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Communication11

11-1 Describe the functions and process of communication.

11-2 Contrast downward, upward, and lat- eral communication through small- group networks and the grapevine.

11-3 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

11-4 Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication method.

11-5 Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

11-6 Identify common barriers to effective communication.

11-7 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

LEARNING OBJECTIV ES After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

S ou

rc e:

R an

dy D

uc ha

in e/

A la

m y

S to

ck P

ho to

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Communication CHAPTER 11 355

Myth or Science?

Career OBjectives

An Ethical Choice

Point/ Counterpoint

Experiential Exercise

Ethical Dilemma

Case Incident 1

Case Incident 2

Critical Thinking ! ! ! ! ! !

Communication ! ! ! ! ! ! Collaboration ! ! ! ! Knowledge

Application and Analysis

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Social Responsibility ! ! ! ! !

Employability Skills Matrix (ESM)

THE OAKHURST COMMA

Anyone who’s played Scrabble (or its modern equivalent, Words with Friends) knows that certain letters are worth more than others. But did you ever wonder what a comma was worth? Up to $10 million, according to a ruling by Judge David Barron of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit.

The year was 2017, and three former dairy truck drivers were still fight- ing their former employer in court after three years. From 2009 to 2013, the drivers worked twelve hours of overtime on average, but they were not paid overtime in accordance with state and federal law. In 2014, the drivers filed a class action lawsuit against their employer, Oakhurst Dairy of Maine, to collect the overtime pay they had been denied for four years. The plaintiffs had already lost their case in a lower court but had been granted an appeal. Whether the dairy farmers were entitled to overtime pay hinged on a comma.

Oakhurst Dairy had argued that they did not owe employees overtime because Maine listed a number of occupations that were exempt from quali- fying for overtime pay. Read the following list of occupations aloud: “The can- ning, processing, preserving, freezing, drying, marketing, storing, packing for shipping or distribution of perishable foods.” When you read the sentence, did you add a pause after shipping? If so, when you read that sentence, you probably assumed that the occupations listed included employees who pack perishable foods for shipping as well as employees who worked in

MyLab Management Chapter Warm Up If your professor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/mylab/management to complete the chapter warm up.

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356 PART 3 The Group

the distribution of perishable foods. On the other hand, some of you may have read that sentence and thought that the list included employees who packed perishable foods for shipping or distribution. Much to the chagrin of Oakhurst Dairy, the court was in the latter group. The law was meant to exclude employees who packed perishable foods for shipping or distribu- tion, not employees who actually distributed or shipped food on trucks.

What was the pause many of you added while reading the list? The Oxford comma, or serial comma, is one of the most hotly debated rules in English. Meant to separate the last two items in a list, many style guides omit them. If it seems silly that a single comma determined a ruling in a multimillion dollar case, you may be surprised that Oakhurst Dairy is not even the first company to lose at least a million dollars over a comma. In 2006, two Canadian companies ran into a similar dispute. Rogers Com- munication of Toronto had negotiated the use of telephone poles owned by Bell Aliant. Bell Aliant wanted to end their partnership, but Rogers insisted that their contract limited when they could end the agreement, based on the following sentence: “This agreement shall be effective from the date it is made, and shall continue in force for a period of five (5) year terms, unless and until terminated by one year prior notice in writing by either party.”

Can you guess how the judges interpreted the sentence above? Rogers believed that Bell Aliant would have to cancel the agreement within a year of automatic renewal. The judges argued that the comma after the word terms modified the wording of the contract, and Bell Aliant could cancel the agreement at any time after one year. Kenneth G. Engelhart, vice president for regulatory affairs at Rogers, did not agree with the court’s interpretation. “Why they feel that a comma should somehow overrule the plain meaning of the words is beyond me.”

These two cases demonstrate many issues with communication. First, they show us that communication is complicated, and the meaning of words is not always clear cut. Conventions for writing and other forms of commu- nication can vary wildly across audiences. For example, the disputed Oxford comma is not used by many news outlets, but it is required by the Chicago Manual of Style and the University of Oxford Style Guide. To be effective com- municators, we should be mindful of these differences and check for under- standing when possible. Second, the cases above highlight that an idea may be clearer depending on the communication mode. If Maine’s law were spoken rather than written, interpretation of the law may have been clearer.

Sources: Based on D. Victor, “Lack of Oxford Comma Could Cost Maine Millions in Overtime Dispute,” The New York Times, March 16, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/16/us/ oxford-comma-lawsuit.html?_r=0, accessed April 13, 2017; and I. Austen, “The Comma That Costs 1 Million Dollars (Canadian),” The New York Times, October 25, 2006, http://www.nytimes .com/2006/10/25/business/worldbusiness/25comma.html, accessed April 16, 2017.

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As Rogers Communications and Oakhurst Dairy found, unclear communi-cation can cost an organization millions. In this chapter, we will explore communication in the modern workplace. We will learn more about the communication process and how this process can go awry. We will also learn about types of communication and how these types are shaped by recent technologies.

Communication must include both the transfer and the understanding of meaning. Communicating is more than merely imparting meaning; that mean- ing must also be understood. It is only thus that we can convey information and ideas. In perfect communication, if it existed, a thought would be transmit- ted so the receiver understood the same mental picture the sender intended. Though it sounds elementary, perfect communication is never achieved in practice for reasons we shall see.

Functions of Communication Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: management, feedback, emotional sharing, persuasion, and information exchange.1

Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways. Organi- zations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies, communication performs a management function. Informal communication controls behavior too. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they are informally communicating, and managing, the member’s behavior.

Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance. We saw this operating in goal-setting theory in Chapter 7. Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communica- tion and stimulate motivation.

The work group is a primary source of social interaction for many employ- ees. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. Therefore, communication pro- vides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs. For example, after a white police officer shot an unarmed black man in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2015, software engineer Carl Jones wanted to process his feelings through talking with his coworkers at his corporation. As a sec- ond example, Starbucks had baristas write “Race Together” on coffee cups to start conversations about race relations. In both cases, the initial commu- nications were awkward—so awkward that Starbucks pulled the campaign— but Jones and others have forged solid relationships from their emotional sharing.2

Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is trying to persuade a work group to believe in the organization’s com- mitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) or, conversely, to persuade the work group to break the law to meet an organizational goal. These may be extreme examples, but it’s important to remember that persuasion can benefit or harm an organization.

The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. Communication provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

communication The transfer and the understanding of meaning.

11-1 Describe the functions and process of communication.

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358 PART 3 The Group

Almost every communication interaction that takes place in a group or organization performs one or more of these functions, and none of the five is more important than the others. To perform effectively, groups need to main- tain some control over members, provide feedback to stimulate members to perform, allow emotional expression, monitor the persuasive efforts of indi- viduals, and encourage information exchange.

Before communication can take place it needs a purpose, a message to be conveyed between a sender and a receiver. The sender encodes the message (converts it to a symbolic form) and passes it through a medium (channel) to the receiver, who decodes it. The result is a transfer of meaning from one per- son to another.3

Exhibit 11-1 depicts this communication process. The key parts of this model are (1) the sender, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5) decoding, (6) the receiver, (7) noise, and (8) feedback.

The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product of the sender’s encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the message. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it, determining whether to use a formal or informal channel. Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages related to the profes- sional activities of members. They traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and subject to individual choice.4 The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficul- ties, or cultural differences. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transfer- ring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.

Direction of Communication Communication can flow vertically or laterally, through formal small-group networks or the informal grapevine. We subdivide the vertical dimension into downward and upward directions.5

communication process The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning.

formal channels Communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members.

informal channels Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices.

11-2 Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine.

The Communication ProcessExhibit 11-1

Encoding message

Channel

Noise

Feedback

Message received

ReceiverSender

Message decoding

Message to be sent

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Communication CHAPTER 11 359

Downward Communication Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level is downward communication. Group leaders and managers use it to assign goals, provide job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback.

In downward communication, managers must explain the reasons why a decision was made. Although this may seem like common sense, many manag- ers feel they are too busy to explain things or that explanations will raise too many questions. Evidence clearly indicates, though, that explanations increase employee commitment and the support of decisions.6 Managers might think that sending a message once is enough to get through to lower-level employees, but research suggests managerial communications must be repeated several times and through a variety of different media to be truly effective.7

Another problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; gen- erally, managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions. Research revealed that nearly two-thirds of employees said their boss rarely or never asks their advice. The study noted, “Organizations are always striving for higher employee engagement, but evidence indicates they unnecessarily create fundamental mistakes. People need to be respected and listened to.” The way advice is solicited also matters. Employees will not provide input, even when conditions are favorable, if doing so seems against their best interests.8

In downward communication, the delivery mode and the context of the information exchange are of high importance. We will talk more about com- munication methods later, but consider the ultimate downward communica- tion: the performance review. Alan Buckelew, CEO of Carnival Cruise Lines, says, “A review is probably the one time when you want to be physically pres- ent.” Samsonite’s CEO agrees: “A conference call cannot substitute for face-to- face interactions.” Automated performance reviews have allowed managers to review their subordinates without discussions, which is efficient but misses criti- cal opportunities for growth, motivation, and relationship building.9 In gen- eral, employees subjected to less than direct, personalized communication are less likely to understand the intentions of the message correctly.

The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward com- munications but also solicit communication from the employees they super- vise. That leads us to the next direction: upward communication.

Upward Communication Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It’s used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, coworkers, and the organization in gen- eral. Managers also rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved. It is also important for subordinates to give honest, authen- tic feedback, because if managers are not given reasonable negative feedback about allocating resources, they are more likely to make self-interested deci- sions at the expense of their surbordinates.10

Given that most managers’ job responsibilities have expanded, upward communication is increasingly difficult because managers can be overwhelmed and easily distracted. To engage in effective upward communication, try to communicate in short summaries rather than long explanations, support your summaries with actionable items, and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well.11 And watch what you say, especially if you are communicating something to your manager that will be unwelcome. If you’re turning down an assignment, for example, be sure to project a can-do

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attitude while asking advice about your workload dilemma or inexperience with the assignment.12 Your delivery can be as important as the content of your communication.

Lateral Communication When communication occurs between members of the same work group, mem- bers at the same level in separate work groups, or any other horizontally equiva- lent workers, we describe it as lateral communication.13

Lateral communication saves time and facilitates coordination. Some lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. More often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. So, from manage- ment’s viewpoint, lateral communications can be good or bad. Because strictly adhering to the formal vertical structure for all communications can be inef- ficient, lateral communication occurring with management’s knowledge and support can be beneficial. But dysfunctional conflict can result when formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their supe- riors, or when bosses find actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge.

Formal Small-Group Networks Formal organizational networks can be complicated, including hundreds of people and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels. We’ve condensed these net- works into three common small groups of five people each (see Exhibit 11-2): chain, wheel, and all-channel.

The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approx- imates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level orga- nization. The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you might find on a team with a strong leader. The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it’s most often characterized by self- managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no single person takes on a leadership role. Many organizations today like to consider

Burger King improved lateral com- munication among its executives by eliminating their closed-door offices and organizing their desks in an open- space setting. Shown here, from left, are executives Jonathan Fitzpatrick, Jose Tomas, and Daniel Schwartz com- municating in their new work area at company headquarters in Miami. Source: C.W. Griffin/Miami Herald/MCT/Newscom

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themselves all-channel, meaning that anyone can communicate with anyone (but sometimes they shouldn’t).

As Exhibit 11-3 demonstrates, the effectiveness of each network is deter- mined by the dependent variable that concerns you. The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important. Exhibit 11-3 leads us to the conclusion that no single network will be best for all occasions.

The Grapevine The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine.14 Although rumors and gossip transmitted through the grapevine may be informal, it’s still an important source of information for employees and job applicants. Grapevine or word-of-mouth information from peers about a company has important effects on whether job applicants join an organiza- tion,15 even over and above informal ratings on websites like Glassdoor.

The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communi- cation network. It serves employees’ needs: Small talk creates a sense of close- ness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the outgroup.16 It also gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues employ- ees consider important, and helps them tap into employee anxieties. Evidence indicates that managers can study the gossip driven largely by employee social networks to learn more about how positive and negative information is flow- ing through the organization.17 Managers can also identify influencers (highly networked people trusted by their coworkers18) by noting which individuals are small talkers (those who regularly communicate about insignificant, unrelated issues). Small talkers tend to be influencers. One study found that social talkers

grapevine An organization’s informal communication network.

Three Common Small-Group NetworksExhibit 11-2

Chain Wheel All channel

Small-Group Networks and Effective CriteriaExhibit 11-3

Networks

Wheel

Criteria

Chain All-Channel

Speed Accuracy Emergence of a leader Member satisfaction

Moderate High Moderate Moderate

Fast High High Low

Fast Moderate None High

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are so influential that they were significantly more likely to retain their jobs during layoffs.19 Other research has found that individuals who are connected through the office grapevine tend to be more creative. This effect is due in part to the number of unique ideas a person is exposed to through his or her infor- mal network.20 Thus, while the grapevine may not be sanctioned or controlled by the organization, it can be understood and leveraged a bit.

Can managers entirely eliminate the gossip and rumors common to the grapevine if they so choose? No. Should they want to? Maybe not; in addition to the opportunities for managers to learn from the grapevine, some forms of gossip provide prosocial motivation for employees to help each other achieve organizational goals. And while some consider gossiping to be deviant behav- ior, not all gossip is malicious.21 What managers should do is minimize the neg- ative consequences of rumors by limiting their range and impact. Exhibit 11-4 offers a few practical suggestions.

Dealing with Gossip and RumorsExhibit 11-4

1. Share the information you have, and the information you don’t—where there is good formal communication with much information, there is no need for rumors. When you don’t know information that others are seeking, discuss when you will know and follow up.

2. Explain, explain, explain. As a manager, discuss what decisions are made and why they were made, as well as the plan going forward.

3. Respond to rumors noncommittally, and then verify for yourself the truths you can. Make certain to gather all sides of the story.

4. Invite employees to discuss their concerns, ideas, suggestions, thoughts, and feelings about organizational matters. Help them frame their thoughts into more objective viewpoints.

Modes of Communication How do group members transfer meaning among themselves? They rely on oral, written, and nonverbal communication. This much is obvious, but as we will discuss, the choice between modes can greatly enhance or detract from the way the perceiver reacts to the message. Certain modes are highly preferred for specific types of communication. We will cover the latest thinking and practical application.

Oral Communication A primary means of conveying messages is oral communication. Speeches, for- mal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grape- vine are popular forms of oral communication.

The advantages of oral communication are speed, feedback, and exchange. We can convey a verbal message and receive a response in minimal time. As one professional put it, “Face-to-face communication on a consistent basis is still the best way to get information to and from employees.”22 If the receiver

11-3 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.

MyLab Management Watch It If your professor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/ mylab/management to complete the video exercise.

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is unsure of the message, rapid feedback allows the sender to detect and cor- rect it quickly. The feedback we receive includes information and emotional content; however, we should acknowledge that we are usually bad listeners. Researchers indicate that we are prone to “listener burnout,” in which we tune the other person out and rush to offer advice. “Good listeners overcome their natural inclination to fix the other’s problems and to keep the conversation brief,” said Professor Graham Bodie. Active listening—in which we remove distractions, lean in, make eye contact, paraphrase, and encourage the talker to continue23—helps us learn more and build trust if we are genuine and not judgmental.24 The exchange given through oral communication has social, cul- tural, and emotional components. Cultural social exchange, in which we pur- posefully share social exchanges that transcend cultural boundaries, can build trust, cooperation, and agreement between individuals and teams.25

One major disadvantage of oral communication surfaces whenever a mes- sage has to pass through a number of people: the more people, the greater the potential distortion. If you’ve ever played the game Telephone, you know the problem. Each person interprets the message in his or her own way. The message’s content, when it reaches its destination, is often very different from the original, even when we think the message is simple and straightforward. Therefore, oral communication “chains” are generally more of a liability than an effective tool in organizations. Let’s discuss some popular oral communica- tion applications in more detail.

Meetings Meetings can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in almost any venue. Although 11 million meetings take place in the United States daily, some people hate them. So we try to make them more effective: Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos begins meetings with 30 minutes of attend- ees silently reading his report to themselves, Twitter and Apple have meetings only on Mondays, BuzzFeed has 2 no-meeting days per week, and some organi- zations limit the duration of meetings.26

Framing even our casual business interactions as meetings helps us stay focused on progress. Every meeting is an opportunity to “get stuff done,” as BetterWorks CEO Kris Duggan said, and to “sparkle.” He noted, “You may be an expert in your field, but if you don’t communicate well, or if you don’t get people excited, or you’re not passionate or enthusiastic, that’s going to be a hindrance.”27 Other stumbling blocks to effective meetings are overuse of jar- gon28 and qualifiers that undermine your words (for example, phrases like “to be perfectly honest” or “to tell the truth” imply that you aren’t truthful the other 99 percent of the time!).29

Good interpersonal communication is key to making meetings effective. Some experts recommend using humor as an ice breaker; public relations firm Peppercomm even offers stand-up comedy workshops to help businesses teach people how to use humor. Using humor in meetings even predicts team performance two years later.30 But what if you don’t have a voice in meetings? We don’t mean someone who is speaking or hearing disabled, as we discuss in Career OBjectives. Voice refers to the ability to contribute words of value to the meeting or other forum in the workplace.31 By definition, voice challenges the status quo, supports others’ viewpoints, adds constructively, or is defensive/ destructive.32 As you can see, voice refers to the input and reactions of a person within the meeting, and the lack of voice creates a barrier to input (when no one is speaking, few people want to be the first to break the silence). A person without voice may have nothing to say, but research indicates that women in particular don’t speak up in meetings even when they are in leadership posi- tions, suggesting that certain group dynamics inhibit equal participation.33 In addition, voice may also be affected by employees’ self-evaluation, personal

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initiative, sense of responsibility, and engagement, as well as workplace climate and the emotions and behavior of their supervisor.34 Without equitable partici- pation, the benefits of meetings are questionable.

Videoconferencing and Conference Calling Videoconferencing permits employees and clients to conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations. Live audio and video images let us see, hear, and talk with each other with- out being physically in the same location. Conference calling is generally limited to telephone exchanges where some people may gather around one speaker phone, and others call in through a secure line. There may be some shared files or videos everyone can see on their computers. Both modes are used selec- tively, according to the application.

Peter Quirk, an information technology director with EMC Corporation, uses videoconferencing to hold monthly meetings of employees at various loca- tions while saving travel expenses and time. He notes it’s important to stimulate questions and involve all participants in this forum deliberately to avoid having someone who is on the call but disengaged (a common problem). Other lead- ers wish they had that problem; instead, they have to mediate between callers who talk over one another, and address those who make too much noise. Erica Pearce, a sales executive, told one conference caller, “If you’re vacuuming, I appreciate that, and you’re welcome to come to my house afterward. But you need to be on mute.”35

You might assume people prefer videoconferencing to conference calling because video offers a more “live” experience, but 65 percent of all remote meetings are done via audio only. For reasons not clearly understood (besides some people’s reluctance to be on camera), the time people spend on audio- only calls may be growing almost 10 percent per year.36 To address the pit- falls of videoconferencing and conference calls, experts offer the following suggestions:

1. Set more explicit agendas and firmer rules than for face-to-face meetings. 2. Have callers begin by introducing themselves, their roles in the project, and

what they are looking for in the meeting. They should also state their names each time they speak.

U.S. President Donald Trump, center, is briefed on urgent matters by his National Security team. In-person meetings are one of the primary forms of communication used by U.S. presidents. Source: Planetpix/White House Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

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Communication CHAPTER 11 365

3. Leaders should talk 40 percent of the time and listen 60 percent of the time. 4. Distribute discussion questions before the meeting, and note the responses

of each participant during the meeting. 5. Assign a moderator for the meeting (not the leader) and a secretary (again,

not the leader). 6. Understand people’s preferences for videoconferencing versus conference

calling before the meeting and make sure everyone understands the tech- nology. “I cannot tell you how many times I’ve heard people say, ‘I don’t know what’s wrong with my webcam, so I’m just going to be here in voice’” when they might just prefer conference calling, said Laura Stack, author of Execution Is the Strategy.37

Telephone The telephone has been around so long that we can overlook its efficiency as a mode of communication. Communication by telephone is fast, effective, and less ambiguous than e-mail. However, telephone messages can be easily overlooked, and a lack of functions has made the phone difficult to use

Career OBjectives Isn’t this disability too much to accommodate?

I thought it was a good, responsible move when my manager hired a guy who is hearing-impaired … but now I’m not so sure. We do okay in com- municating with him, mostly thanks to e-mail and texting. None of us knows sign language but sometimes we spell out words with our hands. The problem is that the guy makes a LOT of inappropriate noises—farts, burps, coughs, moans, you name it. Isn’t this too much to put up with?

— Jackie

Dear Jackie: In short: No. Workplace accommoda- tion means more than simply toler- ating a disabled worker’s presence. Perhaps you might consider this from your deaf coworker’s point of view (by the way, deaf is the preferred term, according to the National Association of the Deaf):

• How are the communication condi- tions in which he has to work? Are you being sure to include him in discussions by, say, assigning one of you to write down the impor- tant points for him and ask his opinions in meetings? Search for “10 Annoying Habits of Hearing

People” online to get a glimpse of his perspective.

• Do you know what he thinks about your “hand spelling”? You may not know that American Sign Language (ASL) is not simply English. Your coworker probably doesn’t appreci- ate your “pigeon” sign language and may be offended by your attempts, but he would likely appreciate an effort for the group to learn some ASL and/or use a translator. There are apps and online translators where you can type in a phrase and see someone sign your words on the screen, for instance. Similarly, new technology from MotionSavvy translates signs into written speech.

• It seems you might be attributing emotions to your coworker when he makes noises, emotions he may not feel. Do you think he is uncar- ing about his listening coworkers? It’s much more likely that he simply doesn’t realize he is making noises or thinks they are quieter than they are. Consider what it’s like when you are in a loud room; you’re prob- ably less aware of your sounds than when you’re in a quiet room where everyone can react.

If you can get past the barrier of think- ing about how he should accommodate himself to your environment and instead show him how your group is willing to work to communicate with him, you may begin to develop an understand- ing of one another. Then, and only then, it would make sense to approach the noise problem respectfully and kindly, with a nonoffensive one-on-one. But before you do, search the Internet for tips on communicating with the deaf, and show him some respect.

Sources: Based on C. Swinbourne, “The 10 Annoying Habits of Hearing People,” The Huff- ington Post, September 17, 2013, http:// www.huffingtonpost.com/charlie-swinbourne/ the-10-annoying-habits-of_b_3618327.html; National Association of the Deaf website, www.nad.org, accessed June 30, 2015; and R. Walker, “An Office Distraction,” The New York Times, March 22, 2015, 8.

The opinions provided here are of the manag- ers and authors only and do not necessar- ily reflect those of their organizations. The authors or managers are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for the results obtained from the use of this information. In no event will the authors or managers, or their related partnerships or corporations thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for any decision made or action taken in reliance on the opinions provided here.

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without electronic follow-up. Recently, however, a number of software options have come to the rescue to make phoning more versatile. Switch uses the com- puter to dial phone numbers, and users can change telephones during calls and view document exchanges. Voice allows people to use a single phone num- ber that’s linked to multiple phones. Talko’s app provides a forum for voice memos, texts, and photos. And Twilio offers businesses cheaper calling and automatic text messages. Supporters say these methods increase business com- munication capabilities beyond e-mail. “How many times have you been on a giant e-mail thread that’s not making any progress?,” asked the founder of Switch. With these tools, he said, “You’ve distilled all the waste out of the phone conversation, and what’s left are these really important times when you need to talk to someone in real time, and get some emotion and back-and-forth.”38

Written Communication Written communication includes letters, e-mail, instant messaging, organiza- tional periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or sym- bols. Written business communication today is usually conducted via letters, PowerPoint, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging, social media, apps, and blogs. We are all familiar with these methods, but let’s consider the unique cur- rent business communication applications of them.

Letters With all the technology available, why would anyone write and send a letter? Of all the forms of written communication, letter writing is the oldest— and the most enduring. Letter writing can be used to great effect in business, adding a personal touch to a communication or, alternately, creating a last- ing document to signal an official communication. Research indicates that when we write by hand, the content is much more memorable to us than when we type.39

PowerPoint PowerPoint and other slide formats like Prezi can be an excellent mode of communication because slide-generating software combines words with visual elements to engage the reader and help explain complex ideas. PowerPoint is often used in conjunction with oral presentations, but its appeal is so intuitive that it can serve as a primary mode of communication. It is not without its detractors, however, who argue that it is too impersonal, disengag- ing, and frequently hard to follow.

E-Mail The growth of e-mail since its inception nearly 50 years ago has been spectacular, and its use is so pervasive it’s hard to imagine life without it. There are more than 3.1 billion active e-mail accounts worldwide, and cor- porate employees average 105 e-mails each day.40 Exhibit 11-5 shows the time that managers and professionals spend daily on various tasks. Many managers report they spend too much time on e-mail. Do you?

The business benefits of e-mail messages are obvious: they can be written, edited, sent, and stored quickly and cheaply. E-mail is not without cost, how- ever. In fact, according to e-mail software company Messagemind, corporations lose $650 billion each year from time spent processing unnecessary e-mails.41 One study also indicated that people focus longer on tasks and are less stressed when they are cut off from checking e-mail, although other research suggests that e-mail is only stressful for employees when their workload is already heavy.42

Despite the costs, e-mail is likely here to stay, and is “often the first impres- sion that others get of you,” according to executive coach and etiquette expert Jaqueline Whitmore.43 Still, even seasoned e-mail aficionados struggle with striking the proper tone in their communications.

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Whitmore offers the following advice:

1. Don’t skip the subject line, but make it short and topic-related. 2. Give a greeting/salutation. “Dear” and “hello” are good starting points. In

later exchanges, “hi” may be appropriate. Use the person’s name. “Err on the side of being more formal” in your greeting and the body of the e-mail, Whitmore advises. Same for your closing; “Best regards” is more formal.

3. Keep sentences, paragraphs, and thoughts short. Use bullet points when possible.

4. However, don’t be curt. “No one can see your facial expressions or hear your tone of voice, so the only way they’re gauging your emotions is the tone that you use in that e-mail,” she said.

5. Don’t use text language. “Even if you’ve just graduated from college and you’re now out in the workforce,” Whitmore observed, “remember that a lot of your clients may be baby boomers. It’s important for you to stay professional.”

6. Check your spelling. Check it again. 7. When people write back, reply within 24 hours. “Even if you don’t have an

answer for someone, reply anyway,” she said.44

Instant Messaging Like e-mail, instant messaging (IM) is usually done via com- puter. There are distinct pros and cons to IM, but there are mostly negatives for business interactions. If you are present when the IM comes in, you can respond in real time to engage in online typed dialogue, but the conversation will not be saved for later reference. If you miss the incoming IM, you may be alerted when you next log on that a person tried to reach you, which may be long after a response was needed.

Text Messaging Text messaging may be a little bit better than IM but has many of the same pitfalls in business usage. The guidelines for the business use of texting are still evolving, but experts continually caution that business text lan- guage should be as formal as any other business communication. The level of informality and abbreviations we use in personal text messages is usually not advisable at work.45

Allocation of Time at Work for Managers and ProfessionalsExhibit 11-5

28%

19% 14%

39%

Reading and answering e-mail

Searching and gathering information

Communicating and collaborating internally

Role-specific tasks

Source: Based on M. Chui et al., “The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies,” McKinsey & Company, July 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/the_social_economy.

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Social Media Websites Nowhere has online communication been more trans- formed than in the rise of social networks like Facebook and LinkedIn, and business is taking advantage of the opportunities these social media present. Many organizations have developed their own in-house social-networking appli- cations, known as enterprise social software, and most have their own Facebook pages and Twitter feeds.46 Social networking has become a tool for prospective employees, hiring managers, employees, and human resources divisions (see OB Poll).

Facebook has more than 1.44 billion active users per month,47 and it’s important to remember in business that users can send messages to other users either by posting on their walls (public), sending messages, or setting up chats (private). They can also communicate with multiple other users (“friends”) by posting status updates, videos, and photos. Some of the modes of communi- cation may be appropriate for business application (such as an organization’s Facebook page), but many are not. Research has found that none of the world’s 50 most profitable companies’ CEOs are using Facebook.48 This represents a dramatic shift from 2010, when these CEOs were using Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter quite equally. Leslie Gaines-Ross, who represents the study, observed, “I think that CEOs are identifying which platform really works for them.”49 Privacy remains a high concern for many Facebook users, and some regions of the world do not have access to it.50

Unlike many social media venues, LinkedIn was created as an online busi- ness network and now has 187 million active users per month.51 User profiles on the site are like virtual résumés. Communication is sometimes limited to endorsements of others’ skills and establishment of business connections, though direct private communication is available and users can form and belong to groups. LinkedIn is used increasingly by top CEOs and is the top popular network for them (22 percent of the top 50 companies’ CEOs use LinkedIn).52

Twitter is a hybrid social-networking service for users to post microblog entries of 140 characters to their subscribers about any topic, including work. Twitter has 236 million active users monthly on average53 and is growing as

No, but soon 37% No

52%

Yes 11%

OB POLL Do You Use Social-Networking Sites to Research Job Candidates?

Note: CareerBuilder survey of over 2,000 hiring professionals. Source: Based on CareerBuilder at http://www.careerbuilder.com/JobPoster/Resources/page.aspx?pagever=2012SocialMedia&template=none.

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a business venue. While only 10 percent of the top companies’ CEOs are on Twitter,54 some have many followers, such as President Donald Trump, who has 29.7 million, and Richard Branson of Virgin Group, who has 5.99 million. As former Medtronic CEO Bill George noted, “Can you think of a more cost- effective way of getting to your customers and employees?”55 Having many fol- lowers can be an advantage to a firm or a manager, but a huge liability when posts (tweets) are badly written or negative.

Apps LinkedIn and Twitter are two of the most widely used social media plat- forms for businesses, but they are not the only ones. Apps—easily accessed mobile-friendly platforms—are increasingly the forum of choice for the public. Some websites have apps, while other apps exist without corresponding web- sites. One of the biggest apps is WhatsApp, at 450 million active monthly users. Apps are most popular in regions where mobile phone usage is primary.56 Asia has the world’s largest number of social media users, and apps play a large role in that part of the world through Line ( Japan), WeChat (China), and Kakao (South Korea).57

Blogs A blog (short for “web log”) is a website about a single person or com- pany. Experts see blogging as a business necessity for organizations, so it should not be overlooked as a vital form of communication to employees and custom- ers, who can post feedback if they choose.58 However, outdated blogs look bad to employees, customers, and the public, so new ones must be added continu- ally to maintain relevancy.

Myth or Science? Today, Writing Skills Are More Important Than Speaking Skills

Never before have the writing skills of managers and employees been more on display. Whether we are tapping on a keyboard or a screen, this communication with oth- ers is often unedited. (Thank goodness for spell-check.) With all the written communication methods we currently employ, it would be easy to think upper management values writing skills over speaking skills. However, evidence sug- gests that this is not the case.

As we discussed in Chapter 1, soft skills matter most to employers, regard- less of industry. According to Nick Schultz of the American Enterprise Insti- tute, “Considerable evidence suggests that many employers would be happy just to find applicants who have the sort of ‘soft’ skills that used to be almost taken for granted.” Though soft skills refer to

all interpersonal skills evident through speaking and writing, they are most on display in one-on-one discussions, inter- views, meetings, and presentations. The ability to speak well, particularly in Eng- lish, has become a job prerequisite for many multinational corporations.

The good news is that speaking ability—knowledge of when to speak, how to speak, how to sound, what to say—can be improved through train- ing. According to leadership coach and author Kristi Hedges, most peo- ple can train on their own and do not need formal presentation classes. You can make significant improvements by researching speaking techniques, watching videos of practice sessions, and practicing new techniques in meetings. If learning to speak a for- eign language fluently is a problem,

full immersion courses and overseas assignments can be helpful if they are options, as are listening to and mimick- ing television and radio broadcasts in the language. Speaking well hinges on clarity and sincerity of expression.

While it is a mistake to believe writ- ing skills have become more important than speaking skills, we can all make significant improvements in our verbal communications relatively quickly.

Sources: Based on R. J. Aldrick and J. Kasuku, “Escaping from American Intelligence: Cul- ture, Ethnocentrism and the Anglosphere,” International Affairs, September 2012, 1009– 28; K. Hedges, “Confessions of a Former Public Speaking Trainer: Don’t Waste Your Money,” Forbes, April 19, 2012, www.forbes .com/sites/work-in-progress/2012/04/19/ public-speaking-trainer-confesses-dont-waste- your-money-on-this/; and N. Schultz, “Hard Unemployment Truths about ‘Soft’ Skills,” The Wall Street Journal, September 20, 2012, A15.

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Others Flickr, Pinterest, Google+, YouTube, Wikis, Jive, Socialtext, and Social Cast are just a few of the many public and industry-specific platforms, with new ones launching daily. Some are designed for only one type of posting: YouTube accepts only videos, for instance, and Flickr only videos and images. Other sites have a particular culture, such as Pinterest’s informal posts sharing recipes or decorating tips. The business applications have not been fully realized yet, but soon there will probably be at least one social media site tailored to every type of business communication.

Nonverbal Communication Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart an unspoken message.59 Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone as a powerful message of our business communication. No dis- cussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of nonverbal communication—which includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.

We could argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is accidental (though some are unconscious). We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language. For example, we smile to project trustworthi- ness, uncross our arms to appear approachable, and stand to signal authority.60

Body language can convey status, level of engagement, and emotional state.61 Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication. In fact, studies indicate that people read much more about another’s attitude and emotions from their nonverbal cues than their words! If nonverbal cues conflict with the speaker’s verbal message, the cues are sometimes more likely to be believed by the listener.62

If you read the minutes of a meeting, you wouldn’t grasp the impact of what was said the same way as if you had been there or could see the meet- ing on video. Why is this so? There is no record of nonverbal communication, and the emphasis given to words or phrases is missing. Both make the mean- ing clearer. Exhibit 11-6 illustrates how intonations can change the meaning of a message. Facial expressions also convey meaning. Facial expressions, along with intonations, can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other characteristics.

Physical distance also has meaning. What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. For example, a business- like distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North

Intonations: It’s the Way You Say It!Exhibit 11-6

Change your tone and you change your meaning:

Placement of the Emphasis What It Means

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? I was going to take someone else.

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? Instead of the guy you were going with.

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? I’m trying to find a reason why I shouldn’t take you.

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? Do you have a problem with me?

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? Instead of going on your own.

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? Instead of lunch tomorrow.

Why don’t I take you to dinner tonight? Not tomorrow night.

Source: Reproduced in A. Huczynski and D. Buchanan, Organizational Behavior, 4th ed. (Essex, UK: Pearson Education, 2001), 194.

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America. If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if the person stands farther away, it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.

Choice of Communication Now that we’ve discussed various modes of business communication, why do people choose one channel of communication over another? A model of media richness helps explain channel selection among managers.63

Channel Richness Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they can (1) handle multiple cues simultaneously, (2) facilitate rapid feed- back, and (3) be very personal. Others are lean in that they score low on these factors. As Exhibit 11-7 illustrates, face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communica- tion episode—multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present. Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness.

In sum, rich channels give us the chance to observe. The unconscious aspects of communication help us understand the full meaning of a message. When these aspects are missing, we must look for other clues to deduce the sender’s emotions and attitudes.

11-4 Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication method.

channel richness The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode.

Information Richness and Communication ChannelsExhibit 11-7

Formal reports, bulletins

Low channel richness

High channel richness

Prerecorded speeches

Online discussion groups, groupware

Live speeches Video conferences

Memos, letters E-mail Voice mail Telephone conversations

Face-to-face conversations

Source: Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), 311.

MyLab Management Personal Inventory Assessments Go to www.pearson.com/mylab/management to complete the Personal Inventory Assessment related to this chapter.

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Choosing Communication Methods The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine. Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have minimal ambiguity; channels low in richness can carry them efficiently. Nonroutine communications are likely to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Managers can communicate them effectively only by selecting rich channels.

Channel richness is a helpful framework for choosing your mode of commu- nication. It is not always easy to know when to choose oral rather than written communication, for instance. Experts say oral communication or “face-to-face” communication with coworkers, clients, and upper management is the key to success. However, if you seek out the CEO just to say hello, you may be remem- bered as an annoyance rather than a star, and signing up for every meeting on the calendar to increase your face-to-face interactions is counterproductive to getting the work of the organization done. Your communication choice is worth a moment’s thought: Is the message you need to communicate better suited to a discussion? A diagram? Let’s explore some decision points.

Whenever you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. The marketing plan for a new product, for instance, may need to be worked out with clients in person, so you can see their reac- tions to each idea you propose. Also consider the receiver’s preferred mode of communication; some individuals focus on content better in written form and others prefer discussion. For example, if your manager requests a meeting with you, you may not want to ask for an e-mail exchange instead. The pace of your work environment matters, too. A fast-paced workplace may thrive on pop-by meetings, while a deadline-heavy team project may progress faster with sched- uled Skype videoconferences.

Much of what we communicate face-to-face is in the delivery, so also consider your speaking skills when choosing your communication method. Research indicates the sound of your voice is twice as important as what you are saying. A good speaking voice—clear, moderated—can be a help to your career, while loud, questioning, irritating, immature, falsetto, breathy, or monotone voice tones can hinder you. If your voice is problematic, your work teams can help you raise your awareness so you can make changes, or you may benefit from the help of a voice coach.64

Written communication is generally the most reliable mode for complex and lengthy communications, and it can be the most efficient method for short mes- sages when, for instance, a two-sentence text can take the place of a 10-minute phone call. But keep in mind that written communication can be limited in its emotional expression.

Choose written communication when you want the information to be tan- gible, verifiable, and “on the record.” People are usually forced to think more thoroughly about what they want to convey in a written message than in a spoken one, so your written communications can be well thought out, logical, and clear. But be aware that, as with oral communication, your delivery is just as important as the content. We discussed the level of formality, but note that managers report grammar mistakes and lack of business formality are unprofessional—and unac- ceptable. “People get passionate about grammar,” corporate writing instructor and author Jack Appleman noted, and one study found that 45 percent of employers were adding training programs to teach grammar and communica- tion skills.65 On the other hand, some experts argue that the use of social media jargon and abbreviations is good for business. Overall, for your professional suc- cess, know your audience when possible, and use good grammar.

Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when sig- natures need to be authentic. A handwritten thank-you note is never a wrong

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choice for an applicant to send after an employment interview, for instance, and handwritten envelopes often are put right on the receiver’s desk unopened by administrative staff. Although electronic written communication provides authentication by indicating the sender and date/time sent, a handwritten sig- nature is still preferred and sometimes required for letters and contracts.

In general, you should respond to instant messages only when they are pro- fessional and initiate them only when you know they will be welcome. Remem- ber that your conversation will not be stored for later reference.

There are significant gains and challenges from text messaging in busi- ness settings. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business. However, some users—and managers—view text messaging as intrusive and distracting. The rules of business etiquette are not yet estab- lished, resulting in offenses ranging from texts sent at unreasonable hours to serial texting in bursts of short messages that keep receivers’ phones buzzing annoyingly. Such a continual presence can also make it hard for employees to concentrate and stay focused. Consider these recent research findings from a survey of professionals:

• Eighty-four percent think it’s inappropriate to write texts or e-mails during formal meetings.

• Seventy-five percent think it’s inappropriate to read texts or e-mails during formal meetings.

• Sixty-six percent think it’s inappropriate to write texts or e-mails during any meetings.

• At least 22 percent think it’s inappropriate to use phones during any meetings.66

As you can see, it is best to strictly limit personal text messages during office hours and be cautious in using texting for business purposes. You should dis- cuss using texting for business with people before you text them for the first time, set up general availability ground rules, and take your cues about when to text from the other person. For longer messages, it is better to use e-mail; even

To enhance her personal office visits with patients, pediatric physician Dr. Natasha Burgert communicates with them through e-mail, texting, and her blog. Written communication enables her to share reliable and timely medi- cal information with patients’ families so they can provide better care for their children. Source: Orlin Wagner/AP Images

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though the receiver still might scroll through the message on a smartphone, the option of viewing—and saving—your message on a computer is preferable.

On the corporate level, the returns on using social media are mixed. Some of the most spectacular gains are in the sales arena, both business-to-public and business-to-business. For instance, one sales representative for virtual-meetings company PGi landed his fastest sale ever by instantly connecting with a poten- tial client after TweetDeck alerted him that a CEO was tweeting his frustration about web conferencing.67 Companies are also developing their own internal social-networking platforms to encourage employees to collaborate and to improve training, reporting a 300 percent annual increase in corporate net- work activity.

Some organizations have policies governing the use of social media, but many don’t. It is difficult for management to control the content that employ- ees post; even well-intentioned employees post comments that could be con- strued as harmful to their organization’s reputation or that reveal confidential or sensitive information. Software that mines social media sites can check on a job applicant, and the growing field of digital forensics helps investigate poten- tial problems with current employees; however, cybersleuthing can be time- consuming and expensive.68 And acting on violations of an organization’s social media policy is tricky. Thus, if you want to use social media for business pur- poses, make certain you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort. And if you would like to mention your business in your personal social media, communicate with your organization about what you would like to do, and what you think the potential return for the company may be. Use discretion about which personal social media platforms and apps are acceptable for business communication. And know your company’s social media policies about corporate confidentiality and your company’s view on your privacy.69

As an individual, you may choose to post a blog on your own blog page, or you may choose to comment on another person’s blog. Both options are more public than you may think, and your words are easily reachable by your name via search engines like Google. If others in the company happen to read a criti- cal or negative blog entry or post, there is nothing to keep them from sharing that information with management. You could be dismissed as a result.

It’s important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication and look for these cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words. You should be particularly aware of contradictions between the messages. Someone who frequently glances at her wristwatch is giving the message that she would prefer to terminate the conversation no matter what she actually says, for instance. We misinform others when we express one message verbally, such as trust, but non- verbally communicate a contradictory message that reads, “I don’t have confi- dence in you.”

Information Security Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or propri- etary information about clients, customers, and employees. Organizations worry about the security of electronic information they seek to protect such as hospital patient data, physical information they still keep in file cabinets, and information they entrust their employees with knowing. Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some even use video surveillance and record phone conversations. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal information is used.70

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Persuasive Communication We’ve discussed a number of methods for communication up to this point. Now we turn our attention to one of the functions of communication— persuasion—and the features that might make messages more or less persua- sive to an audience.

11-5 Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.

An Ethical Choice Using Employees in Organizational Social Media Strategy

Social media are good for business communication, but their use is an ethical minefield for employ- ers and employees. In a study of 24 industries in 115 countries, 63 percent of managers believed social media will be important to their businesses in 3 years. Research suggests that social media use may be an indicator of an organization’s profitability. Companies at the forefront include McDonald’s, IBM, Salesforce, SAP, and Yammer. Social media can turn customers into fans through increased and personal- ized communication, and quick and appropriate responses to customers’ communication can turn those fans— and employees—into spokespeople for the brand. The key is forming emo- tional bonds or capitalizing on current relationships to spread the good word about the company to potential clients.

Social media sites pose a host of business ethical concerns. Employ- ees with a huge online presence who use social media for both personal and company promotion (known as co- branded employees) become a liability if they leak corporate information, pres- ent a bad image, or leave the company.

There are also ethical concerns about employees’ privacy and right to free speech: Let’s say that an employee who monitors the company Twitter feed wins a customer over; she later tweets from her personal account, “Score for us: another happy customer.” That may present no concern, but she would hurt the company if she lost the customer and tweeted, “Epic fail: We blew it again.”

Other employer tasks with few tested ethical guidelines include ensur- ing employees make proper use of com- pany time, compensating them for time they spend promoting the company through their personal social media connections, clarifying who should own personal devices used for company promotion, setting limits on company expectations of employees’ promotion efforts, dealing with permissions/attri- butions, and clearing any legal hurdles.

Experts advise organizations to draft social media policies that reflect their company ethics rather than seek to “cover all the bases” of potential liabilities. While an organization could require job applicants to share their online passwords, for instance, this

may violate trust and personal pri- vacy rules. Policies that define ethi- cal expectations for employee online behavior, discuss monitoring, define consequences for nonconformance, and explain the logic of the guidelines will be the most effective. Even still, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) finds many corporate policies aimed at the ethics of social media usage violate the National Labor Rela- tions Act. A good social media policy can affirm the ethical expectations of the corporation and improve its organi- zational culture.

Sources: Based on S. F. Gale, “Policies Must Score a Mutual Like,” Workforce Manage- ment (August 2012): 18; B. Giamanco and K. Gregoire, “Tweet Me, Friend Me, Make Me Buy,” Harvard Business Review (July–August 2012): 88–93; D. Kiron, D. Palmer, A. N Phillips, and N. Kruschwitz, “What Manag- ers Really Think about Social Business,” MIT Sloan Management Review (Summer 2012): 51–60; X. Luo, J. Zhang, and W. Duan, “Social Media and Firm Equity Value,” Infor- mation Systems Research (March 2013): 146–63; C. M. Sashi, “Customer Engage- ment, Buyer-Seller Relationships, and Social Media,” Management Decision 50 (2012): 253–72; and A. Smith, “NLRB Finds Social Media Policies Unlawful,” HR Magazine (August 2012): 18.

MyLab Management Try It If your professor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/ mylab/management to complete the Mini Sim.

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Automatic and Controlled Processing To understand the process of persuasion, it is useful to consider two differ- ent ways we process information.71 Think about the last time you bought a can of soda. Did you carefully research brands, or did you reach for the can that had the most appealing advertising? If we’re honest, we’ll admit glitzy ads and catchy slogans have an influence on our choices as consumers. We often rely on automatic processing, a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics like those we discussed in Chapter 6. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don’t care much about. The disadvantage is that it lets us be fooled easily by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo.

Now consider the last time you chose a place to live. You probably sourced experts who knew something about the area, gathered information about prices, and considered the costs and benefits of renting versus buying. You were engaging in more effortful controlled processing, a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic. Controlled pro- cessing requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone who has taken the time and effort to engage in it. So what makes someone engage in either shallow or deep processing? Let’s explore how we might determine what types of processing an audience will use.

Interest Level One of the best predictors of whether people will use an auto- matic or controlled process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it.72 Interest levels reflect the impact a decision will have on your life. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they’re more likely to process information carefully. That’s probably why people look for so much more information when deciding about something important (like where to live) than something relatively unimportant (like what color t-shirt to wear).

Prior Knowledge People who are well informed about a subject area are more likely to use controlled processing strategies. They have already thought through various arguments for or against a specific course of action and there- fore won’t readily change their position unless very good, thoughtful reasons are provided. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence. A better-informed audi- ence is likely to be much harder to persuade.

Personality Do you read at least five reviews of a movie before deciding whether to see it? Perhaps you even research films by the same stars and direc- tor. If so, you are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts.73 Those who are lower in their need for cognition are more likely to use automatic pro- cessing strategies, relying on intuition and emotion to guide their evaluation of persuasive messages.

Message Characteristics Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, encour- age automatic processing. Conversely, messages provided through richer com- munication channels encourage more deliberative processing.

automatic processing A relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics.

controlled processing A detailed consider- ation of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic.

need for cognition A personality trait of individuals depicting the ongoing desire to think and learn.

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Choosing the Message The most important implication is to match your persua- sive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. When audi- ence members are not interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they’ll be more likely to use auto- matic processing. In these cases, use messages that are more emotionally laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. On the other hand, when audience members are interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case.

Barriers to Ef fective Communication Several barriers can slow or distort effective communication, barriers that we need to recognize and reduce. In this section, we highlight the most important.

Filtering Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so the receiver will see it more favorably. A manager who tells his boss what he feels the boss wants to hear is filtering information.

The more vertical levels in the organization’s hierarchy, the more opportu- nities there are for filtering. But some filtering will occur wherever there are status differences. Factors such as fear of conveying bad news and the desire to please the boss often lead employees to tell their superiors what they think they want to hear, thus distorting upward communications.

Selective Perception Selective perception is important because the receivers in the communica- tion process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experi- ence, backgrounds, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. For example, an employment interviewer who expects a female job applicant to put

11-6 Identify common barriers to effective communication.

filtering A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

Managers of Germany’s construction firm Hochtief relied on controlled pro- cessing during a meeting when they presented rational arguments about a takeover bid by another firm. Fearing that a takeover would put their jobs at risk, Hochtief employees had a high level of interest in learning about man- agers’ plans to prevent it. Source: Bernd Thissen/dpa/picture-alliance/Newscom

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her family ahead of her career is likely to see that characteristic in all female applicants, regardless of whether any of the women actually feel that way. As we said in Chapter 6, we don’t see reality; we interpret what we see and call it reality.

Information Overload Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data. When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information overload. We’ve seen in this text that dealing with it has become a huge chal- lenge for individuals and for organizations. It’s a challenge you can manage— to some degree—by following the steps outlined earlier in this chapter.

What happens when individuals have more information than they can sort and use? They tend to select, ignore, pass over, or forget it. Or they may put off further processing until the overload situation ends. In any case, lost informa- tion and less effective communication results, making it all the more important to deal well with overload.

More generally, as an Intel study shows, it may make sense to connect to tech- nology less frequently, to, in the words of one article, “avoid letting the drum- beat of digital missives constantly shake up and reorder to-do lists.” One radical way is to limit the number of devices you access. For example, Coors Brewing executive Frits van Paasschen jettisoned his desktop computer in favor of mobile devices only, and Eli Lilly & Co. moved its sales teams from laptops plus other devices to just iPads. Both these moves have resulted in increased productivity.74

As information technology and immediate communication have become a more prevalent component of modern organizational life, more employees find they are never able to get offline. For example, some business travelers were disappointed when airlines began offering wireless Internet connections in flight because they could no longer use their travel time as a rare opportu- nity to relax without a constant barrage of organizational communications. The negative impacts of these communication devices can spill over into employees’ personal lives as well. Both workers and their spouses relate the use of elec- tronic communication technologies outside work to higher levels of work–life conflict, though some research suggests that the level of conflict may depend on the characteristics of the employee.75 Employees must balance the need for constant communication with their personal need for breaks from work, or they risk burnout from being on call 24 hours a day.

Emotions You may interpret the same message differently when you’re angry or dis- traught than when you’re happy. For example, individuals in positive moods are more confident about their opinions after reading a persuasive message, so well-designed arguments have a stronger impact on their opinions.76 Peo- ple in negative moods are more likely to scrutinize messages in greater detail, whereas those in positive moods tend to accept communications at face value.77 Extreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

Language Even when we’re communicating in the same language, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. For example, when business consultant Michael Schiller asked his 15-year-old daughter where she was going with friends, he said, “You need to recognize your ARAs [ARA stands for “accountability, responsibility, and authority”] and measure against them.” Schiller said that in response, his daughter “looked at him like he was from outer space.” Those new

information overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.

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to corporate lingo may find acronyms such as ARA, words such as deliverables (verifiable outcomes of a project), and phrases such as get the low-hanging fruit (deal with the easiest parts first) bewildering, in the same way parents may be mystified by teen slang.78 The persuasiveness of language also depends on the person’s initial agreement with a message. For example, concrete language is more persuasive when the audience has dissimilar political views to the message, while abstract language is more persuasive when political views are similar.79

Our use of language is far from uniform. If we knew how each of us modifies the language, we could minimize communication difficulties, but we usually don’t know. Senders tend to assume—incorrectly—that the words and terms they use mean the same to the receivers as they do to them.

Silence It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication because it is defined by the absence of information. This is often a mistake, however—silence itself can be the message to communicate noninterest or the inability to deal with a topic. Employees are more likely to be silent if they are being mistreated by manag- ers, are experiencing frequent negative emotions and rumination, or feel like they have less power in the organization.80 Silence can also be a simple out- come of information overload or a delaying period for considering a response. For whatever reasons, research suggests using silence and withholding com- munication are common and problematic.81 One survey found that more than 85 percent of managers reported remaining silent about at least one issue of significant concern.82 The impact of silence can be organizationally detrimen- tal. Employee silence can mean managers lack information about ongoing operational problems; management silence can leave employees bewildered. Silence regarding discrimination, harassment, corruption, and misconduct means top management cannot take action to eliminate problematic behavior.

Communication Apprehension An estimated 20 percent of college students suffer from debilitating communi- cation apprehension, or social anxiety.83 These people experience undue ten- sion and anxiety in oral communication, written communication, or both.84

communication apprehension Undue tension and anxiety about oral communica- tion, written communication, or both.

Communication barriers exist between these call center employees in Manila, the Philippines, and their U.S. and Canadian customers even though they all communicate in English. Training in pronunciation, intonation, vocabu- lary, and grammar helps employees convey messages effectively to their customers. Source: Dondi Tawatao/Getty Images

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They may find it extremely difficult to talk with others face-to-face or become extremely anxious when they have to use the phone, relying on memos or e-mails when a phone call would be faster and more appropriate.

Oral-communication apprehensives avoid situations, such as teaching, for which oral communication is a dominant requirement.85 But almost all jobs require some oral communication. Of greater concern is evidence that some oral- communication apprehensives distort the communication demands of their jobs in order to minimize the need for communication. Be aware that some people severely limit their oral communication and rationalize their actions by telling themselves communicating isn’t necessary for them to do their jobs effectively.

Lying The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, or lying. People differ in their definition of a lie. For example, is deliberately withholding information about a mistake a lie, or do you actively have to deny your role in the mistake to pass the threshold? While the definition of a lie befuddles ethicists and social scientists, there is no denying the preva- lence of lying. People may tell one to two lies per day, with some individuals telling considerably more.86 Compounded across a large organization, this is an enormous amount of deception happening every day. Evidence shows people are more comfortable lying over the phone than face-to-face, and they are more comfortable lying in e-mails than when they have to write with pen and paper.87

Can you detect liars? Research suggests most people are not very good at detecting deception in others.88 The problem is there are no nonverbal or ver- bal cues unique to lying—averting your gaze, pausing, and shifting your pos- ture can also be signals of nervousness, shyness, or doubt. Most people who lie take steps to guard against being detected, so they might look a person in the eye when lying because they know that direct eye contact is (incorrectly) assumed to be a sign of truthfulness. Finally, many lies are embedded in truths; liars usually give a somewhat true account with just enough details changed to avoid detection.

In sum, the frequency of lying and the difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong barrier to effective communication.

Cultural Factors Effective communication is difficult under the best of conditions. Cross-cultural factors clearly create the potential for increased communication problems. A gesture that is well understood and acceptable in one culture can be mean- ingless or lewd in another. Unfortunately, only 18 percent of companies have documented strategies for communicating with employees across cultures, and only 31 percent require that corporate messages be customized for consump- tion in other cultures.

Cultural Barriers Several problems are related to language difficulties in cross-cultural communi- cations. First are barriers caused by semantics. Words mean different things to dif- ferent people, particularly people from different national cultures. Some words don’t translate between cultures. For instance, the Finnish word sisu means something akin to “guts” or “dogged persistence” but is essentially untranslat- able into English. Similarly, capitalists in Russia may have difficulty communi- cating with British or Canadian counterparts because English terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulation have no direct Russian equivalents.

11-7 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

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Second are barriers caused by word connotations. Words imply different things in different languages. Negotiations between U.S. and Japanese executives can be difficult because the Japanese word hai translates as “yes,” but its connota- tion is “Yes, I’m listening” rather than “Yes, I agree.”

Third are barriers caused by tone differences. In some cultures, language is for- mal; in others, it’s informal. In some cultures, the tone changes depending on the context: People speak differently at home, in social situations, and at work. Using a personal, informal style when a more formal style is expected can be inappropriate.

Fourth are differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts. People from individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflict and will make the source of their disagreements overt. Collectivists are more likely to acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emotionally charged disputes. They may attribute conflicts to the situation more than to the individuals and therefore may not require explicit apologies to repair relation- ships, whereas individualists prefer explicit statements accepting responsibility for conflicts and public apologies to restore relationships.

In addition, while all cultures identify certain behaviors as overly aggressive, there are certain types of behaviors that are more likely to be identified as neg- ative depending on the culture. In Israel, Pakistan, and Japan, there is a greater distinction between verbal and physical aggression. In the United States and Israel, behaviors that infringe on personal resources are considered aggressive, while Pakistan differentiates between different degrees of threats. Different standards for aggression reflect the ways that a certain country may interpret or respond to a conflict.89

Cultural Context Cultures tend to differ in the degree to which context influences the meaning individuals take from communication.90 In high-context cultures such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situ- ational cues in communicating with others, and a person’s official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight. What is not said may be more significant than what is said. In contrast, people from Europe and North America reflect their low-context cultures. They rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language and formal titles are second- ary (see Exhibit 11-8).

high-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication.

low-context cultures Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.

High- versus Low-Context CulturesExhibit 11-8

Chinese Korean Japanese Vietnamese Arab Greek Spanish Italian English North American Scandinavian Swiss German

High context

Low context

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Contextual differences mean quite a lot in terms of communication. Com- munication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties. What may appear to be casual and insignificant conversation in fact reflects the desire to build a relationship and create trust. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-context cultures. And who you are—your age, seniority, rank in the organization—is highly valued and heavily influ- ences your credibility. Managers can therefore “make suggestions” rather than give orders. But in low-context cultures, enforceable contracts tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly legalistic. Similarly, low-context cultures value directness. Managers are expected to be explicit and precise in conveying intended meaning.

A Cultural Guide There is much to be gained from business intercultural communications. It is safe to assume that every one of us has a different viewpoint that is cultur- ally shaped. Because we do have differences, we have an opportunity to reach the most creative solutions possible with the help of others if we communicate effectively.

According to Fred Casmir, a leading expert in intercultural communication research, we often do not communicate well with people outside our culture because we tend to generalize from only their cultural origin. This can be insen- sitive and potentially disastrous, especially when we make assumptions based on observable characteristics. Many of us have a richly varied ethnic background and would be offended if someone addressed us according to what culture our physical features might favor, for instance. Also, attempts to be culturally sensi- tive to another person are often based on stereotypes propagated by media. These stereotypes usually do not have a correct or current relevance.

Casmir noted that, because there are far too many cultures for anyone to understand completely, and individuals interpret their own cultures differ- ently, intercultural communication should be based on sensitivity and pursuit of common goals. He found the ideal condition is an ad hoc “third culture” that a group can form when its members seek to incorporate aspects of each member’s cultural communication preferences. The norms that this subcul- ture establishes through appreciating individual differences create a common ground for effective communication. Intercultural groups that communicate effectively can be highly productive and innovative.

When communicating with people from a different culture, what can you do to reduce misinterpretations? Casmir and other experts offer the following suggestions:

1. Know yourself. Recognizing your own cultural identity and biases is critical to understanding the unique viewpoints of other people.

2. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy. Clearly estab- lish an environment of equality and mutual concern. This will be your “third culture” context for effective intercultural communication that tran- scends each person’s cultural norms.

3. State facts, not your interpretation. Interpreting or evaluating what some- one has said or done draws more on your own culture and background than on the observed situation. If you state only facts, you will have the opportunity to benefit from the other person’s interpretation. Delay judg- ment until you’ve had sufficient time to observe and interpret the situation from the differing perspectives of all concerned.

4. Consider the other person’s viewpoint. Before sending a message, put yourself in the recipient’s shoes. What are his or her values, experiences, and frames of reference? What do you know about his or her education,

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upbringing, and background that can give you added insight? Try to see the people in the group as they really are first, and take a collaborative problem-solving approach whenever potential conflicts arise.

5. Proactively maintain the identity of the group. Like any culture, the estab- lishment of a common-ground “third culture” for effective intercultural communication takes time and nurturing. Remind members of the group of your common goals, mutual respect, and need to adapt to individual communication preferences.91

Summary You’ve probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal mes- sages all increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes for each communication ensures that the message is inter- preted properly by the receiver.

Implications for Managers " Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your

communication effectiveness. " Obtain feedback to make certain your messages—however they are com-

municated—are understood. " Remember that written communication creates more misunderstand-

ings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible.

" Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audi- ence and the type of message you’re sending.

" Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture.

MyLab Management Try It If your professor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/ mylab/management to complete the Mini Sim.

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We Should Use Employees’ Social Media Presence POINT

Everyone uses social media. Well, almost everyone: A Pew Research Center study found that the highest percentage of adults who use social-networking sites was in Israel, at 53 percent, followed by 50 percent in the United States, 43 percent in Russia and Great Britain, and 42 percent in Spain.

Business is social, and using employees’ social contacts to increase business has always been a facet of marketing. Organiza- tions that don’t follow their employees’ social media presence are missing an opportunity to expand their business and strengthen their workforce. For example, the Honda employee who once told 30 friends that Honda is best can now tell 300 Facebook friends and 500 Twitter followers about the latest model. Employees’ savvy about social media can have a substantial positive effect on the bottom line.

Monitoring employees’ social media presence can also strengthen the workforce by identifying the best talent. Managers can look for potential online celebrities—frequent bloggers and Twitter users with many followers—to approach for co-branding partnerships. Scrutiny can also help employers spot problems. For example, consider the employee who is fired one day and turns violent. A manager who had been monitoring the employee’s social media posts may be able to detect warning signs. A human resources department monitoring employees’ social media activity may be able to identify a substance abuse problem and provide help for the employee through the com- pany’s intervention policies.

A job candidate’s social media presence provides one more input to hiring and retention decisions that many organizations already take advantage of. In reality, there is no difference between the employee and the person—they are one and the same, on or off working hours.

Employers that monitor social media can also identify employees who use their platforms to send out bad press or who leak proprietary information. For this reason, managers may someday be required to monitor employees’ social media postings and to act on infringe- ments of company policies. Many do so already.

Managers should therefore develop enforceable social media policies and create a corporate infrastructure to research and monitor social media activity regularly. The potential increase in business and limit on liability is ample return for dedicating staff and work hours to building a successful social media program.

COUNTERPOINT

There is little to be gained and much to be lost when organiza-tions follow candidates’ and employees’ presence on social media. Managers may be able to learn more about individu- als through their online activity, and organizations may be able to catch some good press from employee postings, but the risk of lia- bility for this intrusion on privacy is inescapable. Managers are ill- equipped to monitor, interpret, and act on employees’ social media postings, and few have any experience with relating the medium to business use.

Managers may also easily misinterpret the information they find. Few companies have training programs for the proper use of social media; only 40 percent have social media policies of any kind. Those that do are skating on thin ice because monitoring policies can con- flict with privacy regulations.

An employee’s online image doesn’t reveal much that is relevant to the job, certainly not enough to warrant the time and money that a business would spend on monitoring. Most users view social media as a private, recreational venue, and their membership on Facebook and other sites should be regarded with the same respect as would membership in a club. In this light, monitoring employees’ social media accounts is an unethical violation of their right to privacy.

Equal employment opportunity laws require companies to hire without respect to race, age, religion, national origin, or disability. But managers who check into candidates’ social media postings often find out more than the candidate wanted to share, and then there is no way to keep that information from affecting the hiring decision. Searching through social media can therefore expose a company to a costly discrimination claim.

Using employees’ personal social media presence as a market- ing tool through company-supportive postings is unethical from many standpoints. First, it is unethical to expect employees to expand the company’s client base through their personal contacts. Second, it is unreasonable to expect them to endorse the company after working hours. And the practice of asking employees for their social media passwords is an obvious intrusion into their personal lives.

In sum, people have a right to a professional and a private image. Unless the employee is offering to “friend” the company in a social media partnership, there is no question that employers should stay out of their personal business.

Sources: Based on S. F. Gale, “Policies Must Score a Mutual Like,” Workforce Management 91, no. 8 (2012): 18-9; R.! Huggins and S. Ward, “Countries with the Highest Percentage of Adults Who Use Social Networking Sites,” USA Today, February 8, 2012, 1A; A. L. Kavanaugh et al., “Social Media Use by Government: From the Routine to the Critical,” Government Information Quarterly (October 2012): 480–91; and S. Johnson, “Those Facebook Posts Could Cost You a Job,” San!Jose Mercury News, January 16, 2012, www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_19754451.

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