is visualized to make available a set of prime, optimistically assessed, and appropriated

associations that are found to be suitable within or around the product classes. Preferably,

the associations of the core brand provide a complex and well-described picture to an

extension. A settled and reputed brand more commonly has a well-arranged brand image.

One of the accomplishments of the brand extension is the rapid interaction of a prime

picture (Aaker, 2012).

In addition, the brand extension also enhances the quality of associations and the

creation of new brand associations. The perceived quality also enhances the capability to

reduce rivalry amidst the struggle of publication with regard to the product features

(Aaker, 2012). It is worthwhile to extend the brand name of the core products to various

products, especially when it is found that the perceived quality is high. However, this is

impossible to accomplish in absence of the perceived high quality. The other advantage

of brand extension is seen in the hybridization of the industries attained through

publicizing the prime brand (Aaker, 2012).

The attachment of the consumers with the brand name assures the consumer’s

freedom from the vulnerability of a new product. The involvement of the consumers with

Diet Cherry Coke is first that it is a product of Coca-Cola, thereby guaranteeing a high

quality (Aaker, 2012). In the reports evaluating the consumer responses to the new

products, it is often visualized that the well-settled brand names seem to have increased

the value in terms consumer responses, curiosity, and sampling. Increasing the perceived

quality of the prime product is considered a residual benefit of the extension. Conversely,

the brand image of the prime product is also strengthened with the contributions of its by-

products through the extension of its own brand image, rather than deteriorating its

strength through sharing (Aaker, 2012). The picture of Diet Cherry Coke, for example, as

a tasteful and low-calorie soda strengthens the image of Diet Coke in terms of the low-

calorie content and tastefulness accomplished through its association. Some analyses

have afforded to probe into the assessment of consumers with regard to the extension of

the core brand name. The most conducive consumer responses for both function-oriented

and prestige-oriented brand names are anticipated with brand extensions and core brands

that have similar and reliable characteristics. This strengthens the necessity of suitability

between the prime product and its extension (Aaker, 2012).

In cost-effectiveness, brand extensions are the only choice for companies. Diet

Pepsi and Diet Coke are considered to be two of the most accomplished illustrations of

the advantages of the brand franchise and the core product. Moreover, further publicity of

the extension often enhances the integration of the core product with their offspring.

After defending their initial brand extensions, Coca-Cola brought out six further

extensions and succeeded in arresting a wider market potential than the core product

brand did. Cherry Coke is quite visible, even with negligible advertising. The present

trend reveals that more than 50% of new products prevailing during the 1980s were

considered to be extensions of core products of prevailing brand names. This increased

the growing need for brand extensions.

The exclusive features marked by the service brands put up still greater challenges

than those of commodity branding. Nevertheless, by creating confidence in the brand of

the industry, the main threat of the consumer is lessened, and assurance is increased.

Frequently, consumers are unable to discern minor differences between rival services

brands and services sectors (Lassoued & Hobbs, 2015). Consumers find it tricky to make

a selection of rival brands. Properly envisaged use of industry brands can cause greater

distinction and greater trust of a brand.

This is the accepted state of affairs related to physical commodities, but the

services sector has not been put to the identical intensity of evaluation. Techniques

leading to the brand extension are expected to make new relations in the mind of the

consumer or to create nuance in their outlook and attitudes. The popularity of broadening

the industry brand in the services division is due to the fact that in case of services, there

are increased proportions of indefinite qualities, the totality of which are perceived to

improve the effortlessness of reaching out to new classes (Aaker, 2012). However, the

total impact of service extensions on industry image is not comprehensible. It is likely

that the industry image might take a beating by employing a brand expansion technique.

The quality of industry image prior to launching a brand extension is definitely linked

with the industry image post-extension. While examining the consequences of an

extension on a brand’s image, the aptness or resemblance between the main brand and the

extended brand are expected to influence the brand’s image (Aaker, 2012).

Kim and Kim (2012) established the manner in which brand equity is shaped in

the psychological process of consumers, by evaluating prior studies of connections

between selling aspects impacting the structure and components of the structure.

Outcomes of the study and their proposals were as follows: First, among standard factors

necessary for the development of the brand equity, an advertisement was seen to be

possessing encouraging influences on brand awareness as well as brand image, regardless

of the two categories of high and low involvement. It was revealed that although sales

promotion did not impact any influences on brand awareness or brand image in the low

involvement category, it was found to significantly influence brand consciousness within

the high involvement category (Kim & Kim, 2012).

Delivery power was revealed to impact awareness of the brand and brand image

in both of the two groups. Second, relationships between brand consciousness and brand

image revealed that brand consciousness impacts the brand image in both involvement

groups. Third, linkages among brand consciousness, brand image, and brand preference

revealed that the first two impact the third in the high involvement category. Fourth,

linkages among brand preference and brand loyalty revealed that the former impacts the

latter in high and low involvement groups. This establishes that there is a minute

likelihood that consumers choosing particular brands will shift to other brands offering

benefits like price packs and other freebies (Kim & Kim, 2012).

Several studies have discovered an unequivocal cause between the aptness

perceived by consumers and the acknowledgment of the extension. The primary causal

factor of the felt value of the brand expansion or value of extension will be the felt value

of the main brand that counts on the industry image (Moorthy, 2012). As the power of the

industry brand impacts the establishment of awareness regarding the existing

commodities and additional extensions, it is imperative on the part of the company to

possess superior industry credibility. Studies have shown that brand loyalty is an

estimation of how frequently a consumer tends to go for that particular brand at the time

of purchasing from a specific commodity category. When the majorities of the customers

are apathetic to names of brands and purchase mainly on the grounds of attributes, the

cost of the commodity, and usefulness, the commodity commands a small amount of

brand equity (Moorthy, 2012).

However, when buying a brand instead of a rival brand with enhanced attributes,

cost, and usefulness, considerable brand equity is present. It is not that loyalty towards

the brand is just existent or lacking, but is existent in diverse potencies. Almost every

consumer, regardless of their loyalty, possesses some tendency to glance at other brands.

Moreover, the most loyal consumers will change their brands when their brand of choice

fails to meet their expectations. Changing brands is induced not only by a consumer’s

brand loyalty but also by the consumer going for price comparisons (Wang & Tsai,

2014). Hence, during assessing the incidence of switching, it might not be a completely

convincing pointer of brand loyalty; nevertheless, it is a commodity pointer in a majority

of cases. In view of this, consumer withholding rates and average consumer life spans—

specifically, alterations in these extents—are vital pointers of brand loyalty and must be

paid attention to (Wang & Tsai, 2014).

In the absence of commitment towards a brand, there will not be any equity. Any

brand that hopes to achieve at least a second- or third-rung position in the marketplace

will need substantial commitment towards their brand (Aaker, 2012). And in case, we

consider premium brands as truly occupying the leading position in closely designated

markets, the commitment shows that the market share principle is basically fixed. In case

brand knowledge and image of brands do not affect commitment towards the brand,

much of the endeavor and cost that were put into creating information and image about

the brand will be useless (Aaker, 2012).

Brand loyalty stands on the edifice of constructive knowledge (Nam et al., 2013).

But in the case of any association, just one negative incident can stain a whole lifetime of

reliability and reputation. In this respect, consumer satisfaction can prove to be very

deceptive. Since intricacies have a tendency to crop up at any juncture, even a minute

proportion of difficulties can influence a large cross-section of consumers. If overlooked,

any of these events could be the cause of severing an association. Brands possessing

strength are dutiful in their feedback and safeguarding of every relationship (Nam et al.

2013).

Leaders of marketing companies often view brand loyalty as a concept that can be

universally encouraged or developed, regardless of the characteristics or demographics of

their target customers (Frederick & Patil, 2009). The development of brand loyalty in

customers is more effective when marketers pay sufficient attention to the characteristics

of their target customers. Understanding the decision-making process of young adults

regarding brand loyalty requires understanding their perceptions (Crutzen et al., 2009).

Understanding the target audience of marketing companies, which in this study includes

youth from Kenya and the United States, is important in order to have better marketing

plans to develop brand loyalty.

Celebrity Endorsements and Brand Loyalty

The purpose of the proposed qualitative comparative case study is to explore the

perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements

in sports apparel brands. One of the most common methods of advertising athletic brands

is through celebrity endorsements. Moreover, among all consumer demographics, teens

are the most attracted to celebrities (Bisht, 2013; Jawaid, Rajput, & Naqvi, 2013). To

teens, celebrities are far more than pop singers, fashion models, musicians, athletes,

actresses, and so forth. They are icons, heroes, and role models. As such, this section will

include a discussion of how celebrity endorsements lead to brand loyalty. As with any

type of marketing initiative, the purpose of celebrity endorsements is to improve a

company’s bottom line (Elberse & Verleun, 2012), but there are some important

advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account in the selection of the

celebrity and how marketing campaigns use these endorsements.

Advantages of Celebrity Endorsements

Although marketers can resort to using a number of other types of sports-related

campaigns to promote their products, one of the more effective approaches that have been

established repeatedly is the use of sports celebrities or athletes (Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014).

Arai et al. discussed the current issues of athlete brand management and evaluated the

construct of athlete brand image and its effectiveness. The cited researchers developed a

conceptual model of athlete brand image (MABI), which encompassed these three

dimensions of athletic performance, attractive appearance, and marketable lifestyle.

These dimensions are shaped by an athlete's on-field characteristics, attractive external

appearance, and off-field marketable characteristics.

Offering a comprehensive conceptual framework of athlete brand image and

offering managerial implications for building and managing the brand image of

individual athletes, results showed that celebrity athletes can be effective endorsers.

However, athletes are just some of the celebrity figures that can be used for marketing

purposes (Arai et al., 2014). Earlier, Agrawal and Kamakura (1995) reported that there

have been significant returns on investment related to even the announcements of

companies entering into celebrity endorsement contracts. In this regard, Agrawal and

Kamakura noted that “Results clearly indicate a positive impact of celebrity

endorsements on expected future profits, which lends objective, market level support to

the use of celebrities in advertising” (1995, p. 60). Taken together, it would seem that the

use of celebrity endorsers represents a valuable addition to any company’s marketing

mix, but there are some potential disadvantages to this approach, which are discussed

further below.

Disadvantages of Celebrity Endorsements

In recent years, marketers have increasingly relied upon using celebrity endorsers

that they know will remain popular in the minds of the public (Keel & Nataraajan, 2012;

Knittel & Stango, 2013). However, this can be a disadvantage as well. One of the most

significant disadvantages of using celebrities is that, because of their frequently fast-

paced lifestyles, they may run afoul of the law or otherwise become embroiled in

negative publicity, which will inevitably reflect on the endorsements they provide.

Negative publicity concerning a celebrity endorser attaches not only to the celebrity but

to any product or service that is endorsed by that celebrity as well (Keel & Nataraajan,

2012; Knittel & Stango, 2013). Furthermore, an overexposed celebrity tends to become

less distinctive over time, and can even cause consumers to disregard the message in the

endorsement, concentrating rather on the financial aspects that are involved, such as how

much money a given celebrity is making to promote a given product (Knittel & Stango,

2013).

In particular, Knittel and Stango (2013) evaluated the stock market effects of the

Tiger Woods scandal on his sponsors and sponsors' competitors. In the 10–15 trading

days after the scandal broke out, the full portfolio of sponsors lost more than 2% of

market value. The losses were the most significant on the core three sponsors: Electronic

Arts, Nike, and PepsiCo (Gatorade). Sponsors' daily losses correlated strongly with

Google search intensity with regard the endorsement-related effects of the controversy, as

well as with qualitative indicators of endorsement-related news. The results indicated that

some of the sponsors' losses translated to their competitors' gains, which implied that

endorsement deals are partly a type of business-stealing strategy. Nevertheless,

competitors who used celebrity endorsements intensively were found to have fared worse

companies that did not use celebrity endorsers as much. The difference also correlates

daily with news/search intensity regarding the scandal. It appears that the scandal

generated a market wide, the negative signal on the use of celebrities for advertising and

promotional purposes.

Main Qualities of a Celebrity

Before a brand commits to a celebrity, they generally consider four main qualities

(Hollensen & Schimmelpfennig, 2013):

1. Attractiveness of the celebrity: The more attractive the celebrity is to the target

audience, the more this attractiveness will transfer onto the brand. The endorser

should be attractive to the target market in characteristics that include physical

appearance, intellectual capabilities, athletic competence, and lifestyle (Hollensen

& Schimmelpfennig, 2013).

2. Credibility of the celebrity: The target market has to trust the celebrity,

particularly since the field is so cluttered with celebrities whose credibility is

disputable. Credibility here implies perceived expertise and trustworthiness

(Hollensen & Schimmelpfennig, 2013).

3. Meaning transfer between the celebrity and the brand: There has to be

compatibility between the brand and the celebrity, as instanced between Nike and

Federer. Match has to exist in terms of identity, personality, positioning in the

market vis-à-vis competitors, and lifestyle (Hollensen & Schimmelpfennig, 2013).

4. Popularity of the celebrity: Particularly, there must be popularity to the specific

age and population that the company is targeting. For instance, Madonna may not

be as popular as Tiger Woods to a 12-year-old boy interested in sports. Generally,

as we will see later, it is those who are at the start of their career (the up-and-

coming) who are more appealing (Hollensen & Schimmelpfennig, 2013).

Celebrity Endorsements’ Effect on Youth

Of all the markets that are attracted to celebrities, none are more so than teens.

Celebrities can determine trends or destroy them, and they can become the voice of

teenagers in a big way, and are therefore an important tool for teen-oriented marketing.

As much as America is attracted to celebrities, teens are lured to them even more (Bisht,

2013; Jawaid et al., 2013). Adolescent-based marketing, therefore, leverages celebrities

to great effect (Bisht, 2013). In fact, the ones most caught up in celebrities, particularly in

athletes, are boys aged 12 to 15 (Bisht, 2013; Jawaid et al., 2013).

Jawaid et al. (2013) in particular evaluated the effects of celebrity endorsement on

the impulsive buying behavior of youth in Pakistan. Gathering data from 150 young

people (male and female) of Islamabad city, findings revealed that that celebrity support

has a significance impact on the youth’s impulsive purchase decisions. Findings also

revealed that celebrities who endorse impulsive buying, in particular, can lead to

impulsive purchase decisions of the youth. This led to the recommendation that

governments should have legalized policies to make sure celebrities contribute legally

and ethically in conveying company message. Celebrities should not engage in

advertising for poor quality products knowing they can harm the youth as a result.

Jain, Roy, Daswani, and Sudha (2011) found that celebrity endorsers are much

more effective than non-celebrity endorsers in shaping the consumption behavior and

patterns of teens or youth. Jain et al. explored the differences between human celebrity

endorsers and character endorsers’ effects on teenagers’ consumption attitudes. Results

indicated that the purchase decisions of teenagers are more influenced by real and human

celebrities if the items in question are in low-involvement product categories. However,

when it comes to high-involvement products, human celebrities did not have the same

significant effect. One limitation of the study is that it only focused on print

advertisements. This shows that not all celebrity endorsements are effective, even though

their effects cannot be discounted. Jain et al. (2011) also called for companies to

complement celebrity endorsements with the nature of the products.

Other limitations of celebrity endorsements have been recorded in the literature

(Tantiseneepong et al., 2012). The company-endorser relationship can provide potential

benefits to both, with both brand and endorser receiving increased attention, and both

benefitting from the deal in various other ways. On the other hand, potential hazards

include the fact that the endorser may overshadow the brand, may become involved in

public controversy and tarnish the brand, and may be too expensive.

The company can prevent risks from occurring by utilizing steps that include the

following: careful pre-testing of the celebrity; by buying insurance and careful wording

of the contract; through deliberate and prudent negations; and by focusing on the match

between celebrity and target audience (Tantiseneepong et al., 2012). Celebrities can

persuade people to make the buy, but if the product is dissatisfactory or if people are

disinclined to buy in the first place, no celebrity will be able to persuade the person to

buy (Tantiseneepong et al., 2012). In addition, while celebrity endorsement is still a big

influence, particularly with adolescents, some observers perceive it to be a dying

phenomenon. The contemporary trend seems to be to prefer to identify with people

similar to oneself and who possesses similar characteristics. For this reason, celebrity

advertisements seem to have lost some attractiveness (Knittel & Stango, 2013).

While celebrity advertisements were prominent decades ago, the consumers of

today seem to be more impacted by the way their contemporaries dress, act, eat, and so

forth. Today’s consumers do not want products pushed at them, and may have lost trust

in celebrities. Good advertisements, as the figures show, often stand on their own;

celebrities cannot help a poor advertisement to enhance its image. Non-celebrity

advertisements, if innovative, smart, and attractive, often outrace poor advertisements

featuring celebrities, particularly when the celebrity overshadowed the advertisement and

makes its message ambiguous (Knittel & Stango, 2013). Celebrities can help the business

profit from the relationship, but their success hinges on various factors, including the

advantages of the product itself. A good advertisement that is backed by an appealing

product will always sell, regardless of the endorser. For companies to profit, they need to

steward attractive advertisement backed by worthwhile products. Only then may they be

able to show some sort of return on their investment (Knittel & Stango, 2013). This

section showed that celebrity endorsements have inconclusive effects on teenagers’

consumption behaviors, but cannot be discounted as one of the most common strategies

used in youth marketing. However, these findings have not been found in the context of

Kenya yet, and it pays to understand if this will also be the case among young Kenyan

consumers when it comes to athletic brands.

Celebrity and brand are closely intertwined. Just as a celebrity may profit from the

brand, the brand also wipes off on the celebrity (Chung et al., 2013). Meaning and value

can transfer in either direction, making this an alliance that has to be closely watched.

When the celebrity has a positive reputation—as happened in Federer’s case—the

company becomes associated with that reputation too, and sales can soar. Nike started off

with an enviable reputation. Their associate with Federer only enhanced that in the

consumer's perspective. Since the Swiss consumers now associated Nike with their

beloved athlete, wanting to wear the same shoes as he did and wanting to identify

themselves with Federer, many adolescents accordingly bought the Nike brand (Chung et

al., 2013).

Factors that Affect Customer Behavior

The purpose of the proposed qualitative comparative case study was to explore

the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands. To support this study, there is a need to

understand the many factors discussed in various literature that affect consumer behavior.

Studies have also shown that psychological states can affect consumption

behavior. For instance, Rucker, Galinsky, and Dubois (2012) examined the effects of

power on consumer behavior and hypothesized that a people of power can foster agentic

and communal orientations that can shape their behavior. These orientations can also

affect who and what they value. Results of their study showed that power can alter

consumer behavior as a function of the product attributes and recipients.

Marketing Athletic Apparel Brands

Marketing athletic apparel brands can be done by taking into account the

important factors of locus of benefit, objectives, and focus on exchange. Marketing can

be commercial, cause-related, or social (Dwivedi, McDonald, & Johnson, 2014). When it

comes to social marketing, this type of advertising is used to influence the voluntary

behavior of an audience for its personal and societal welfare. The authors also provided

that marketing has been used increasingly in the sporting environment in terms of a

unique set of objectives and outcomes. This type of marketing can also be applied to the

respective cultures to determine what specific strategy is most useful in each

environment.

Celebrity endorsement is one of the most popular market strategies used by

companies in various sectors, including in the sports apparel industry (Dwivedi et al.,

2014). Chung, Derdenger, and Srinivasan (2013) examined the economic value of

celebrity endorsements by investigating how Tiger Woods influenced the sales of Nike

golf balls. Using both reduced form and structural analyses, Chung et al. (2013) found

support for the effects of celebrity endorsements, specifically in terms of convincing

consumers to switch brands and to increase the demand for the product. The researchers

reported that from 2000-2010, $9.9 million of the $103 million total sales of Nike golf

balls can be attributed to the celebrity endorsement of Tiger Woods.

Brand loyalty is one of the important factors that leaders of marketing companies

use since once loyalty is developed from customers, it increases the likelihood that

customers will continue supporting the product long-term (Chen, Chen, & Lin, 2011;

Mise, Nair, Odhiambo Odera, & Ogutu, 2013). However, brand loyalty takes time and

effort from the leaders of manufacturing companies to develop (Zehir, Şahin, Kitapçı, &

Özşahin, 2011). Brand loyalty is often developed when various antecedents such as

consumer satisfaction with products, brand trust, and perception of high quality of

products and services are present (Ha et al., 2011; Zehir et al., 2011).

In terms of the market for sports apparel, there is evidence that market trends

appear to have similarities across different countries (Ko et al., 2012). In the United

States and other parts of the world, individuals often buy sports apparel for leisure

activities and for fanatical reasons (Pule et al., 2012). Just as in other business brands,

sports apparel companies explore different strategies to ensure the success of the brand,

which includes brand diversification and having a distinct product personality

(Giannoulakis & Apostolopoulou, 2011; Tong & Su, 2014).

Brand loyalty is one of the strategies used by sports apparel companies to ensure

the success of the brand (Kinuthia, Mburugu, Muthomi, & Mwihaki, 2012; Miloch, Lee,

Kraft, & Ratten, 2012). For example, the sports brand Under Armour was able to grow as

a company as a result of research, development, and the intensive focus on developing

brand loyalty and brand identity (Miloch et al., 2012). Hence, it is suggested that factors

influencing brand loyalty within the sportswear market are an important component of

investigating and enhancing business success in these markets (Kinuthia et al., 2012;

Miloch et al., 2012).

Research on brand loyalty has suggested its effectiveness among young adults and

youth, a demographic group that is often characterized as fickle (Lazarevic, 2012). The

effectiveness of brand loyalty among young adults can be attributed to the tendency of

the demographic group to develop an emotional attachment to brands (Hwang &

Kandampully, 2012). Young adults are considered an important demographic group for

marketing companies because of their purchasing power as a group (Hwang &

Kandampully, 2012).

Summary

The literature established that building brand loyalty is very important in all

business sectors, including the sports apparel business. The literature, however, is lacking

when it comes to differentiating countries on the concept of brand loyalty, while there is

abundant of studies looking at the effects of culture on marketing efforts. Brand loyalty

has not been studied through comparing two countries or cultures yet, even though some

studies have looked at brand loyalty perceptions and behaviors of one specific culture

(Kinuthia et al., 2013). Several differences such as economy and culture exist between

the United Sates and Kenya, which may affect how brands can be successfully marketed

and how brand loyalty can be formed (Darley, Luethge, & Blankson, 2013; Pule et al.,

2012). With Kenya’s status as an emerging economy compared to the United States’

stronger and more established economy, the size of the economy is one difference that

marketing companies need to consider (Pule et al., 2012). Another difference is the

cultural contexts that target customers are exposed to, underscoring the importance of

differentiating the target customers from different market areas (Darley et al., 2013). This

gap in the literature will be closed by the current study.

Kenya and the United States have differences that may affect how products can be

marketed effectively by marketing companies (Darley et al., 2013). The presence of

cultural and economic differences between the countries showed that a universal

strategies to develop brand loyalty may not be appropriate and effective (Darley et al.,

2013; Pule et al., 2012). Complicating the problem is that most studies conducted on

brand loyalty have been based on Western perspectives and samples (Mise et al., 2013).

Matching the marketing plan with the specific target customers is an effective method in

developing brand loyalty (Pule et al., 2012). This congruence underscores the importance

of understanding the similarities and differences of different markets from different

countries. The literature has also established how culture can affect the effectiveness of

marketing and advertising strategies.

Moreover, brand loyalty is often developed globally, with little regard to the

differences in the characteristics of target customers (Darley et al., 2013; Frederick &

Patil, 2010). The method in which marketers need to address their customer targets in

Kenya and the United States should be different, because of the differences in the two

countries in terms of economy and socio-cultural environment (Darley et al., 2013).

Based on this specific problem, the gap in the literature was the lack of information

regarding the similarities and differences in the perceptions of American and Kenyan

youth on brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. The study is necessary so that

marketing companies will not continue to utilize generic plans to develop brand loyalty,

failing to incorporate the differences that exist in different target customers in different

countries—and ultimately, failing to maximize their opportunities to earn greater profits.

The next chapter contains the methodology, including discussion of the research design,

sample, and participants, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis

methods, and ethical considerations.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The general problem that this study focused on was that Kenya and the United

States have differences that might affect how products can be marketed effectively by

marketing companies (Darley et al., 2013). The specific problem that this study addresses

was that brand loyalty is often developed globally with little regard to the differences in

the characteristics of target customers (Darley et al., 2013; Frederick & Patil, 2010). The

purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the perceptions of

American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports

apparel brands. The research questions for the study were the following:

Q1. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in

sports apparel brands?

Q2. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands?

Q3. What are the similarities and differences in the perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands?

This chapter will provide the methodological plan for the study. The organization

of the chapter will be based on the following sections: (a) research methods and designs;

(b) population; (c) sample; (d) materials/instruments; (e) data processing, collection, and

analysis; (f) assumptions; (g) limitations, (h) delimitations; and (i) ethical assurances. The

chapter ends with a summary of the methodological plan for the proposed study.

Research Methods and Design

Research methods are usually qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method in nature.

For this study, a qualitative research method was used to examine attitudes and opinions.

In addition, this qualitative comparative case study research was dynamic because the

responses of the participants were not constrained by pre-determined answers in

standardized instruments, which could limit the range of data that might be collected

(Gilgor, Esmark, & Golgeci, 2016). Qualitative research methods focus on the in-depth

exploration of a phenomenon based on the subjective interpretation and perceptions of a

group of people (Gligor, Esmark, & Golgeci, 2016). In this study, the focus was on

exploring the subjective experiences and perceptions of American and Kenyan youth

regarding brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands.

Qualitative research is appropriate for this study because of the depth and

openness of data that could be collected using qualitative methods, such as interviews and

open-ended questionnaires (Gligor, Esmark & Golgeci, 2016). Qualitative methods

provided insights that illuminated the phenomenon of perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth regarding brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports apparel

brands in a more comprehensive, dynamic, and holistic way. A quantitative research

approach would not have been appropriate because limiting the possible choices of pre-

determined responses in several questions would not provide answers that are rich,

comprehensive, and reflective of the true perceptions and experiences of the participants

(Gligor, Esmark, & Golgeci, 2016). The open-ended nature of qualitative research

approach is aligned with the purpose of collecting detailed information to explore the

similarities and differences regarding the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on

brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands.

There are many research designs under qualitative research methods, but in this

study, a qualitative comparative case study was used. A case study research design was a

detailed examination of a phenomenon in a natural context using flexible methods or

perspectives (Yin, 2013). A qualitative comparative case study research design is

appropriate because the flexibility in perspectives through the use of different groups of

participants would enable a comprehensive description of the similarities and differences

in the perceptions of youth from Kenya and the United States regarding brand loyalty in

athletic apparel brand (Yin, 2013).

For the proposed qualitative comparative case study, the boundary was defined as

the perceptions on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements on sports apparel brands of

youth whose ages were between 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States. The unit of

analysis was the perceptions of youth from Kenya and the United States. The unit of

measure was semi-structured interviews intended to capture the perceptions of American

and Kenya youth.

A comparative case study is the specific type of case study research design that

was used, wherein the goal is to compare and contrast two phenomena that are related to

each other in a systematic manner. For this study, the phenomena that were compared

were the perceptions of youth from Kenya and the United States regarding brand loyalty

in athletic apparel brands to gain a better understanding of the similarities and differences

between a developed and a developing country about marketing. A non-comparative

approach would not have been able to provide information that can illuminate the

similarities and differences between youth in Kenya and the United States regarding

brand loyalty in athletic apparel brand

Population

The sample of this study included young consumers in Nashville (United States)

and Nairobi (Kenya), whose ages ranged from 18 to 30 years old. Youth below 18 years

old was excluded from the study because of the ethical implication of increased

protection for participants who are considered minor. Kenya and the United States were

selected because sports apparel brands are popular among youth (Kinuthia et al., 2012;

Ko et al., 2012). Nashville and Nairobi were selected as the sites where the sample will

be recruited because both are urban cities that were accessible to the researcher. The

people in these two cities live in profitable areas with a range of people with different

incomes. The sample is also culturally diverse with a good range of people from different

racial backgrounds. This reinforces the appropriateness of the population in this area.

Sample

The sample consisted of 10 youth from the United States and 10 youth from

Kenya, with ages ranging from 18-30 years old. The sampling of American and Kenyan

youth was done by visiting the colleges and universities of these countries, more

specifically Nashville and Nairobi. As part of the dissertation, permission to invite

participants was secured by coordinating with school administrators who had the

authority to grant the request.

The use of small sample size in qualitative studies is common in order to focus on

a small number of participants and explore their experiences and perceptions with great

depth and focus (Marshall, Cardon, Poddar, & Fontenot, 2013). The use of 20

participants for the entire sample is sufficient to reach data saturation, which is the point

in the data collection process wherein no significant new information relevant to the

research question can be uncovered (O'Reilly & Parker, 2012). Even though the number

of participants needed to achieve data saturation is unique for every study, past studies

indicated that data saturation is generally achieved in a sample size of 8-22 participants

(Bentley, 2014; Sommerfeldt, Kent, & Taylor, 2012). More participants would have been

added to the sample if data saturation was not achieved with the initial target sample size

of 10 participants for each country. More participants would have been recruited until

data saturation was reached.

The sampling strategy that used was purposeful sampling, which a non-

probability is sampling technique based on the careful consideration of the different

participant characteristics central to the phenomenon. Recruitment was conducted by

posting advertisements in the universities’ online publications and messaging systems

after permission is secured from the school administration. Once participants were

recruited, they were asked to sign informed consent forms containing information about

the purpose of the study and their role in it (see Appendix A). In terms of ethics, each

student received informed consent forms ensuring anonymity of their responses and the

information they provide for the study.

Materials/Instruments

Open-ended interview questions were administered online through Survey

Monkey (see Appendix B), which is a website that provides services involving surveys to

Internet users worldwide. The questions in the survey questionnaire were open-ended in

nature and design, focusing on eliciting the detailed perceptions of the participants

regarding brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. The open-ended questions in the

survey were field-tested in order to test the appropriateness of the nature, wording,

length, and content of the questions. Three experts in the field of marketing were asked to

review the questions and provide feedback about the ways in which the questions can be

improved. The results of the field test were integrated into the final set of questions that

will be used in Survey Monkey.

Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis

Data collection. Data collection involved conducting open-ended interviews

administered through Survey Monkey. The questions were open-ended in nature,

focusing on the perceptions of brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. Participants were

contacted through electronic mail, directing them to the link of the survey. The informed

consent forms were also attached in the email (see Appendix A). All participants were

asked to return, through email, the informed consent forms with their signatures to affirm

voluntary participation.

All participants were asked to answer the questions with as much detail as

possible. Answering the open-ended questions online took approximately 30 minutes to

finish, but there was no time limit. Participants could answer the open questions that were

prepared at their own pace. After the online administration of the open-ended interview

questions was completed, the researcher contacted the participants through email to

confirm that their responses to questions had been received.

Data processing. After all 20 participants answered the questions in the online

survey; the data were processed in preparation for the analysis. Survey Monkey provides

a summary of the results of the responses of the participants, and the summary was

helpful in the data analysis phase of the study. Data were processed by loading all the

qualitative data in the NVivo software with the appropriate labels to determine the

identities of the participants. NVivo software is a research tool used to store and organize

large volumes of qualitative data such as interview transcripts (Azeem, Salfi, & Dogar,

2012).

To protect the identities of the participants, all files that were loaded in NVivo

only contained the responses of the participants in the open-ended questionnaire and their

corresponding identifying marks. All identifying marks were excluded and code names

were assigned to each participant. The source of the codes names containing the link

between the participants and their corresponding interview responses is only accessible to

the researcher.

Data analysis. After all the data are stored in the NVivo software, data analysis

commenced. Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content analysis was used to analyze the

data. Analyzing data and obtaining themes from such data is important in terms of

creating an understanding of the loyalty phenomenon being investigated (Guion, Diehl, &

McDonald, 2013). Of particular importance in this document were the components of

thematizing, where the purpose of the interview was determined, along with analyzing

and verifying the data.

The process of conducting content analysis involved six main questions

(Krippendorff, 2012). The first question focused on what data were to be analyzed, which

were the qualitative responses of the participants in the Survey Monkey. The second

question focused on the definition of the data. The third question focused on the

population where the data were collected, which - in this study- involved 18-30 year old

consumers from Kenya and the United States. The fourth question pertained to the

context in which the analysis was conducted, which was the comparison of the two

groups. The fifth question focused on the boundaries of the analysis. The sixth question

focused on the target of the inferences, which in this study was confined to the sample

and cannot be generalized to all young consumers in Kenya and the United States.

Rigor is particularly important in a qualitative study since it can be challenging to

achieve (Thomas & Magilvy, 2012). Hence, verifying the data was an important

component of this process. The researcher contacted participants through the electronic

mail in instances of missing data and unclear responses. Given that the sample consisted

of two population groups, triangulation could be achieved by having the opportunity to

compare how the two groups were similar or different in terms of their perceptions and

experiences of the phenomenon that as explored in this study.

The role of the researcher was confined to assembling the sample, developing the

open-ended questions, guiding the participants in the data collection, and performing the

data analysis. The researcher was not able to interact with the participants during the

actual data collection because the participants were given the opportunity to answer the

questions in their own choice of time and location. The researcher performed the actual

data analysis, with the aid of the NVivo software in the storage and organization of data.

Assumptions

One assumption was that the participants will have the technological knowledge

to answer a survey online. To prevent errors or confusion, the researcher provided

instructions on how to access the website where the survey could be found. Moreover, the

email address and contact number of the researcher were provided so that participants

could inquire if they encountered problems during the data collection phase.

Another assumption was that the responses of the participants in the open-ended

questions would be rich and detailed. To increase the chance of meaningful responses

from the participants, the wording of the questions was designed to elicit rich responses.

Follow-up questions would also be included to encourage participants to give more

comprehensive answers to the questions.

The final assumption of the study was that there were going to be similarities and

differences in perceptions between youth consumers in Kenya and the United States. This

assumption was consistent with the literature indicating the cross-cultural differences

between the two countries, including their market economies (Darley et al., 2013; Pule et

al., 2012). The existence of similarities and differences between the countries in terms of

the perceptions of young consumers regarding brand loyalty is crucial in fulfilling the

purpose of this comparative case study.

Limitations

One of the limitations was the ability to get people to participate in open-ended

online interviews. Some individuals might not have the knowledge, resources, or time to

complete questionnaires online. Participants were informed about the procedure for

accessing the Survey Monkey website, that the online open-ended interview could be

completed in approximately 30 minutes, and that no significant monetary resources were

needed to be part of the study.

Another limitation was the lack of interaction between the researcher and the

participants during the data collection. To increase the likelihood that the participants

were able to provide rich and detailed answers, follow up questions were included in

addition to the main questions. In the instructions, the participants were asked explicitly

to provide elaborate and detailed responses.

The final limitation was that some participants may not be proficient in expressing

themselves in the written format, which could affect the quality and accuracy of their

responses. To address this limitation, the survey was untimed in order to give the

participants enough time to collect their thoughts and express themselves through writing.

Moreover, some key definitions were provided prior to the survey in order to ensure that

participants had an accurate understanding of the different concepts central to the purpose

of the study.

Delimitations

The study was delimited to youth consumers in Nairobi in Kenya and Nashville in

the United States. The study was delimited to the perceptions of youth consumers in the

marketing in athletic apparel industry, brand loyalty, and celebrity endorsements. The

youth participants were also delimited to 10 younger people who were between 18 and 24

years old and older people who were between 25 and 30 years old from each country.

Ethical Assurances

Before data collection begins, the approval of the Internal Review Board (IRB) of

the Northcentral University was secured. An application was sent to the IRB detailing the

key components of the study, including how human participants will be protected from

harm. By securing the approval of the IRB, it meant that the standard ethical practices of

research were considered and upheld.

Informed consent forms were provided to each participant through electronic mail

prior to answering the survey questions in Survey Monkey (see Appendix A). The

informed consent forms contained information regarding confidentiality, the procedure

for withdrawal, and the recognition of their voluntary participation. All participants were

asked to return the informed consent forms electronically or through regular mail with

their signature to indicate their consent to be part of the study.

Issues concerning confidentiality were primarily addressed by protecting the real

identities of the participants. Personal information was not used in the research,

particularly during the data analysis and the presentation of the results. Participants were

assigned unique code names to protect their real identities. For the withdrawal process,

participants had the opportunity to send an email to the researcher indicating their desire

to leave the study. The researcher replied promptly through the electronic mail in order to

give the assurance that all data would be removed from the study.

After the research is completed, all files collected from the Survey Monkey and

generated through NVivo files would be kept for a period of five years. After five years

have elapsed starting from the date of the study’s approval, all files will be deleted and

destroyed. All files will be permanently deleted in the personal computer of the

researcher.

Summary

The purpose of the proposed qualitative comparative case study was to explore

the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands. A qualitative comparative case study research

design was appropriate because the flexibility in perspectives produced diverse and rich

data that provided adequate answers to the research questions. For the proposed

qualitative comparative case study, the boundary was defined as the perceptions on brand

loyalty and celebrity endorsements on sports apparel brands of youth whose ages were

between 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States. The unit of analysis was the

perceptions of youth from Kenya and the United States.

The sample consisted of 10 youth from Nairobi, Kenya and 10 youth from

Nashville, Tennessee in the United States, resulting in a sample size of 20 participants

whose ages ranged from 18-30 years. Data were collected through open-ended interview

questions administered online through Survey Monkey. All data were loaded in NVivo

for organization and storage of the open-ended survey responses (Azeem et al., 2012).

Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content analysis was used to analyze the data, resulting

in thematic patterns from the interviews of the 20 participants.

Chapter 4: Results

The purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the

similarities and differences regarding the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on

brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in athletic apparel brands. Kenya and the

United States, selected because sports apparel brands are popular among youth because

of comfort and flexibility (Kinuthia et al., 2012; Ko et al., 2012) - have economic and

cultural differences that may affect how products can be marketed effectively by

marketing companies (Darley et al., 2013). However, marketers do not recognize the

cultural and economic differences between Kenya and the United States, suggesting that

universal strategies to develop brand loyalty may not be appropriate and effective (Darley

et al., 2013; Pule et al., 2012). Complicating the problem is that most studies conducted

on brand loyalty are based on Western perspectives and samples, which may not be

applicable in other parts of the world (Mise et al., 2013). Comparing the perceptions of

customers of a developed and developing country can be instrumental in generating

information that can be used to create more effective marketing plans or strategies.

Youth aging from 18-30 years in Kenya and the United States comprised the

sample for this study; youth below 18 years old were excluded from the study because of

the ethical implication of increased protection for participants who are considered minor.

Using purposive sampling strategy, 10 youth from colleges and universities in the city of

Nairobi in Kenya and 10 youth from colleges and universities in the city of Nashville,

Tennessee in the United States were used; Nashville and Nairobi were selected as the site

where the sample will be recruited because both are urban cities that are accessible to the

researcher.

The data collection source was open-ended interview questions, which were

administered online through Survey Monkey. The questions in the survey questionnaire

were open-ended in nature and design, focusing on eliciting the detailed perceptions of

the participants regarding brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. The open-ended

questions in the survey were field-tested by three experts in the field of marketing in

order to test the appropriateness of the nature, wording, length, and content of the

questions, and the results of the field-test were integrated into the final set of questions

that were be used in Survey Monkey. All participants were asked to answer the questions

with as much detail as possible. Answering the open-ended questions online took

approximately 30 minutes to finish, but there was no time limit. After the online

administration of the open-ended interview questions was completed, the researcher

contacted the participants through email to confirm that their responses to questions have

been received.

Data was loaded into the NVivo software with the appropriate labels to determine

the identities of the participants. Krippendorff’s (2012) method for content analysis was

used to analyze the data to develop categories and themes that reflect the perceptions of

youth in Kenya and the United States about brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. The

process of conducting content analysis involved six main questions (Krippendorff, 2012).

The first question focused on what data are to be analyzed, which are the qualitative

responses of the participants in the Survey Monkey. The second question focused on the

definition of the data. The third question focused on the population where the data were

collected, which in this study involved 18-30 year-old consumers from Kenya and the

United States. The fourth question pertained to the context in which the analysis will be

conducted, which is the comparison of the two groups. The fifth question focused on the

boundaries of the analysis. The sixth question focused on the target of the inferences,

which in this study is confined to the sample and cannot be generalized to all young

consumers in Kenya and the United States.

The findings for this study were based on three research questions:

Q1. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty in

sports apparel brands?

Q2. What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands?

Q3. What are the similarities and differences in the perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands?

Trustworthiness

Qualitative research can be evaluated by its “trustworthiness,” a term coined by

Lincoln and Guba (1985) to represent several constructs including: (a) credibility, (b)

transferability, (c) dependability, and (d) confirmability. Within this study, the researcher

used negative case analysis and member checking. The researcher crosschecked different

data sources from these different aspects to building a coherent justification for the

themes, which added validity to the study.

Negative case analysis. Negative case analysis involves a conscious search for

negative cases and unconfirmed evidence. Creswell (2003, 2009) stated that negative or

discrepant information should be presented. By giving negative information that goes

against a hypothesis, helps the account becomes more realistic and valid (Creswell,

2012). Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle (2010) suggested revising the theory or providing

an explanation as to why the case does not fit. Real life is the context of the proposed

study. Real life context means that there are many different perspectives that do not

always coincide; by adding the opposing views it will increase the study validity

according to Creswell (2012).

Member checking. Member checking is a process used to determine accuracy by

allowing the participants access to the final report for verification (Creswell, 2012). The

researcher will use member checking as a way to ensure the accuracy of the study’s

findings, taking the final report to the participants so they could check for errors, which

will allow the researcher to make corrections.

Moreover, the validity of the answers of the subjects is considered as an

uncontrollable factor in the research. Answers of the subjects based on their personal

experiences can be difficult to track. This may result in a compromise the integrity of the

data that will be used as the basis of the research. The study may also be limited by the

sample size. Only 20 people were interviewed. As such, the findings may not be

generalized.

Finally, the factors and relevant information pertinent to brand loyalty and

celebrity endorsements are limited by the experiences of the subjects. Subjects are not

able to provide additional information if they have experienced different situations or

scenarios handling different aspects of the subject.

In the remainder of the chapter, the researcher addressed how these findings

correspond to the topic, as well as any outliers or discrepancies that emerged during

analysis. Findings of analysis are noted below for each question.

Findings

Research Question 1: What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth

on brand loyalty in sports apparel brands?

From the results of this question emerged four major themes: brand loyalty as a

marketing strategy in sports apparel according to American youth, the value of brand

loyalty to American youth, brand loyalty as a marketing strategy in sports apparel

according to Kenyan youth, and the value of brand loyalty to Kenyan youth.

Major theme 1. The first major theme is brand loyalty as a marketing strategy for

American youth. Table 1 demonstrates the distribution of responses for this first theme.

Table 1

American Youth: Brand Loyalty as Marketing Strategy

Consumer

commitment to

purchasing brand

Consumer

loyalty to sports

team

Other Not a factor in

purchasing

US1  X X X

US2 X X  X

US3  X X X

US4  X X X

US5  X X X

US6 X  X X

US7 X  X X

US8 X X  X

US9 X  X X

US10 X X X 

Nine out of the ten participants (90%) thought that brand loyalty was an important

marketing strategy. US2 described brand loyalty as a way to engage, and then

subsequently, gauge, consumer reaction:

Brand loyalty is a strategy as it draws in the everyday consumer and attracts

attention from a distance. brand loyalty gives marketers the opportunity to know

how many people are reacting to what is being presented.

For three of the ten participants (30%), brand loyalty as a marketing strategy,

specifically in relation to sports apparel, has a direct impact on the sports team itself. US9

contended, “brand loyalty is a very strong strategy of marketers in the field of sports

apparel brands, due to the fan loyalty that is associated among sports apparel purchasers.”

US6 agreed, saying that brand loyalty as a marketing strategy “increase[s] sales and fan

loyalty to a particular club or sports outfit are being sold to.” US7 also concurred: “With

sponsorship within professional teams, brands are able to create brand loyalty with their

fan bases without them knowing it. i.e.: MLS Adidas therefore a lot of loyalty is created.”

Four out of ten American participants (40%) described brand loyalty as a

marketing strategy grounded in a consumer’s commitment to a company. As US1

explained it:

Brand loyalty is largely a consumer’s strong commitment towards a particular

brand to the extent where the consumer will be motivated to obtain that brand

exclusively on every purchase. It’s the main variable which influences the

purchase decision process of the store brand.

US4 agreed, noting that brand loyalty as marketing “provides a commitment by the

marketer to ensure that the customer remains loyal to the brand.” US5 added, that “brand

loyalty helps the marketers as they will never lose their customers because the consumers

trust that their products are of good quality." In addition, US3 argued brand loyalty was

“a great” strategy “because once you have a good experience it's likely you won't change

brands.”

US8 viewed brand loyalty in a slightly different way, arguing that as a marketing

strategy it acts as a determining factor in purchase decisions of consumers:

I see brand loyalty, specifically with sports apparel, as the driving decision

making factor. If Nike and Under Armor both make the same tennis shoes, and an

individual prefers Nike for whatever reason, they will pay more for the same product

from Nike. That in mind, when the company is marketing their items, they must

understand this and "play off" it.

Finally, there was one outlier, who argued that brand loyalty was not an effective

strategy. According to US10:

Marketers brand loyalty in sports apparel does not have a much weight on the

sales of the brand. Most consumers prefer comparing different brands before

making a choice and so they would prefer a marketer who deals with two or three

brands to choose from.

Major theme 2. The second major theme is the value of brand loyalty to

American youth. Within this major theme, there were three subcategories: the general

value of brand loyalty; value to youth; and personal value of brand loyalty. All ten

American participants (100%) believed that brand loyalty is valuable within the sports

apparel industry. Of these ten participants, five (50%) described brand loyalty as

“extremely” or “very” valuable. As US3 said, brand loyalty is “extremely important! You

see people buying a pair of shoes or clothes only because their favorite sports player

wears them.” US9 concurred, saying, “In my opinion, brand loyalty is an extremely

valuable asset in the sports apparel industry.” US2 also described brand loyalty in sports

apparel as “very important,” while US7 said that “brand loyalty is very valuable. It is

definitely a money maker in sports apparel. Brands being linked to a successful team or

play is essential for success.” Finally, US8 contended that brand loyalty in sports apparel

is “the most valuable thing, second only to quality.”

The other five American participants explained why they believed brand loyalty

in sports apparel is valuable. For four participants, it’s the relationship between sports

and brand. US6 said the connection “increase[s] loyalty. Sports activities sponsorship to

a particular [brand] that is loyal in buying sport outfits.” US5 agreed, noting the increase

in sales: It makes a sports apparel industry to continue growing and influence others want

to buy their products.” US4 added:

Sports is a habitual activity, where you buy equipment once in a while and

depending on what you like from the ones you have or the reviews you receive,

you tend to go back to, or avoid the [a]isle.

Finally, US10 not that “brand loyalty in the sports apparel industry is valuable” because

“sportsmen, women, and teams in general, are sometimes identified with their apparel

brand because of their loyalty to the brand.”

The other participant, US1, contended brand loyalty is valuable because of repeat

consumers:

In sports apparel industry the value refers to a consumer commitment to

repurchase or otherwise continue using a particular brand repeatedly by buying

that brand. It’s a situation in which a consumer generally buys the same

manufacturer originated product over time rather than buying from multiple

suppliers within the category.

The second subcategory for the second major theme is the value of brand loyalty

for youth. All ten participants (100%) think that youth are influenced by brand loyalty in

sports apparel to a certain extent, making it valuable. The responses for this subcategory

are demonstrated in Table 2.

Table 2

Youth and Brand Loyalty in Sports Apparel

Desire to be

“fashionable”

Link to sports

team/athlete

Self-image Other

US1 X X  X

US2 X X X 

US3  X X X

US4 X X X 

US5  X X X

US6 X  X X

US7   X X

US8 X X X 

US9 X  X X

US10 X X  X

Despite the fact that all US participants believed brand loyalty was valuable to

youth, there was no majority opinion as to why this is so. However, there was overlap in

three different areas: being trendy/fashionable, association with a sports team or athlete,

and self-image. Three of the ten participants (30%) said brand loyalty was important to

youth because they want to be in style or trendy. As US5 explained it: “they perceive it as

youth trying to become trendy and go with the most popular brands in the world.” US3

agreed, adding that as a market, the young population is more impressionable, making

them more likely to be influenced: “Youth are the most malleable so it’s relatively easy

to make them loyal to one brand. They will follow whatever is in ‘style’.” US7 also

agreed, adding: I think their loyalty to a brand is created by what is "in" and

"fashionable" at the time.

US7, along with two more participants, also thought that brand loyalty is

important to youth in sports apparel because of its specific association with teams and

athletes. While US7 said the urge to be trendy was crucial to youth, the participant added:

“There are also links to a professional team or player that adds to their brand loyalty by

wanting to replicate those teams/players.” US9 had a similar viewpoint: “In my opinion,

youth primarily perceive brand loyalty in sports apparel based on their favorite athletes

and their abilities.” For US6, the association with a team was linked to an increase in

sales, both for the sports apparel company and the sports team: “It [brand loyalty] enables

them to be loyal to a particular club sport out fits are being sold to.”

Two other participants (20%) understood brand loyalty and youth as a way to

self-identify. US10 explained: “I think the youth are loyal to a particular brand that they

identify with and they are not easily convinced to change if they do not identify with it.”

US1 agreed, and described brand loyalty in sports apparel as a way to express and build

self:

A positive attitude towards a brand is formed when the youth’s self-image and

brand image are congruous. It helps the youth form their self-image and it brings

them along with the brand for the rest of their short youthful life span.

The remaining participants agreed that brand loyalty was valuable to youth, but had

disparate reasons for contending this was true. US4 argued that brand loyalty for youth

was grounded in the idea of peer pressure: “Once they like it, they tend to gain the

loyalty, but most of the time; it’s based on euphoric decisions, after seeing the peers with

a certain brand.” US2 described brand loyalty as a concept greater than oneself, which is

how youth are drawn to it: “I think brand loyalty is highly important for youth, and

because it represents something important they are less likely to draw away from it.”

Finally, US8 contended that while brand loyalty was crucial, many youths are not even

intentionally aware of their choices; for them, brand loyalty has become so ingrained it’s

almost naturalized: “I don't know that they consciously think about it to perceive it, but

they definitely live it.”

The final subcategory of this major theme is how personally valuable brand

loyalty in sports apparel is to the participants. Table 3 demonstrates the responses to this

subcategory.

Table 3

Personal Value of Brand Loyalty in Sports Apparel

Influential Quality Other Not important

US1  X  X

US2 X X X X

US3  X X X

US4 X   X

US5  X X X

US6  X X X

US7 X X  X

US8 X X X 

US9 X  X X

US10   X X

Five of the ten US participants (50%) said that brand loyalty was personally

important to them. In addition, three of the ten (30%) said the quality was the most

important factor in their sports apparel purchasing habits, and three others (30%) had

other factors that were valuable to their decision-making process.

For the five participants who felt brand loyalty was valuable personally to them,

they had different reasons for feeling this way. For US6, it is the connection to the sports

team; the participants said that brand loyalty “allow[s] me to know which sport outfits are

good for sports after being used by sports champions.” US5 indicated that the idea of

trust is tantamount to personal brand loyalty: “the brand loyalties have influence me to

have trust in a sport apparel and makes me always want to buy the product.” US3 gave a

specific example of the brand loyalty the participant has: “I'm loyal to Nike, I'm prone to

buy Nike apparel. I seldom buy apparel of other brands because I like Nike.” Two other

participants noted that brand loyalty was valuable, but also was one factor in their

consumption of sports apparel habits. US1 noted brand name and loyalty are two valuable

data points in decision making: “I’m mostly influenced by a number of factors such as:

Brand name, product loyalty, price, store environment and promotion and services.” For

US10, brand loyalty is actually synonymous with quality; that is, the participant is loyal

to the brand because of the brand’s quality: “Brand loyalty greatly influences my decision

to buy sports apparel because I not only want to be identified with the brand but also I

believe it is of better quality.”

Two other participants, in addition to US10, noted the importance of quality

products as it relates to the value of sports apparel purchasing. US9 explained: “When it

comes to my personal brand loyalty in the sports apparel industry, I base my purchasing

decision more based on quality of a certain brand.” US4 also cited quality, in addition to

three other important aspects: “Quality of product, price, reliability and social views and

opinions (peer pressure).”

Two other participants cited other factors that were important to their sports

apparel purchasing decisions. For US7, the choice is about selection, rather than solely

brand loyalty:

For female sports apparel it is important to find a brand that produces a good

selection of female-focused designs. There are some brands that have a limited

selection therefore I would not show loyalty to that brand.

US2 noted the importance of comfort and feel, which the participant indicates can have

an impact on brand loyalty. The participant noted that if one “is familiar with the

products, one is aware of how the company works, one knows how it fits, sizing, feel…

one is more comfortable choosing the same thing rather than an unfamiliar product.”

The one outlier was US8, who argued that brand loyalty was never valuable. The

participant did note, however, that their opinion was not necessarily in the mainstream: “I

don't actually care, but I'm the minority.”

Major theme 3. The third major theme is brand loyalty as a marketing strategy

for Kenyan youth. Table 4 demonstrates the distribution of responses for this first theme.

Table 4

Kenyan Youth: Brand Loyalty as Marketing Strategy

Increased advertising and

sales

Problems with brand

loyalty as marketing

strategy

K1  X

K2  X

K3  X

K4 X 

K5 X 

K6 X 

K7  X

K8  X

K9  X

K10 X 

Six out of the ten participants (60%) contended that brand loyalty as a marketing

strategy acted as a form of advertisement or promotion and/or increased sales. K1 viewed

it as a form of incentive for young buyers: “I think brand loyalty is a strong motivator in

marketing, especially to younger buyers.” K2 agreed, saying:

Brand loyalty in sports has a lot of impact to everyone that loves sports and the

people are more likely to buy the brands that sports people are wearing. Sports

apparel brands are one of the best and quickest ways to advertise.

K8 linked promotion to increased sales when discussing brand loyalty: “It's used to

influence consumers to only buy their brand. I view it as just a way to gain more money

and popularity.” Two other participants directly referenced increased sales as an outcome

of brand loyalty marketing. K3 bluntly noted, “Marketers try to promote brand loyalty as

a strategy for brand loyalty leads to increased sales.” K7 concurred, also pointing to

competition for sales: “It is important for the business owners to keep their customers

from going and buying other brands instead of their own.”

Four of the ten Kenyan youth participants thought while brand loyalty in sports

apparel could work well, there were problems with its execution. As K4 explained:

I don't feel brand loyalty is used to most companies’ advantage. In many cases it

can be taken for granted. Building a steady base or offering club/membership

perks are only recently becoming a leading marketing strategy from online

subscription based models and membership only websites. Companies compete to

have the newest and the "best" products when often they are simply marketing an

existing product in a new way. Think the external heal cup in soccer 10-15 years

ago. The UHMWPE heal cut had existed from close to 10 years but by putting it

on the outside of the boot Adidas was able to market it as a technological

breakthrough. Adidas is one of the few companies that has handled loyalty well

over the last 20 years by retaining product lines (Copa Mundial, All star...) instead

of changing the "classic" products to a new design (Nike with Tiempo.)

For K10, brand loyalty is effective as a marketing strategy only if there is a quality

product to back it up: “It can work, if quality is a focus of the brand. Otherwise, you can't

really expect someone to continue to buy items if the quality is not kept longitudinally.”

K6 agreed, saying, “brand loyalty is only as good as the quality and reputation of the

products.” For K5, brand loyalty is only working if it is connected to a personal, specific

sports team: “I don't pay much attention to brand loyalty strategies. If a player our team I

cheer for wears it then I’m a little more likely to buy that brand.”

Major theme 4. The fourth major theme is the value of brand loyalty to Kenyan

youth. Within this major theme, there were three subcategories: general value of brand

loyalty; value to youth; and personal value of brand loyalty. All ten Kenyan participants

(100%) believed that brand loyalty is valuable. Of those ten, seven (70%) labeled brand

loyalty as “very” or “extremely” important. K1 explained: “I think that it is very

valuable- if you look around people involved in sports they are usually head to toe one

brand.” K2 agreed, saying, “It’s highly valuable and should be encouraged.” The same

sentiment was echoed by K7: “Brand loyalty is one of the most important things in the

industry.”

Three other participants explored why brand loyalty was so valuable, linking it

specifically to increasing profits. K3 cited augmented revenue: “Very valuable for

increased loyalty means increased sales and the reverse is also true.” K9 also cited

increased sales, saying brand loyalty is “very valuable. If the brand is good, then people

will buy it.” K5 contended that brand loyalty can expand market share, thereby

augmenting sales:

Seems to be one of the biggest opportunities to get a market share. If you can get

consumers to believe that one brand is superior for them then they are more likely

to pay more for it.

The remaining four participants had different reasons they believe brand loyalty is

valuable. K4 looked at the importance of the customer base:

Within certain tranches of the market it is very valuable. Non-athletic people

whom purchase active wear base decisions on design and price. While buys that

see themselves as athletic or at one time were active are more likely to return to

their favorite brands.

K10 also discussed the value of brand loyalty to customers: “It's smart because people are

creatures of habit. So you have to provide a consistently good product to create a brand

loyal customer.” K8 linked brand loyalty to celebrity endorsement: “I think it is

extremely valuable. Especially when there are certain athletes or celebrities that endorse

the brands.” For K6, “brand loyalty can equal uniformity and teamwork.”

The second subcategory in this major theme is the value of brand loyalty in sports

apparel for youth. The findings of this subcategory are demonstrated in Table 5.

Table 5

Value of Brand Loyalty in Kenyan Youth

Identify with

Athletes

Trendy/Fashionable Peer Pressure Little/No

Value

K1 X  X X

K2  X X X

K3 X  X X

K4 X X X 

K5  X  X

K6 X X  X

K7  X X X

K8  X X X

K9 X X  X

K10  X X 

Four participants (40%) linked brand loyalty to athletes and sports teams, arguing

that it is that connection that appeals to young consumers. K5 explained: “They [youth]

like what their favorite players wear.” K7 said, “I think younger people see brand loyalty

as trying to be like the players or teams they see on television. It is more about who is

wearing it rather than the brand.”

K8 agreed, noting, “I think they relate it to what major athletes wear certain

brands and it makes them want to use those brands as well.” K2 added: “They love it and

want to associate themselves with the brands in the sports, as a result, they want to buy

the brand.”

Two participants (20%) argued that the value of brand loyalty to youth is being

fashionable or trendy. K1 said, “I think that youth will be loyal to a brand as long as it is

"cool" or perceived to be in style.” K3 agreed, saying, “the perception of brand loyalty in

sports apparel by the youth is one of admiration and the youth are known to be loyal to

brands seen to be 'with it'.” K3 used the example of FUBU to characterize hip sportswear

apparel.

Three respondents (30%) viewed peer pressure as a more significant factor than

brand loyalty to youth. As K6 contended, “Youth are influenced more by their friends

wearing a specific brand.” K9 added: “Youth want what everyone else have. It NIKE,

Under Armor, etc. is what their friends have they want it.” For K5, this emphasis on peer

pressure is related to age: “Probably have more peer pressure to have name brand apparel

than adults.”

In addition, two respondents (20%) contended that brand loyalty had little or no

value to youth. K10 argued, “They don't care...Although some want to match their

favorite sports hero...but overall I think that's a small percentage.” For K4, brand loyalty

is only valuable in later adolescence: “I don't feel brand loyalty becomes a factor until the

mid to late teenage years.”

The third subcategory for this theme was the personal value of brand loyalty on

Kenyan youth. Table 6 demonstrates the distribution of responses for this subcategory.

Table 6

Personal Value of Brand Loyalty for Kenyan Youth

Valuable Price/Quality Familiarity No Value

K1 X X X 

K2  X X X

K3   X X

K4  X  X

K5  X  X

K6 X  X X

K7 X  X X

K8 X X X 

K9  X  X

K10   X X

Seven out of ten participants (70%) described brand loyalty as valuable to their

consumption of sports apparel products. K2 said, “It influences a lot because you want to

feel a sense of belonging or closely connected to the team.” Three other participants cited

brand loyalty as personally valuable because of the familiarity the brand provides. They

noted they feel comfortable with what they already know. As K4 said:

I typically only purchase two or three brands. I had an uncomfortable pair of Nike

shoes in the 6th grade and have purchased another Nike product in almost 20

years.

K5 also noted the value of familiarity: “I'm more likely to buy apparel in a brand that I'm

loyal to than a brand that I've never bought before.” K9 echoed these sentiments: “I will

stay with a brand I know before trying a new product.”

Two other participants described the value of brand loyalty as a combination of

price and quality, while two others argued that price and quality actually trump loyalty.

K10 and K3 said brand loyalty was valuable as it relates to price and quality. As K10

explained, brand loyalty can be influential, mitigated by factors of price and quality:

It does somewhat :) I like to have the good stuff for my activities. If a brand has

different price points I don't always like that. I'd rather spend more money on a

good brand that only caters to one type of price point than a brand that has

products for all price point. Certain running gear...the brand is important.

K3 agreed that brand loyalty was personally valuable in terms of “price choice. In choice

of brand [and] in decision making.” Two others, K6 and K7, though price and quality

were more personally valuable than brand loyalty. K6 explained:

If compared products exist at a cheaper price, I will buy it. For instance, Yeti cups

work well but there are cheaper brands that keep ice from melting. However,

some people must have a Yeti to show their status in society.

For K7, it is the quality that is most important: “Quality is the main factor the influences

me when I decide to buy sports apparel.”

Two participants, however, said that brand loyalty was not valuable to their

personal shopping habits for sports apparel. K8 said that it was, in part, due to his age: “It

doesn't influence my decision on what to buy. When I was younger it used to though.”

K1 was definite, saying, “It [brand loyalty] does not influence my decision at all.”

Research Question 2: What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth

on celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands?

From the results of this question emerged four major themes: celebrity

endorsement as a marketing strategy in sports apparel according to American youth, the

value of celebrity endorsement to American youth, celebrity endorsement as a marketing

strategy in sports apparel according to Kenyan youth, and the value of celebrity

endorsement to Kenyan youth.

Major theme 1. The first major theme for the second research questions was

celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy according to American youth. The

responses for this theme are demonstrated in Table 7.

Table 7

American Youth: Celebrity Endorsement as a Marketing Strategy

Increased Sales Identification with

Celebrity

Audience Targeting

US1  X 

US2 X  X

US3  X 

US4 X X 

US5  X X

US6   X

US7  X X

US8  X X

US9 X X 

US10   X

Six participants (60%) said that celebrity endorsement as a marketing strategy

would increase the sales of a company’s brand. As US5 noted, “marketers use celebrities

to increase the value of their apparel…Celebrity endorsement in sport apparel helps it

grow as many people will buy the apparel.” Moreover, four out of the five participants

also gave additional reasons why celebrity endorsements help increase a brand’s sales.

For US1, increased sales are related to the targeting of particular markets:

Celebrity marketing is a tactic featuring a famous person to offer an endorsement

of a product. They only need to be familiar to target the audience. The key is to

match the right celebrity with the right brand and place both of them in the right

ad campaign…. Celebrity endorsement are associated with increasing sales in an

absolute sense and relative to competing brands. Furthermore, sales and stock

returns jump noticeably with each major achievement by the celebrity.

US3 also linked the targeting of the audience with increased sales in celebrity

endorsement, contending that the audience has to know who the celebrity endorser is:

…this strategy works well because people seem to be more aware of celebrities

and what they do, etc… Very. I think it’s a must, if people do not know the person

endorsing the product they won't buy it. Put a celebrity and its done, sales will

explode!

The other two participants linked increased sales from celebrity endorsement to

identification with the particular celebrity. As US6 said, “The particular brand is good

and fit to use for a particular [audience].” When this happens, companies will see an

“increase [in] sales.”

US10 agreed, arguing that the identification with a celebrity transfers the sense of

elegance:

Celebrity endorsement for sports apparel brand is great since it improves the sales

and also gives athletes a brand to identify with which has a touch of

class…Celebrity endorsement is extremely valuable since it makes the sales and

profit rise almost immediately.

While US2 did not specifically cite an increase in sales as an outcome of celebrity

endorsement, the participant also noted the importance of identifying with the specific

endorser:

It is a strategy because the first thing that one sees, is what a celebrity is wearing.

so when a role model, hero, or a well-known individual is showing off the

apparel, then it is most likely to draw the attention of viewers and

consumers…Celebrity endorsement puts a face to a product and brand. It gives

more attention to the apparel being advertised. Celebrity endorsement is very

important.

However, one participant argued that while celebrity endorsement is an effective

marketing strategy, the participant condemns companies who use such strategies:

I think it is a shame that sports apparel companies manipulate the sales of apparel.

especially to youth, by endorsing celebrities and athletes. I do judge a company

by the teams/people they endorse… Celebrity endorsement is very valuable. Sales

success is linked to celebrity success therefore companies have to make good

decisions when endorsing a celebrity as they can make or break a product.

US8 also had harsh words about celebrity endorsement, despite its significance, saying

that “Sadly, [it is] very important (however stupid it may be).”

In addition, US9 and US4, who also did not explicitly mention increasing sales,

did cite the importance of targeting specific audiences with celebrity endorsements as a

marketing strategy. US9 said:

In my opinion, "athletic" celebrities who are used to endorse sports apparel, will

be very valuable in the industry… Concerning celebrity endorsements, my

opinion of the effectiveness of the marketing would need to focus on the use of

solely athletes viewed as celebrities.

US4 argued that the entire success of a celebrity endorsement is contingent on targeting

the correct audience:

That will only depend on the celebrities following and may only affect a few of

the customers positively, but either way, it works well… it is very valuable

because it offers an almost guaranteed direct appeal and subsequent win, over a

certain percentage of the intended market.

Major theme 2. The second major theme from the second research question is the

value of celebrity endorsements, according to American youth. Within this theme, there

were two subcategories: the value of celebrity endorsements for youth and personal value

of celebrity endorsement in relation to sports apparel.

The first subcategory within this theme is the value of celebrity endorsement on

youth. All ten participants (100%) believe that celebrity endorsements are influential on

youth. As US3 noted, “Youth today follow celebrities more than ever before,” making

this form of marketing a particularly appropriate strategy. US2 agreed, noting that

celebrity endorsement “has a very big influence on youth. they are most likely to buy a

certain type of apparel if there is a familiar, popular face wearing the apparel.” US8

added that youth are “highly influenced by it.”

Four participants noted that celebrity endorsement is so influential on youth

because they are more easily swayed, and are more eager to appear popular, like the

celebrity who is endorsing the sports apparel. As US4 said, “Youth may be easily swayed

to jump on to the celebrity bandwagon, with an exclusive need for apparent association

with the celebrity.”US7 further explained:

Youth are easily influenced therefore they believe that the quality of apparel could

be linked to the celebrity that endorses it. Apparel quality is not linked to level of

celebrity therefore it creates false judgement on a product.

US10 agreed, noting, “The youth easily believe in whatever celebrities endorse especially

if they already like the celebrity.” US1 went into further detail about why youth are

influenced by celebrities:

Youths who try to imitate these celebrities find themselves purchasing the brands

which these celebrities are endorsing. The underlying cause of this is because

most youths need to associate themselves with the popularity and success of these

celebrities.

The remaining three participants had differing opinions as to the association

between celebrity endorsements and youth. US9 argued that celebrity endorsements had

limitations within the realm of sports apparel, saying, “In my opinion this marketing

strategy will only be perceived by youth as effective if the celebrities are athletes.” US5

also saw the limitations of celebrity endorsements; however, this participant saw the glut

of endorsements and amount of money spend on them: “Youth perceive celebrity

endorsement as too much sometimes. These endorsements are always worth lots of

money that most of the time is insane.” Finally, US6 saw celebrity endorsements as a

“good way to access brand quality and to advertise” to youth.

The second subcategory within this item was the personal value of celebrity

endorsements on American youth purchasing sports apparel. The range of responses in

this subcategory is demonstrated in Table 8.

Table 8

American Youth: Personal Value of Celebrity Endorsements

No Influence Fashionable/Imitating

Celebrity

Successful Athlete

US1 X  X

US2 X  X

US3  X 

US4  X X

US5 X  X

US6 N/A N/A N/A

US7  X X

US8  X X

US9 X X 

US10 X  X

Four of the ten participants (40%) said that celebrity endorsements were

personally valuable to them because they helped them be fashionable or emulate the

celebrity who is endorsing the sports apparel. As US1 explained:

Marketers are keenly aware that a range of consumer-celebrity relationships

conspire to allow consumers to form a personal identity that matches who they

want to be. It develops a portfolio of relationship that allow end user to function

as creators of meaning for themselves.

US5 agreed, saying, “I look into celebrities as people that influence me and I would

always want to dress like the so that we may look same in a way.” Duplicating a

celebrity’s style was also linked to the status of the celebrity – as popular and

fashionable. US10 explained: “Celebrity endorsement greatly influences my decision to

buy apparel brands because I want to be fashionable.” US2 added, “It gives the idea that

it is more valuable and more popular.”

Two participants (20%) said they would only care about a celebrity endorsement

if it was from a specific successful athlete. US9 said, “The only way celebrity

endorsements will influence my appeal purchasing decision, is if the celebrity is/was a

credible and successful athlete.” US3 first said, “Since I don’t follow celebrities I'm not

keen into buying all the hype.” However, he followed that statement by admitting his

brand loyalty is actually premised on a celebrity endorsement – of an athlete:

One of my favorite brands is Nike, and I think it all began because Michael

Jordan is one of my all-time favorite players, and he used to do Nike

commercials. He's not a celebrity though, I value good sports players.

Finally, three participants (30%) argued that celebrity endorsements did not have

any value in their personal purchasing preferences for sports apparel. US8 said celebrity

endorsements influenced decisions “Not at all;” however, the participant also admitted to

being in “the minority” with that position. US4 also said celebrity endorsement had no

influence: “I am the percentage that is independent, when it comes to these kind of

decisions.” For US7, celebrity endorsements may have influenced sports apparel choices

a younger age, but now had no influence:

Age has played a role in changing my decisions to purchase apparel brands. I look

for quality over celebrity endorsements. As a youth, my decision would be more

influenced by who endorses an apparel product.

Major theme 3. The third major theme for the second research question was

celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy according to Kenyan youth. Six out of the

ten (60%) Kenyan participants thought celebrity endorsement was a strong marketing

strategy. For K10, its best if that celebrity is an athlete: “Genius...top athletes set the bar.

It trickles down...If it's athletic celebrity, it works well...If it's just a regular celebrity...it's

effective...but not as effective....” K5 concurred, particularly for the younger

demographic and sports market: “I think it works very well with youth and with big time

sports fanatics…Supremely valuable. More than team endorsements.” K2 linked the

strategy of celebrity endorsement with the imitation of the celebrity by fans: “This is one

of the best because people listens more to the people that are more successful which show

Harding[sic] and determination, and people want to be like them…Highly valuable and

you cannot go wrong with it.” K3 agreed, noting that this market strategy can inspire

brand loyalty:

Celebrity endorsement leads to increased brand loyalty amongst the celebrity's

fans…Very valuable for fans tend to identify with brands endorsed by people they

perceive as celebrities.

K8 linked the strategy to gaining credibility for a product:

I view it as a tool to get more people to view their product with more respect. I

believe it is incredibly valuable in today's markets. Especially pertaining to the

youth or passionate athletic followers.

K7 added:

People who are fans of the celebrity will associate a positive image with the brand

and make that connection…Celebrity endorsement is one of the major strategies

to increase brand awareness in the industry.

However, three participants saw some problems with celebrity endorsements. K6

discussed the highly subjective nature of these type of endorsements, dependent on

audience’s demographics:

I think younger people are impacted by celebrity endorsements more than most

mature adults. However, this sometimes depends on the group, location, gender,

race, etc…It depends on the celebrity of course. It must be valuable or brands

would not continue to pay celebrities.

K9 says the price is more important than celebrity endorsement, saying, “I purchase what

is affordable and good not always what a celebrity endorses.” Finally, K1 questioned the

motivation of celebrity endorsements:

I realize that celebrities are paid quote a bit of money to have their name and face

all over a product. But no one ever talks about why they endorse the product.

Consumers aren't buying the product- they are buying the endorsement…I know

that it a major factor in retail sales.

There was one outlier, K4, who said, “I have little to no opinion about celebrity

endorsements.”

Major theme 4. The fourth major theme was the value of celebrity endorsements

for Kenyan youth. There were two subcategories for this theme: the value for youth, and

personal value of celebrity endorsements. Within the subcategory of youth, nine out of

100

the ten participants (90%) believed celebrity endorsements to be highly valuable to youth.

K5 said, “I think it is the best strategy for that age group.” K1 thought that is because

young people are more impressionable:

I think that youth are unable to separate what a good product might be from the

celebrity that endorses it. If it is a player they like and follow, they buy whatever

it is they are selling.

Seven other participants (70%) argued celebrity endorsement are valuable to

young people because of youth’s desire to be like those celebrities they idolize. K7

explained: “Younger people would most likely want to be like the celebrity so they would

try to wear the same brands as that celebrity.” K9 contended young people care more

about the celebrity than the product: “Youth perceive celebrity endorsements more than

the product itself. If that is what a big named celebrity has they want it.” K2 agreed:

“They love to death because they want to be like the celebrities.” The same sentiment

was echoed by K4: “They want to be like the celebrity. I have personally seen youth

teams divided over Nike (CR7) v. Adidas (Messi).” Two other participants noted young

people’s desire to identify with the celebrity. K3 said, “The youth tend to identify with

brands endorsed by celebrities leading to greater brand loyalty.” K8 added, “I think it

influences youth greatly when celebrities endorse certain brands. When they relate those

major players to those brands it influences them to want to buy that brand.” However,

K10 said it wasn’t so much the endorsement, but the celebrity that young people care

about: “They don't care! They just want the good stuff that the celebrity athletes are

wearing.”

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There was one outlier, K6, who believed peer pressure was more valuable than

celebrity endorsements to young people: “Youth are influenced more by celebrities

wearing a specific brand to fit in to a group.”

The second subcategory within this theme was the personal value of celebrity

endorsements on sports apparel decisions. The participants were split when it came to

their answers; five participants (50%) said celebrity endorsements had no value to their

purchase decisions, while the other five said they did have personal value to them. K1

said other factors are more important: “It does not affect what I purchase. I prefer to buy

on quality and price rather than name.” The same was true of K9 who said, “It does not. I

buy what is affordable and durable.” K8 agreed: “It's doesn’t generally. I buy brands that

I am comfortable wearing and I know are quality made.” For K5, it had to do with age,

saying celebrity endorsements do not matter “very much anymore at my age (mid 30's.”).

For the five participants who thought that celebrity endorsements were valuable,

there were a variety of reasons. K2 said celebrity endorsements matter “100% because

you really want to be like the celebrity you love.” K3 agreed, saying: “I will go for

brands endorsed by celebrities I admire or hold in high esteem.” K7 added: “I make a

positive association with the celebrity endorsements that I like and the brands they wear

so it influences me to buy the products that they use themselves.” Two participants cited

limitations to the personal value of celebrity endorsements. K6 said that “celebrity

endorsements are only an initial eye catcher. Quality of the advertising, apparel, and price

point influence decisions.” K10 also offered a limitation, saying generally celebrity

endorsements do not matter, with the caveat for himself: “...only if they are an athlete and

good at their respective sports...do I try to copy their style.”

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Research Question 3: What are the similarities and differences in the perceptions

of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in sports

apparel brands?

From the results of this question emerged two major themes: similarities and

differences between American and Kenyan youth as it relates to brand loyalty, and

similarities and differences between American and Kenyan youth as it relates it celebrity

endorsement.

Major theme 1. The first major theme is similarities and differences between

American and Kenyan youth as it relates to brand loyalty. The first subcategory is the

similarities between American and Kenyan youth with brand loyalty. All ten American

and Kenyan participants (100%) believed that brand loyalty is valuable within the sports

apparel industry. There were also similar levels of commitment to the value of brand

loyalty. Five of the ten American participants (50%) described brand loyalty as

“extremely” or “very” valuable, while seven of the ten Kenyan youth (70%) labeled

brand loyalty as “very” or “extremely” important.

There were also similarities between the groups of participants when it came to

the value of brand loyalty for youth. Two Kenyan participants argued that the value of

brand loyalty to youth is being fashionable or trendy, while three American participants

said the same thing, making this a significant area of overlap. Three US participants

argued that the association with a sports team or athlete is crucial to youth’s sense of

brand loyalty in sports apparel; in the Kenyan group, four participants linked brand

loyalty to athletes and sports teams, arguing that it is that connection that appeals to

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young consumers. Moreover, three Kenyan respondents and one US respondent viewed

peer pressure as a more significant factor than brand loyalty to youth.

There was also substantial crossover between American and Kenyan youth within

the realm of personal value of brand loyalty. Five of the ten US participants said that

brand loyalty was personally important to them, while seven out of ten Kenyan

respondents said that brand loyalty as valuable to their consumption of sports apparel

products. In addition, both sets of respondents said that other factors were equally or

more important than brand loyalty to their decision-making process for sports apparel: for

Americans, this included selection, comfort, and feel, while Kenyan participants noted

price and quality.

The second subcategory is differences between American and Kenyan youth with

brand loyalty. As a marketing strategy, there were no areas of overlap between American

and Kenyan youth. American participants focused on the effectiveness of brand loyalty as

a marketing strategy, with nine out of the ten participants thought that brand loyalty was

an important marketing strategy. Kenyan youth, however, emphasized the effect of brand

loyalty on sales and advertising; six out of the ten participants (60%) contended that

brand loyalty as a marketing strategy acted as a form of advertisement or promotion

and/or increased sales. The rest of American participants emphasized brand loyalty’s

relationship to the sports team itself (three of the ten participants and as a consumer’s

commitment to a company (four out of ten participants). For Kenyan youths, the

remaining participants focused on the problems that can harm the execution of brand

loyalty as a marketing strategy, including a quality product and specific connections to

sports teams or athletes.

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In terms of why brand loyalty is valuable, Americans and Kenyans also differed.

For four American participants, the relationship between sports and brand is valuable,

while one other participant contended brand loyalty is valuable because of repeat

consumers. Kenyan participants focused on the importance of increasing profits as the

outcome of brand loyalty.

While there was much crossover between Kenyan and American participants’

views of the effect of brand loyalty on youth, there were some areas of difference. Two

US respondents cited the importance of self-image, citing brand loyalty and youth as a

way to self-identify, while this concept was not mentioned at all by any Kenyan

participants. In addition, a US respondent mentioned the subconscious impact of brand

loyalty on youth, which was not discussed by any Kenyan participant. Finally, two

Kenyan respondents contended that brand loyalty had little or no value to youth, an

argument not made by any US respondents.

Major theme 2. The second major theme from the third research question was

similarities and differences between American and Kenyan youth as it relates it celebrity

endorsement. The first subcategory was the similarities between American and Kenyan

youth.

There was some intersection between American and Kenyan respondents’ views

of celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy. Six US participants said that celebrity

endorsement as a marketing strategy would increase the sales of a company’s brand.

While Kenyan respondents did not specifically cite sales, six out of the ten also thought

celebrity endorsement was a strong marketing strategy.

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There was also an agreement between the two groups of respondents on the

matter of the value of celebrity endorsements for youth. All ten US participants believed

that celebrity endorsements are influential on youth, while nine out of the ten Kenyan

participants also believed this to be so. American participants argued that celebrity

endorsement is so influential on youth because they are more easily swayed, and are

more eager to appear popular, like the celebrity who is endorsing the sports apparel.

While the Kenyan respondents did not mention every single one of those factors, seven

participants argued celebrity endorsement are valuable to young people because of

youth’s desire to be like those celebrities they idolize.

Finally, there was some agreement about the personal value of celebrity

endorsement in relation to sports apparel. Four American participants said that celebrity

endorsements were personally valuable to them while five Kenyan participants said

celebrity endorsements were personally valuable. Moreover, three American participants

argued that celebrity endorsements did not have any value in their personal purchasing

preferences for sports apparel, while five Kenyan respondents said they did have personal

value to them.

The second subcategory was the difference between American and Kenyan

respondents as it relates to celebrity endorsement. While there was some overlap between

the two respondent groups when it came to celebrity endorsements as a marketing

strategy, there were also differences between them. US participants heavily underscored

the importance and link between increased sales and celebrity endorsement, while Kenya

respondents never mentioned sales or profit. In addition, while US respondents discussed

celebrity endorsement as a form of identification with the particular celebrity, as well as

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the importance of targeting specific audiences with celebrity endorsements as a

marketing strategy, this was never discussed by any Kenyan respondent. However,

Kenyan respondents did discuss some problems the saw with celebrity endorsements,

including the highly subjective nature of these type of endorsements, no such issues were

mentioned by the American respondents.

Despite the crossover surrounding how personally value celebrity endorsements

are, both groups had different reasons for finding them so. American participants said

they would only care about a celebrity endorsement if it was from a specific successful

athlete or if they wanted to idolize the athlete, while Kenyans mentioned the number of

limitations and caveats as to why or why celebrity endorsements are personally valuable.

Presentation of Findings

The findings of this study confirm the extant literature, which contends though

there is evidence that market behaviors and trends can be consistent across different

countries (Ko et al., 2012; Pule, Van Heerden, & Nthangeni, 2012), it is possible that

differences also exist (Pule et al., 2012). There were a significant number of areas

wherein the American and Kenyan respondents’ ideas and opinions overlapped. There

were also substantial crossovers between American and Kenyan youth within the realm

of brand loyalty in general, with a majority of respondents from both groups describing

brand loyalty as “extremely” or “very” valuable, as well as in personal value of brand

loyalty, where respondents from both groups said that brand loyalty was personally

important to them. This supports the literature, which says that brand loyalty is often

developed when various antecedents such as consumer satisfaction with products, brand

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trust, and perception of high quality of products and services are present (Ha, John,

Janda, & Muthaly, 2011; Zehir et al., 2011).

There were also similarities between the groups of participants when it came to

the value of brand loyalty for youth, including the importance of being fashionable or

trendy and the association with a sports team or athlete. This coincides with the research

on brand loyalty that suggests that strategy is effective among young adults or youth

(Lazarevic, 2012). The effectiveness of brand loyalty among young adults can be

attributed to the tendency of the demographic group to develop an emotional attachment

to brands (Hwang & Kandampully, 2012). Young adults respond to brand loyalty when

marketing companies make an effort to connect with customers (Hwang & Kandampully,

2012), and understanding the decision-making process of young adults regarding brand

loyalty requires understanding their perceptions (Crutzen, Nooijer, Brouwer, Oenema,

Brug, & Vries, 2009).

Moreover, as the literature suggested, there was also crossover when it came to

celebrity endorsements. There was some intersection between American and Kenyan

respondents’ views of celebrity endorsements as an effective marketing strategy. In

addition, all US, and nearly all Kenyan, participants believed that celebrity endorsements

are influential on youth, and they agreed that celebrity endorsements are valuable to

young people because of youth’s desire to be like those celebrities they idolize.

Moreover, the two groups agreed, somewhat paradoxically, that celebrity endorsements

were both personally valuable to them and had no value – with members of both groups

citing those feelings. These findings both confirm and challenge the literature. Marketers

frequently invest millions of dollars each year on celebrity endorsers with the goal of

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influencing the perceptions of consumer and their purchase decision intentions

(Dwivendi, Johnson, & McDonald, 2015; Tantiseneepong, Gorton, & White, 2012; Tran,

2013; Zhou & Whitla, 2013). Research has documented that, among other outcomes,

celebrity endorsers can help establish credibility for advertisements, improve brand

recognition, improve the ability of consumers to recall advertising messages, forge a

more positive attitude about a brand, and differentiate an endorsed brand from its

competitors (Belch & Belch, 2013; Choi & Rifon, 2012; Van der Veen & Song, 2014).

Such research is confirmed by the US and Kenyan respondents who felt celebrity

endorsements were valuable. However, the research is simultaneously challenged by the

equal number of respondents from both countries who felt as if celebrity endorsements

had no value to their purchasing behaviors.

The existing literature also suggests that there are substantial differences between

cultures, a stance that the findings of this study support. While research suggests there are

several differences such as economy and culture exist between the United Sates and

Kenya, which may affect how brands can be successfully marketed and how brand

loyalty can be formed (Darley, Luethge, & Blankson, 2013; Pule et al., 2012), this

study’s findings was unable – and was outside the scope of – why these differences exist.

However, the findings do suggest that there are cultural differences. These differences

can be attributed to the reasons suggested by the literature. With Kenya’s status as an

emerging economy compared to the United States’ stronger and more established

economy, the size of the economy is one difference that marketing companies need to

consider (Pule et al., 2012). Another difference is the cultural contexts that target

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customers are exposed to, underscoring the importance of differentiating the target

customers from different market areas (Darley et al., 2013).

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the

similarities and differences regarding the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on

brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements in athletic apparel brands. The first research

question tried to answer what are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on

brand loyalty in sports apparel brands. From the results of this question emerged four

major themes: brand loyalty as a marketing strategy in sports apparel according to

American youth, the value of brand loyalty to American youth, brand loyalty as a

marketing strategy in sports apparel according to Kenyan youth, and the value of brand

loyalty to Kenyan youth. The first major theme is brand loyalty as a marketing strategy

for American youth. Nine out of the ten participants (90%) thought that brand loyalty was

an important marketing strategy. For three of the ten participants (30%), brand loyalty as

a marketing strategy, specifically in relation to sports apparel, has a direct impact on the

sports team itself. Four out of ten American participants (40%) described brand loyalty as

a marketing strategy grounded in a consumer’s commitment to a company, and there was

one outlier, who argued that brand loyalty was not an effective strategy.

The second major theme is the value of brand loyalty to American youth. Within

this major theme, there were three subcategories: the general value of brand loyalty;

value to youth; and personal value of brand loyalty. All ten American participants (100%)

believed that brand loyalty is valuable within the sports apparel industry. Of these ten

participants, five (50%) described brand loyalty as “extremely” or “very” valuable. The

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other five American participants explained why they believed brand loyalty in sports

apparel is valuable. For four participants, it was the relationship between sports and

brand. The other participant contended brand loyalty is valuable because of repeat

consumers. The second subcategory for the second major theme is the value of brand

loyalty for youth. Three of the ten participants (30%) said brand loyalty was important to

youth because they want to be in style or trendy, while three also thought that brand

loyalty is important to youth in sports apparel because of its specific association with

teams and athletes. Two other participants (20%) understood brand loyalty and youth as a

way to self-identify, and one argued that brand loyalty for youth was grounded in the idea

of peer pressure. The final subcategory of this major theme is how personally valuable

brand loyalty in sports apparel is to the participants. Five of the ten US participants (50%)

said that brand loyalty was personally important to them. In addition, three of the ten

(30%) said the quality was the most important factor in their sports apparel purchasing

habits, and three others (30%) had other factors that were valuable to their decision-

making process. For the five participants who felt brand loyalty was valuable personally

to them, they had different reasons for feeling this way, including selection, comfort, and

feel.

The third major theme is brand loyalty as a marketing strategy for Kenyan youth.

Six out of the ten participants (60%) contended that brand loyalty as a marketing strategy

acted as a form of advertisement or promotion and/or increased sales. Four of the ten

Kenyan youth participants thought while brand loyalty in sports apparel could work well,

there were problems with its execution including problems with quality products.

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The fourth major theme is the value of brand loyalty to Kenyan youth. Within this

major theme, there were three subcategories: general value of brand loyalty; value to

youth; and personal value of brand loyalty. All ten Kenyan participants (100%) believed

that brand loyalty is valuable. Of those ten, seven (70%) labeled brand loyalty as “very”

or “extremely” important. Three other participants explored why brand loyalty was so

valuable, linking it specifically to increasing profits. In the second subcategory, value to

youth, four participants (40%) linked brand loyalty to athletes and sports teams, arguing

that it is that connection that appeals to young consumers. Two participants (20%) argued

that the value of brand loyalty to youth is being fashionable or trendy, and three

respondents (30%) viewed peer pressure as a more significant factor than brand loyalty to

youth. In addition, two respondents (20%) contended that brand loyalty had little or no

value to youth. In the final subcategory of personal value of brand loyalty, seven out of

ten participants (70%) described brand loyalty as valuable to their consumption of sports

apparel products. Two other participants described the value of brand loyalty as a

combination of price and quality, while two others argued that price and quality actually

trump loyalty. Two participants, however, said that brand loyalty was not valuable to

their personal shopping habits for sports apparel.

The second research question was: what are the perceptions of American and

Kenyan youth on celebrity endorsements in sports apparel brands? From the results of

this question emerged four major themes: celebrity endorsement as a marketing strategy

in sports apparel according to American youth, the value of celebrity endorsement to

American youth, celebrity endorsement as a marketing strategy in sports apparel

according to Kenyan youth, and the value of celebrity endorsement to Kenyan youth.

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The first major theme for the second research questions was celebrity

endorsements as a marketing strategy according to American youth. Six participants

(60%) said that celebrity endorsement as a marketing strategy would increase the sales of

a company’s brand. Two other participants linked increased sales from celebrity

endorsement to identification with the particular celebrity. In addition, those who also did

not explicitly mention increasing sales did cite the importance of targeting specific

audiences with celebrity endorsements as a marketing strategy.

The second major theme from the second research question is the value of

celebrity endorsements, according to American youth. Within this theme there were two

subcategories: the value of celebrity endorsements for youth and personal value of

celebrity endorsement in relation to sports apparel. The first subcategory within this

theme, is the value of celebrity endorsement on youth. All ten participants (100%)

believe that celebrity endorsements are influential on youth. Four participants noted that

celebrity endorsement is so influential on youth because they are more easily swayed, and

are more eager to appear popular, like the celebrity who is endorsing the sports apparel.

The remaining three participants had differing opinions as to the association between

celebrity endorsements and youth.

The second subcategory within this theme was the personal value of celebrity

endorsements on American youth purchasing sports apparel. Four of the ten participants

(40%) said that celebrity endorsements were personally valuable to them because they

helped them be fashionable or emulate the celebrity who is endorsing the sports apparel.

Two participants (20%) said they would only care about a celebrity endorsement if it was

from a specific successful athlete. Finally, three participants (30%) argued that celebrity

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endorsements did not have any value in their personal purchasing preferences for sports

apparel.

The third major theme for the second research question was celebrity

endorsements as a marketing strategy according to Kenyan youth. Six out of the ten

(60%) Kenyan participants thought celebrity endorsement was a strong marketing

strategy. However, three participants saw some problems with celebrity endorsements,

including the highly subjective nature of these types of endorsements, dependent on

audience’s demographics.

The fourth major theme was the value of celebrity endorsements for Kenyan

youth. There were two subcategories for this theme: the value for youth, and personal

value of celebrity endorsements. Within the subcategory of youth, nine out of the ten

participants (90%) believed celebrity endorsements to be highly valuable to youth. Seven

other participants (70%) argued celebrity endorsements are valuable to young people

because of youth’s desire to be like those celebrities they idolize. There was one outlier

who believed peer pressure was more valuable than celebrity endorsements to young

people. The second subcategory within this theme was the personal value of celebrity

endorsements on sports apparel decisions. The participants were split when it came to

their answers; five participants (50%) said celebrity endorsements had no value to their

purchase decisions, while the other five said they did have personal value to them.

The third research questions asked: What are the similarities and differences in

the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity

endorsements in sports apparel brands? From the results of this question emerged two

major themes: similarities and differences between American and Kenyan youth as it

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relates to brand loyalty, and similarities and differences between American and Kenyan

youth as it relates it celebrity endorsement. There were both similarities and differences

in every major theme between both groups of respondents, which both confirmed, and

challenged, the extant literature on brand loyalty, celebrity endorsement, and cross-

cultural marketing.

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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions

The general problem that this study focused on is that marketers do not recognize

the cultural and economic differences between Kenya and the United States (Darley et

al., 2013). Complicating the problem is that most studies conducted on brand loyalty

were based on Western perspectives and samples, which may not be applicable in other

parts of the world (Mise et al., 2013). This congruence underscores the importance of

understanding the similarities and differences of different markets from different

countries to generate effective marketing strategies. The specific problem that this study

addressed is that strategies such as celebrity endorsements and brand loyalty are often

developed globally by marketers with little regard to the differences in the characteristics

of target customers (Darley et al., 2013; Frederick & Patil, 2010).

The purpose of this qualitative comparative case study was to explore the

perceptions of American and Kenyan youth on brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements

in sports apparel brands. A comparative case study research design was used to allow for

an in-depth exploration of brand loyalty and celebrity endorsements from the

perspectives of youth from the United States and Kenya. Using purposive sampling

strategy, 10 youth from colleges and universities in the city of Nairobi in Kenya and 10

youth from colleges and universities in the city of Nashville, Tennessee in the United

States aged 18-30 comprised the sample for the study; youth below 18 years old were

excluded from the study because of the ethical implication of increased protection for

participants who are considered minor.

Data collection involved collecting qualitative data online using Survey Monkey,

which included open-ended questions. The questions in the survey questionnaire were

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open-ended in nature and design, focusing on eliciting the detailed perceptions of the

participants regarding brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands. The open-ended questions

in the survey were field-tested in order to test the appropriateness of the nature, wording,

length, and content of the questions. Three experts in the field of marketing were asked to

review the questions and provided feedback about the ways in which the questions can be

improved. The results of the field-test were integrated into the final set of questions that

will be used in Survey Monkey.

Data was processed by loading all the qualitative data in the NVivo software with

the appropriate labels to determine the identities of the participants. Krippendorff’s

(2012) method for content analysis was used to analyze the data to develop categories

and themes that reflected the perceptions of youth in Kenya and the United States about

brand loyalty in athletic apparel brands.

There were limitations to this study including the ability to get people to

participate in open-ended online interviews. Some individuals may not have the

knowledge, resources, or time to complete questionnaires online. Another limitation was

the lack of interaction between the researcher and the participants during the data

collection. The final limitation was that some participants may not be proficient in

expressing themselves in the written format, which could have affected the quality and

accuracy of their responses.

The researcher also strove to provide ethical assurances for this study. Before data

collection began, the approval of the Internal Review Board (IRB) of the Northcentral

University was secured. Informed consent forms were provided to each participant

through electronic mail prior to answering the survey questions in Survey Monkey,

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containing information regarding confidentiality, the procedure for withdrawal, and the

recognition of their voluntary participation. All participants were asked to return the

informed consent forms electronically or through regular mail with their signature to

indicate their consent to be part of the study. Personal information was not used in the

research, particularly during the data analysis and the presentation of the results.

Participants were assigned unique code names to protect their real identities. All files

collected from the Survey Monkey and generated through Nvivo files will be kept for a

period of five years. After five years have elapsed starting from the date of the study’s

approval, all files will be deleted and destroyed. All files will be permanently deleted in

the personal computer of the researcher.

This chapter reviews the problem, the purpose, method, and limitations and

ethical assurances of this study. Next, it will discuss each research question as it relates

to the extant literature, and it will then present recommendations for practical

applications of the study. The chapter will end with a summary of the findings and the

implications

Implications

Research question 1: What are the perceptions of American and Kenyan youth

on brand loyalty in sports apparel brands?

There were a significant number of areas wherein the American and Kenyan

respondents’ ideas and opinions overlapped. The findings from this first research

question confirm the extant literature, which contends though there is evidence that

market behaviors and trends can be consistent across different countries (Ko et al., 2012;

Pule, Van Heerden, & Nthangeni, 2012), it is possible that differences also exist (Pule et

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al., 2012). There were four major themes that came from this first research question:

brand loyalty as a marketing strategy in sports apparel according to American youth, the

value of brand loyalty to American youth, brand loyalty as a marketing strategy in sports

apparel according to Kenyan youth, and the value of brand loyalty to Kenyan youth.

There was substantial crossover between American and Kenyan youth within the

realm of brand loyalty in general, with a majority of respondents from both groups

describing brand loyalty as “extremely” or “very” valuable, as well as in personal value

of brand loyalty, where respondents from both groups said that brand loyalty was

personally important to them. This supports the literature, which says that brand loyalty is

often developed when various antecedents such as consumer satisfaction with products,

brand trust, and perception of high quality of products and services are present (Ha, John,

Janda, & Muthaly, 2011; Zehir et al., 2011). Studies have also shown that that having a

unique brand is critical to a company’s survival, especially when the business

environment is competitive, complex, and unpredictable. To have a unique brand

necessitates the company to be continuously involved in key marketing activities of

product development and innovation (Karjaluoto et al., 2015; Love et al., 2015). These

studies have been confirmed by the findings of Kenyan and American youth.

The findings also confirm the primarily Kenyan-based response that brand loyalty

is essential to increasing sales. Six out of the ten participants (60%) contended that brand

loyalty as a marketing strategy acted as a form of advertisement or promotion and/or

increased sales. This dovetails with the research, which shows that brand loyalty is one of

the important factors that leaders of marketing companies use because, once loyalty is

developed from customers, it increases the likelihood that customers will continue

supporting the product long-term (Chen, Chen, & Lin, 2011; Mise, Nair, Odhiambo

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Odera, & Ogutu, 2013). For example, the sports brand Under Armour was able to grow

as a company because of research and development and the company’s intensive focus on

developing brand loyalty and brand identity (Miloch et al., 2012).