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book12.pdf
Edited By: Jacklyn Allen
Copyright © 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
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Second Edition
Nexxus Publishing, LLC.
ISBN 978-0-9717912-5-1 Printed in the United States of America
Copyright © 2013 by Selina Griswold, Nexxus Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case
of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the author, addressed “Attention:
Permissions,” at the address below.
Selina Griswold
Associate Professor
The University of Toledo
The College of Business and Innovation
Management Department, Mail Stop 103
Toledo, OH 43606
About the Author
Selina A. Griswold has been a business professor at The University of Toledo for
over 25 years. She has authored two additional textbooks—Managing Diversity in
the Workplace and Workplace Diversity: A Training Guide for Individuals &
Organizations. She has developed several diversity courses as well as a Diversity
Management Certificate Program that is available for professionals and students
alike. She was the founder and director of the Minority Mentorship Program. This
program provided first generation minority and female college students with a
professional mentor and the educational support services needed to be
successful. The program was funded privately and also by the president of the
university.
As an educator, Professor Griswold has received various research and teaching
accolades from The University of Toledo’s Teacher of the Year, The University of
Toledo’s Woman of the Year to Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers. In addition
to teaching, Professor Griswold has spent a number of years providing consulting
services to local and regional organizations in the areas of diversity and small
business management. Prior to teaching and consulting, she was a Financial
Analyst at Ford Motor Company, North American Automotive Operations in
Dearborn, Michigan. Professor Griswold has her business undergraduate degree
from The University of Toledo and graduate degrees from Purdue University &
NorthCentral University. Her degrees have focused in the business area
(Accounting, Computer Systems and Organizational Behavior) with additional
concentrations in Industrial/Organizational Psychology.
I welcome questions, suggestions and comments from users and potential
adopters of the text.
Selina A. Griswold
Associate Professor
The University of Toledo
The College of Business and Innovation
2801 W. Bancroft Toledo, OH 43606
419-530-3310
Preface
A key competitive advantage for organizations in the future will be how to make the best use
of their human resources. Traditional management methods and organizational structures will
need to increasingly utilize the skills of women, people of color, immigrants, older workers,
the disabled, and those with various lifestyles and religions. Diversity has replaced
homogeneity as the business norm. Especially in private industry, where they are faced with
reengineering, a more competitive marketplace, the global business environment and the
changing way of conducting business, managing diversity is a critical issue that must be
addressed effectively.
This textbook was developed to provide resources to help managers, students and employees (1) understand what it means to value diversity (2) effectively manage the diversity of their office/work areas and (3) integrate researched concepts and common sense ideas into their
day-to-day business. Managers as well as employees can benefit from this text by expanding
their knowledge on the range of topics that encompass difference and an understanding of
Equal Employment Opportunity Laws. Managers and employees alike will gain a better
understanding of self and others all while exploring answers to questions as it relates to
valuing and managing diversity.
The textbook is able to accomplish the above through the wide-ranging list of topics
addressed. The textbook focuses on understanding historical oppression and how this impacts
valuing difference in the workplace. Valuing difference is critical because it seems much
easier to manage what you value. Once able to “really” value difference then the mind
becomes ready to handle and apply what the law says with a full understanding of why these
laws exist. Within the text, each chapter begins with a famous proverb that starts the journey
of critically thinking about the information to come. The conversational tone of each chapter
will engage the reader to examine their own beliefs as well as begin to view issues through the
lens of others. Through the extensive list of concepts covered, once done readers should be
able to:
Promote and support diversity initiatives; contribute to workplace diversity councils
Serve as an advocate on EEO/diversity management issues; working to correct problems, eliminate social barriers, and replicate practices that positively impact diversity goals and
objectives;
Consider becoming a formal or informal mentor to support departmental diversity;
Promote the creation of a work environment that reflects the mosaic of the communities we serve.
Acknowledgements
To the many students who have taken my Managing Diversity in the
Workplace course over the last decade, I appreciate the feedback and pre-
test/post-test data (which often indicated that learning took place
throughout the course). Many of these students have pointed out that the
course should be required of all learners in higher education. Thanks also to
the expert reviewers whose comments have contributed to this text.
To my loving husband (Aaron Griswold), son (Darius Griswold), daughter
(Mia Griswold), parents (Edward & Iverlyn Price), sister (Alicia Price),
nephew (Torrence Price) thank you so very much for your support and
unconditional love as I spent many waking hours conducting research and
writing this text.
"A united family eats from the same plate."- (Kiganda proverb)
To my textbook editor, I acknowledge the hard work and dedication to this
project. I thank you so much for the work you provide in editing this text. I
am NOT a writer nor was I very good at English sentence structure etc. in
college. However, I am a researcher and felt it important to put my years
and years of research on paper for students to experience. I realize that
editing a text of this many words is a horrendous task. I don’t expect
perfection given the timelines involved. I hope that the students do not
either. I thank you for just making the text readable and with fewer errors.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B1
Table of Contents
Background: Business Case for Diversity .................................................... B2
Chapter One: Valuing Diversity ................................................................... 1
Chapter Two: Civil Rights Laws ............................................................... 26
Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS .................................................... 51
Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture .................................... 92
Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work ......................................... 122
Chapter Six: Understanding the Native American Experience ..................... 156
Chapter Seven: Understanding the African American/Black Experience ............ 182
Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience ............ 218
Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work ............................. 246
Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled ................................................ 291
Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action ................................................ 316
Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies ............................ 341
Journal ............................................................................................ 365
Index ............................................................................................. 370
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B2
Background: Business Case for Diversity
“Strength lies in differences,
not in similarities.”
Stephen Covey
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B3
BUSINESS CASE FOR DIVERSITY
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
explain why managing diversity in the workplace is an important component of business operations
show how U.S. demographics shifts affect workplace diversity.
understand the business case for diversity in the workplace.
defend the business case for valuing diversity.
Background
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B4
Diversity is about recognizing, respecting and valuing differences based on
primary differences such as ethnicity, sex, gender, color, age, race, religion,
disability, national origin and sexual orientation. It also includes an infinite
range of individual unique characteristics and experiences, such as
communication style, career path, life experience, educational background,
geographic location, income level, marital status, military experience, parental
status and other variables that influence personal perspectives.
These life experiences and personal perspectives make us react and think differently, approach challenges and solve problems differently, make suggestions and decisions differently, and see different opportunities. An organization can minimize the costs that are associated with a lack of managing diversity comprehension by understanding what diversity is, why it matters,
and how to effectively manage a business in terms of diversity.1 The first
approach addressed in the text to effectively manage those primary differences listed above is valuing diversity (accepting, understanding and respecting diversity).
Valuing diversity is necessary because of the demographic shifts that
affect the workplace, because it makes good business sense to do so and also because of the laws created to promote equal opportunity despite race, religion,
age, sex and physical or mental ability.2 As we continue considering why we
should value diversity in the workplace, let’s look further at the demographic trends and changes affecting the U.S. population and thus the U.S. workplace.
In 2011, Forbes conducted research where they interviewed 321
executives with direct responsibility or oversight for their companies’ diversity and inclusion programs. All respondents worked for large global enterprises with annual revenues of more than US$500 million. More than 40% worked for companies with annual revenues of $US5 billion or more. The conclusion of this study was that diversity is a key driver of innovation and is a critical component
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B5
of being successful on not just a local level but is essential on a global scale.
Senior executives are recognizing that a diverse set of experiences,
perspectives, and backgrounds is crucial to innovation and the development of new ideas. When asked about the relationship between diversity and innovation, a majority of respondents agreed that diversity is crucial to encouraging different perspectives and ideas that foster innovation. These 321 executives also indicated from the company experience that a diverse and inclusive workforce is critical for companies that want to attract and retain top talent. Competition for talent is fierce in today’s global economy, so companies need to have plans in place to recruit, develop, and retain a diverse workforce.
But is a diverse workforce for U.S. organizations even a realistic
expectation? According to demographic statistics it is. Diversity in the U.S. workplace is becoming more a factor as the United States becomes a hodge- podge of individuals with diverse backgrounds.
Changing Demographic Profile in the United States
According to the 2011 Changing Demographic Profile of the United States
created by Laura B. Shrestha (Domestic Social Policy for Congressional Research) the United States is the third most populous country globally and accounts for
about 4.5% of the world’s population.3
This report indicates that the U.S. is indeed becoming more diverse as it is not just growing in size but is also getting older and more racially and ethnically diverse. More than just being double in size, the population has become qualitatively different from what it was in 1950. The following statistics taken from the United States Demographic Profile 2013 support these diverse demographics4:
Population 313,847,465 (July 2012 estimate)
Obesity - adult prevalence rate 33.9% (2006)
Sex/Gender Change*
Despite a small decline in the growth of females in the United States, females still
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B6
make up 50% of the U.S. population.
Age Structure
0-14 years = 20%
Male 32,050,686
Female 30,719,945
15-24 years = 13.8 %
Male 22,112,02
Female 21,174,050
25-54 years = 40.6%
Male 63,713,761
Female 63,556,345
55-64 years = 12.1%
Male 18,331,065
Female 19,711,907
65 years and over = 13.5%
Male 18,424,785
Female 24,052,919
*Source: adapted from Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress, titled: The
Changing Demographic Profile of the United States, 2011
Ethnic Groups ((July 2007 estimate)
White 79.96% Black 12.85% Asian 4.43%
Amerindian and Alaska native 0.97% Hawaiian/Pacific islander 0.18%
Hispanic 15.1% Two or more races 1.61%
Religions(2007 est.)
Protestant 51.3% Roman Catholic 23.9% Mormon 1.7%
Other Christian1.6% Jewish 1.7% Buddhist 0.7%
Muslim 0.6% Other or unspecified 2.5% Unaffiliated 12.1%
None 4%
1980 1990 2000 2011
Population 224,811,135 248,710,012 281,421,906 306,110,000
Percent Female 51.5% 51.3% 50.9% 50.8%
Percent Male 48.5% 48.7% 49.1% 49.2%
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B7
Race/Ethnicity Change*
U.S. POPULATION – 1996 U.S. POPULATION – 2009
73.6% White 74.5% White
12.0% Black or African American 12.4% Black or African American
3.3% Asian 4.4% Asian
.7% American Indian and Alaska
Native
.8% American Indian and Alaska
Native
Total Population: 262.8 million Total Population: 301.4 million
The U.S. population of color surpassed the 100-million mark in May
2007. Today, one in every three Americans is a person of color.
According to The Changing Demographic Profile of the United States
the U.S. population has made the following changes. It is important
to understand tha t as we discuss racial and ethnic categories,
“who” is actually represented by each group.
Racial Designations
Source: Census 2011 Special EEO Tabulation Files 6
“White” refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of
Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It also includes people who indicated
their race as “White” or wrote in entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese,
Middle Easterner, Arab, or Polish.
“Black or African American” refers to people having origins in any of the
Black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicated their race or races
as “Black, African American, or Negro” or wrote in entries such as Nigerian, or
Haitian.
“Asian” refers to people having origins in any of the originals peoples of the
Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent.
“Native Americans” category includes Native Americans, Hawaiians and
other Pacific Islanders. This group refers to people having origins in any of the
original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islander groups such as Tahitian, Mariana Islander, or Chuukese.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B8
All of the above groups (Whites, Blacks, Asians, Native-Americans) represent
racial categories, where as those who belong to the Hispanic population represent
an ethnicity not a race. In the census questioning, you either are of Hispanic
descent or not of Hispanic descent. So, you can be White and of Hispanic descent or
Black and of Hispanic descent etc. and all of these numbers are represented
by the Hispanic/Latino category.
Beginning with the census 2000, respondents were questioned if they were
Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino and in 2009 almost 45 million persons, or about 15.1 of the U.S. population, identified themselves as Hispanic. The remaining 256
million people or 84.9% were not Hispanic.7
There is considerable variation in the ethnic mix across the country. The states with the highest proportion of Hispanics are mostly in the west and southwest, while those with the highest proportion of African Americans are mostly in the east and southeast. About 56 per cent of the people in Hawaii are Asian or
Polynesian.8 Rural and suburban areas are more likely to be inhabited by whites,
while people of color more often live in large urban areas.
There are 552 federally recognized Native American groups in the US, of
which about 285 have reservations (or regional or village corporations in Alaska)
that are recognized by the state or federal government.9 These lands total more than
20 million hectares (50 million acres).10 The US government has recognized the
political sovereignty of many of these organizations through treaties, statutes, court decisions, and executive orders.
Other Demographic Facts
Language
English is the predominant language of the US and is spoken by most of the
population. US English sometimes differs from British English in spelling,
pronunciation, punctuation, and even meaning in some cases. For example, in US
English, a lift is an “elevator” and the bonnet of a car is the “hood.” Spoken
English is very flexible, and idioms and accents differ from one part of the US to
another, while written English is more standardized. Many first-, second-, or even
third-generation immigrants also speak their native language. In fact, one of every
seven Americans speaks a language other than English in the home. Spanish is
spoken in many Hispanic communities, and Native Americans speak a variety of
Amerindian languages. Many secondary and some elementary schools teach one or
more foreign languages, such as Spanish, French, and Japanese.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B9
Religion
Although the US has never had an official state church, about 90 per cent
of the population has some religious affiliation, mostly with Christian churches. As early European settlers were predominantly Christian, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights are based, in part, on Christian values and principles. However, the Constitution dictates that church and state remain separate. There are dozens of different Christian churches throughout the country. About 26 per cent of the population is Roman Catholic. Baptists, Methodists, and Lutherans are the largest
Protestant groups.11 Between 40 and 55 per cent of Christians attend services on a weekly basis.12 There are also substantial numbers of Jews, Muslims, Hindus,
and Buddhists in the US. In addition, some Americans practice alternative or non- traditional religions, and many consider themselves to be atheists or are otherwise non-religious.
All of these statistics show that America is becoming more and more diverse not just in the overall society but in the workplace as well. In looking at the job market, about half of the U.S. market will be Latino/Hispanic,
African- American and Asian populations.13 Another high growth group that is not
represented above is people over the age of 55. The number of persons aged 65 and older had been steadily increasing and reached 35.1 million persons, representing 12.4% of the U.S. population.14 The baby boom generation is getting older and there will be a large number of people in their 50’s–according to the
U.S Census Bureau.15 Many in this group will be seeking employment and
participating actively in the workplace. The Census Bureau also forecasted that immigration would be approaching 820,000 people per year, of which 225,000 will be undocumented. This all indicates that the workplace of today will look very different than yester years.
Fifty Years Ago, The Average Worker:
(Source: Workforce 2000-Hudson Institute: Opportunity 2000, U.S.P.O.L. & American Demographics)
was white
was male and able-bodied
was about 29
had less than 12 years of education
was married to a woman who became a homemaker and had children
worked in a region of his birth
was conservative politically
held beliefs about work, the role of men and women, minorities, authority and
family that were similar their coworkers
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B10
was loyal to his employer and obeyed authority
Today, in the Workplace:
There is an increasing influence of women
Close to 48% of today’s workforce is female. (DOL)18
The 48% is made up of 8% African American women, 5% of Hispanic/Latino
women, 2% of Asian women and 0.3% of Native American women and the rest
are Caucasian women. (EEOC-8/03)19
49.5% of lower level managers and professionals are women, which is up from
29% in 1970. Of the 49.5%, white women comprise 77%. (BLS)20
15.7% of corporate officers are female in 2002, which is up from 8.7% in 1995.
Of this 15.7%, white women comprise 88%. (Workforce 2020)21
One in three wives now out-earn their husbands, compared to one in five wives
in 1980. For MBAs (Masters of Business Administration), six out of ten women
out-earn their husbands.22
The percentage of employed women who provide half or more of their
household’s total income is: 48% of all women in a married couple, 55% of all working women, 91% of women who are separated, divorced or widowed, 90%
of women in a single-parent household.23
There are more people of color
By the year 2050, nonwhites will represent ½ of the U.S. population.
(Census Projections 2050)24
Beginning in the third quarter of 2001, Latinos made up more than 50% of all
California births.25
The Asian American population grew by 63% during the 1990s, making it the
fastest growing minority group.26
There is more religious diversity and people with disabilities in the workforce.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B11
There are more than 1500 different types of religious bodies in the U.S.
making the U.S. the most religiously diverse country in the world. (ACLU)27
People with disabilities comprise 11.7% of the U.S. workforce.28
Once a largely homogeneous group, the faces of customers, claimants, producers, employees and suppliers have been transformed into a dynamic mix of people comprised of various races, cultures and backgrounds. “Minorities” are now the majority in six out of the eight largest metropolitan areas of the United
States.29
Clearly, the U.S. population is changing dramatically. Forward-thinking
companies that recognize and understand the implications of these demographic
shifts accordingly will want to alter their customer focus, employee base and
business practices to better manage the needs of current and future customers
and employees.
Business Case Says We Should Value Diversity
Those who perceive diversity as exclusively a moral imperative or societal goal are missing the larger point. Workforce diversity needs to be viewed as a competitive
advantage and a business opportunity.30 It is well-proven that diverse,
heterogeneous teams and work groups promote creativity, innovation and product development. Only by fully embracing diversity and maximizing the well-being and contributions of all people can an organization fully maximize the strength and competitiveness of their company. Organizations must therefore encourage individuals to reach their full potential, in pursuit of organizational objectives, without anyone being advantaged or disadvantaged by their difference.
Valuing diversity is also important because the inability to manage
diversity in the workplace can be extremely harmful and can cost an organization
in many ways. It is important to value diversity due to the costs associated with
not doing so BECAUSE:
there is a marketplace of diverse customers with significant purchasing
power and unmet needs = $
as our work environments become increasingly culturally and ethnically
diverse, we must maintain a productive, efficient and harmonious
workplace. A non-productive workforce is costly = $
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B12
business owners need to effectively serve, negotiate with, sell to and
manage culturally different people. Lack of this ability results in high
turnover, loss training costs, etc…= $
companies are tapping into international markets where delayed or failed
business transactions can result from ignorance of cultural variations = $
unnecessary employee terminations and inappropriate behavior toward
difference in the workplace can turn into costly discrimination suits. The following
are several discrimination suits that resulted in companies paying millions of
dollars to settle: Shoney’s at $132.5 million, Texaco at $176.1 million and Coca-
Cola at $192.5 million = $
So, valuing diversity is not just the moral thing to do. It is also makes
good business sense. Let’s just look at a few companies who have lost valuable profits because they were convicted of discriminatory actions (they were not valuing difference). A secret tape catches Texaco executives belittling blacks. In 1996, it was the year’s most dramatic case that began with a tape recorder
secretly slipped into a Texaco executive's pocket.31 The recording caught executives
at the country's 14th-largest corporation ridiculing blacks and plotting to destroy papers pertinent to a long-running racial discrimination lawsuit.
Days after the tape's release, Texaco agreed to a $176 million settlement, the largest ever at that time for a race discrimination case. Civil rights leaders
called a boycott and Chairman Peter Bijur publicly apologized.32 This same year a
defense contractor paid $13 million after showing older workers the door and in another case the government sues an automaker, saying men groped and insulted women at an Illinois plant.
In the year 2000, the Coca-Cola Company agreed to pay $192.5 million to
settle a racial discrimination suit brought by black workers.33 The settlement included $113 million in cash, $43.5 million to adjust salaries, and $36 million for oversight
of the company's employment practices.34 Coca-Cola also would pay $20 million in attorneys' fees and agreed to create an ombudsman post and have its employment practices reviewed by an outside group. Even with the large settlement that Coca- Cola paid out Ben White, of the Washington Post in the April 18, 2002 issue says that “despite 2000 Legal Settlement--Protesters Say Little Has Changed - Protesters lined Seventh Avenue outside Madison Square Garden today to press criticisms of Coca-Cola Co.”35 But, has the rest of Corporate America learned its lesson from these companies example? No, a Google search today of discrimination lawsuits still finds a litany of gloomy
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B13
headlines about discrimination in the workplace.
Injustices occur from the factory floor to the executive suite. On just
February 6, 2007, the Ninth Circuit Court affirmed class certification in the Wal-
Mart sex discrimination case (representing all female employees of Wal-Mart)
making it the largest civil rights class action ever certified Dukes v. Wal-Mart
Stores, Inc. (N.D. Cal. No C-01-2252).36 The suit charges that Wal-Mart
discriminates against its female retail employees in pay and promotions.
Certification of this class shows that no employer, not even the world’s largest
employer, is above the law. In addition, according to Seyferth Shaw LLP’s 2014
Workplace Class Action Litigation Report there were 12,311 discrimination class
action lawsuits filed in 2013. Many of which were settled out of court to avoid
larger costs and the bad press associated with this type of lawsuit settlement. The
cost of the 10 most expensive settlements in 2013 totaled over $638 million.
Profiting in America’s Multicultural/Ethnic Marketplace begins with an
awareness that it can be lucrative if done correctly and costly if not. Therefore,
market economic forces should not be ignored but taken very seriously. If we
disregard the data on changing demographics, we also disregard the substantial
growth in buying power of diverse markets. Not only are these diverse minority
groups increasing as a percentage of the U.S. population, but so too is the buying
power they wield.
According to The Selig Center Report of University of Georgia’s Terry
College of Business (2012) total annual buying power in the United States,
combining all racial categories, will exceed $12.2 trillion – an increase of 188
percent from 1990-2012. But, where are some of the notable changes? For one,
African American buying power has increased 73 percent between 2000 and 2012,
which not only overtakes the 60 percent increase in Caucasian buying power, but
also the 67 percent rise in total buying power of all races combined. Two factors
contributing to the gains of the African American buying power include a 61
percent increase in black-owned businesses in the five-year period between
2002 and 2007 and 84 percent of blacks over 25 years of age completing high
school or college – a sharp increase from 66 percent in 1990.
The third largest minority groups, Asian Americans have achieved a 165
percent gain in buying power between 2000 and 2012 and will reach $1 trillion by
2019. The U.S. Asian market is already larger than the economies of all but 17
countries in the world. The Asian population is growing faster than the total U.S.
population and the Selig Center projects the population to reach 17.2 million in
2012—a gain of 55.2 percent from 2000’s base population of 11.1 million.
Demographic studies reveal 52 percent of Asians over 25 had a bachelor’s or
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B14
advanced degree compared to 30 percent of Caucasians. Because the Asian
consumer market is so diverse in national ancestries, languages and cultures,
businesses that target subgroups will find rewarding niche markets. Georgia is now
the 5th largest African-American consumer market in the United States ($73 billion)
and owns a 21.8 percent share of total buying power for the state—the fourth
largest share of any state. Compared to the Hispanic and Asian markets, which are
concentrated in a handful of states, the African- American market is still more
widespread.
In addition, at 1.2 trillion U.S. Hispanic/Latino purchasing power is larger
than the economies of scales of all but 13 countries. This economic clout is not
limited to ethnic groups as in the U.S. an across the globe women are responsible
for $12 trillion of the $18 trillion of global buying power.38 Furthermore, the gay and
lesbian consumers buying power is approaching $800 billion. The present and
future monetary power of diverse markets is more apparent each year.
If there are populations’ growing faster than the national average is it
safe to assume that emphasis should be placed on the needs of these
populations?
If ethnic purchasing power is in the billions per year and approaching
trillions (not pocket change) isn’t this worthy of a company’s interest?
Is it possible that these targeted ethnic consumers may be more
inclined to buy from companies where they see people who look like them working at
all levels of the organizations?
Researchers have indicated that the evidence that diversity can deliver a
business benefit is complex, arguing that many workforces are diverse in a range of
both invisible and established categories.39 But despite the complexity, managing
workplace diversity effectively should be a common ground that all can agree is
necessary.
The authors above recognize the importance of diversity management, commenting that without appropriate management and organizational culture,
benefits of diversity may not be realized and dis-benefits may occur.40 The ‘dis- benefits of diversity’ are identified as including increased conflict within the workforce; poorer internal communications; and increased management costs. Diversity can be considered an expression of difference, which, if successfully managed, should reduce the costs associated with the dis-benefits of diversity.41The current experience of diversity management demonstrates at least
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B15
four main ways in which diversity can contribute to business performance
according to the research on The Diversity Scorecard.42
1. Diversity in employment promotes cost-effective employment relations. 2. Diversity enhances customer relations.
3. Diversity enhances creativity, flexibility and innovation in organizations.
4. Diversity promotes sustainable development and competitive advantage.
Concluding Thoughts
After reviewing the demographics, the costs of devaluing diversity and remarks
from current studies that indicate that managing diversity makes good business
sense, it becomes increasingly apparent that focusing on diversity and looking for
more ways to make full use of the contributions of all employees is necessary for
today’s competitive workplace. Valuing diversity can yield greater productivity,
competitive advantage and market share. To manage diversity is to support this
collective talent in ways that add a measurable difference to organizational and
industrial performance.
Conversely, poorly developed and poorly matched diversity practices can be
detrimental to business, creating conflict without gain, raising expectation without
delivery, and increasing cost without benefit. The key is the sensible adoption of
good practices, tailored to reflect good diversity practice and specific business goals.
Even without these good diversity practices there still exist laws that govern
discrimination and equal treatment yet, another reason why valuing diversity
makes good business sense as it becomes an important workplace issue today.
End of Chapter Questions
1. If making a pitch to business leaders regarding the merits of
valuing diversity in the workplace, give four facts from the chapter
that you would utilize in your presentation. Please state why you
chose these facts.
2. Explain how flesh colored band-aids are a “miss” as
it relates to ethnic purchasing power for corporations
who sell this type of product. By making a change to
offer a more diverse line of flesh colored band-aids
what message would this send to consumers?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B16
3. What are four specific demographic shifts as it relates to race/ethnicity and
women that indicate the U.S. workplace is becoming more diverse.
4. What are four specific demographic shifts as it relates to age, disability and or
religion that indicate the U.S. workplace is becoming more diverse.
5. What is the purchasing power of people of color? How should knowing this
information impact the workplace and how it handles diversity with employees
and customers?
Internet Exercise
A. Go to: http://images.forbes.com/forbesinsights/StudyPDFs/Innovation_Through_Diversity.pdf
or go to www:google.com and type: Forbes Insights: Fostering Innovation Through a Diverse Workforce
B. Now answer the following six questions:
1. What is the formula for success they describe in the reading?
2. What are Mattel’s employee resource groups and how do they drive
innovation?
3. What are the top five recruiting sources for attracting talent?
4. L’Oréal USA Harnessing Employee’s Diverse Perspectives for Innovation
perspective helped this organization do “what” in their product line?
5. In your opinion why was this successful?
6. Review Figure 8 and explain what is the difference in the groups targeted by •
Americas • EMEA • Asia Pacific, the report indicates that the respondents say
that progress has been made but what are the top areas of improvement and
why do you think these areas have not done as well as the improvement
designated by gender?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B17
End of Chapter Exercise
Background:
Morgan Stanley says, “Diversity – it’s not an obligation – it’s an opportunity.”
Some of the ways to extract diversity's benefits:
•Identify previously overlooked cultural markets.
•Create new products for existing markets.
•Change corporate culture to attract a different employee mix.
•Form relationships and making inroads with cultures and individuals
unlike your own.
•Get things done in better ways.
"Comfy" diversity programs held for compliance reasons are programs that exist
solely to comply with the law or to make a company “seem” like they value
diversity. But, comfy diversity programs do not show the true benefit of diversity
and how best to bring out the greatest talent of a diverse workforce. Comfy
programs often do not address or handle the problems that come with managing a
diverse group. Ultimately, these comfy programs skirt the real issues and just waste
time and money.
Some comfy diversity programs and beliefs say: we should be colorblind. But, this
does not help with diversity because it is not showing the value of difference which
is a missed opportunity. This is a missed opportunity because rather than ignore
difference, the business case for managing diversity says to draw out the
differences and help work groups safely explore what those differences suggest
about the business. You might find new opportunity, but either way, it's simply the
right thing to do in an increasingly diverse workforce. It helps people feel valued
and more worthwhile at the end of the day.
Directions: In two paragraphs explain why comfy diversity programs are a
missed opportunity.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B18
References
1. Magazines Publisher of America. (n.d.). The Value of Diversity. Retrieved from http://www.magazine.org/diversity/Managing_Diversity_at_Work/ 2. Copeland, L. (1988). Valuing Diversity, Part 2: Pioneers and Champions of Change. Personnel, 65. 3. Shrestha, L. B. (2006). CRS Report for Congress: The Changing Demographic Profile of the United States. Library of Congress. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Census 2000 Special EEO Tabulation Files. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/eeoindex/descrvar.pdf 7. Gordon, N. M. (2002). The U.S. Census at the Beginning of a new millennium. 20th Annual Meeting of the Population Census Conference. 8. Ibid. 9. Story, M., Evans, M., Fabsitz, R. R., Clay, T. E., Holy Rock, B. & Broussard, B. (1999, April). The epidemic of obesity in American Indian communities and the need for childhood obesity-prevention programs, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69, 4. 747S-754S,. 10. Ibid. 11. Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html 12. Ibid. 13. Census 2000 Special EEO Tabulation Files. (2000). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/eeoindex/descrvar.pdf 14. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B19
15. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. (n.d.). Age Data. 16. Johnston, W. B & Packer, A. H. (1987). Workforce 2000. Indianapolis: Hudson Institute. 17. Ibid. 18. America’s Dynamic Workforce. (2007, August). U.S. Department of Labor. 19. Occupational Employment in Private Industry by Race/Ethnic Group/Sex and by Industry, United States. (2003). The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. 20. Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. (2006). U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, Annual Averages. 21. Judy, R. & D’Amico, C. (1997). Workforce 2020: Work and Workers in the 21st Century. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute. 22. Winkler, A. E., McBride, Timothy, D. & Andrews, C. (2005, August). Wives Who Outearn Their Husbands: A Transitory or Persistent Phenomenon for Couples? Demography, 42(3), 523-535. 23. Ibid. 24. U.S. Interim Projections by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin. (2004, March). Population Projections U.S. Government. 25. Census 2000 Special EEO Tabulation Files. (2000). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/eeoindex/descrvar.pdf 26. Ibid. 27. American Civil Liberties Union. (2003, Fall). ACLU Reporter. 28. Resources for cultural diversity at work. (n.d.). Diversity Central. Retrieved from http://www.diversitycentral.com/business/diversity_statistics.html 29. Ibid.
30. Gore, Al (Vice President). (1999). Best Practices in Achieving Workforce Diversity. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Background: Business Case for Diversity B20
31. Jackson, M. (1996, December 26). Texaco leads 1996 parade of discrimination news. The Oklahoma City Associated Press. 32. Ibid. 33. Satisfaction in Corporate America – Timeline. (n.d.). Black Enterprise.com Retrieved from http://www.blackenterprise.com/cms/exclusivesopen.aspx?id=123 34. Ibid. 35. White, B. (2002, April 18). Black Coca-Cola Workers Still Angry Despite 2000 Legal Settlement, Protesters Say Little Has Changed. Washington Post. 36. Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. (N.D. Cal. No C-01-2252). (2009). Retrieved from: http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1193&context=uvalwps 37. Bush, I., Damminger, R., Daniels, L. M., & Laoye, E. (n.d.). Communication Strategies: Marketing to the ‘Majority Minority’. Villanova, PA: Villanova University. 38. Ibid. 39. Worman, D. (2005). Managing Diversity: Linking Theory and Practice to Business Performance Conference. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Retrieved from: http://www.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/D4D2D911-FC8A-4FD2-A814- B80A55A60B87/0/mandivlink0405.p
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 1
Chapter One: Valuing Diversity
The wise are as rare as eagles that fly
high in the sky.
Bantu proverb
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 2
VALUING DIVERSITY
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
know how to value diversity.
understand what it takes to manage change.
explain how the right or wrong attitude affects managing change.
clarify what it means to embrace diversity.
see the connection between interrogating my thinking and
valuing diversity
identify the three approaches to diversity.
describe what is required for cultural competence.
Chapter One
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 3
Introduction
What is Diversity? Organizations use definitions of diversity that are almost as
diverse as the subject itself, but what is clear is that the central theme of ‘valuing
everyone as individuals – as employees, customers, and clients’ extends diversity
beyond what is legislated.
Business exists in competitive and changing markets, which means that all employees must make significant contributions to business success and add value in every conceivable manner, but everyone is different, so organizations will need to be able to harness individual workers’ unique differences and convert them into competitive advantage.1 When studying organizational phenomena, many researchers state that employers implicitly assume that employees within an organization are homogeneous.
Diversity researchers reject this assumption. Their work focuses on
questions that arise when the workforce is acknowledged as a heterogeneous mix
of people with different backgrounds, experiences, values, and identities.2 A
challenge of this type puts a premium on value systems that are inclusive, fair and ethical. We know from the essential characteristics of the psychological
contract that employees expect their employers to value who they are.3 This is
why effective workplace diversity is so important to enhancing business performance and, as research evidence shows, is correlated with good people
management.4
According to the change agenda, Managing Diversity: Linking Theory and
Practice to Business Performance Conference foreword by Dianah Worman:
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 4
In the global market place of the twenty-first century, the pace of change in business practice is considered faster than ever before. Organizations are striving to keep one step ahead of competitors to gain and sustain market share and to appease the increasingly voracious appetites of customers regarding products and service delivery. Against this fluid background, the challenge organizations face is
to be able to respond to change in ways that assure survival.5
While change is a constant factor in today’s workplace, many of us perceive
change to be burdensome. This indicates that there can be resistance to change
which could result in a resistance to diversity efforts.
Managing Change How well are you at managing change? To determine the reply, let’s start by
answering the following questions:
1. If someone challenges your behaviors or beliefs, do you find yourself
justifying, defending or rationalizing as a response?
2. Do you find yourself frustrated when you have to change your routine,
change your plans, or change something as simple as your work route due to a
detour?
3. Do you find that you are still dealing with the same problems you had 3, 6
or 9 months ago?
4. When confronted with a challenge regarding your character or work ethics
do you find yourself giving excuses for why you are the way you are?
5. Do you find yourself complaining a lot about life, your job, your relationships
or other significant areas in your life?
If you answered, “yes” to at least three out of the five questions, you may have
some issues with managing change. Yet, if life is about growth then change is a
natural part of the life cycle. But, so many people are resistant to change. Why?
Because change often takes us out of our comfort zone.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 5
Yet, as we start this discussion of workplace diversity you may find that
you need to change your thoughts about others and/or open your mind to beliefs
unlike your own. Part of managing change is being teachable where you are able
to listen (not tune out, not argue with, not think of an answer before the person
finishes speaking) to what others have to say. Listening does not require you to
take the person’s advice, but you must be able to respect what they have to say.
If you are teachable, you will even ponder over what they have to say before
making a judgment.
Being teachable also means that you realize that you have room for
improvement (no matter the age or status) and you can, therefore, be more open
to what others have to say. Having an open mind is imperative to being able to
deal with change. 6
We must also understand that while having an open mind is an
important ingredient to managing change, being cautious of what we put in our
mind affects how we act toward change. We all know that our minds are power
centers—the area where we store our thoughts, ideas, imaginings, and decisions.
But, how does this power center control our behavior?
Read the following quote:
Watch your thoughts; they become words.
Watch your words; they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
Frank Outlaw7
If we really want to make a change that will affect who we are then it must
start with the images, beliefs, values etc… that are a part of our thoughts. We must keep our minds open and be aware of our thoughts; just these two aspects alone can help us to make continual improvement in our character. While you may think that you are done improving your character, none of us are perfect and therefore we can all stand to make some changes. Managing diversity may require
you to open your mind and challenge your ways of thinking. 8
This can be done by first looking at our attitude toward change which can
ultimately affect our ability to embrace diversity.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 6
Managing Change through our Attitudes
As we begin this journey of learning how to address workplace diversity, we will
address a key ingredient that will determine how we adjust to change or difference—
that is, our attitude. Your attitude is often one of the first things about your
character that people will notice. So, what really is your attitude? It is the way in
which we respond to our circumstances. According to the American Heritage
Dictionary “attitude” is a state of mind or feeling with regard to some matter. 9
When choosing to deal with change or your circumstances you can respond
negatively or positively or just simply shift into neutral. By shifting into neutral you
may be choosing to ignore the situation, but how long will this be an effective
response to change? You could also respond negatively to change by
complaining, being sarcastic or even experiencing intense anger. But, does this type
of response really make the circumstance go away?
Since none of us are perfect and don’t always respond appropriately, we
may find that our first response is a negative one. But if we can open our minds,
reflect on the incident then maybe we can find a positive way to respond to the
change. Even in the worst of conditions, if you look hard enough you can often
find some positive way to view change. But is it really this simple?
Understanding why we respond to change unfavorably (that is with a negative
attitude) goes a long way toward having a favorable response. Fear is often the
most cited reason for people being unfavorable about change. Fear of the
unknown, fear of a new way of thinking or doing and fear of failure are all fears
that people experience when facing change. 10
But, fear is not the only reason
people have a negative attitude toward change. Insecurity is another.
When a person’s self-worth or what they thought made them who they are is
being shaken, lost or questioned, change may not be welcomed. 11
We all have our
comfort zones and when those are threatened we can often become uncomfortable.
But, you cannot move ahead by holding on. You have to let go and understand that
you will experience some discomfort. But this discomfort does not have to control
you.
As you adapt to something new by having a positive attitude, you then
give yourself the chance to feel the exhilaration surrounding this new experience. 12
Controlling our attitude is even more possible when we examine our various levels
of thought. Researchers suggest that to bring order to the
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 7
potentially chaotic landscape of the mind, it helps to think positively. 13
Positive
thinking, the highest level of thinking breeds peace, love and creativity, and
encourages harmony and happiness. 14
Having positive thoughts may seem idealistic, but it is not as difficult to
achieve as one might think. If we can first concentrate on and find the positives in
ourselves, then maybe we can do this for others and for uncomfortable
circumstances. To that end, I ask you to do the following exercise before moving
forward in the chapter.
Positive Thinking Exercise
Take three to five minutes to complete the exercise. Please be honest and time yourself. List
ten POSITIVE internal attributes (things that would define your character) about yourself such
as “caring.” Now list ten POSITIVE external attributes (things that make you physically
attractive such as you have beautiful eyes). Please do not get ANY assistance (do not ask your
spouse, partner, friends or family), all twenty answers must come from you alone.
Ten Positive Internal Characteristics About Me: 1.
2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
7. 8.
9.
10.
Ten Positive External Characteristics About Me: 1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 8
Now that you have completed this Positive Thinking exercise, was it
easy or difficult?
If you answered easy, were you able to come up with 20 answers or at
least 16 in total? If yes, I applaud you. This is excellent and generally means that
you have a great self-image. Hopefully, if you feel this positive about yourself you
should be able to see positive attributes in others as well as have a positive attitude
toward change. According to psychologists, those who have healthy self- esteem
feel less threatened by change and can therefore extend their positive thoughts
to these difficult situations.
If you answered difficult, then maybe now is the time to ask others about
your internal and external positive characteristics so that you can complete your list
and add these positive thoughts to how you view yourself. Finding this exercise
difficult could mean several things. For one, you may confuse being self- assured
with being conceited and therefore have not allowed yourself to think these
positive thoughts about yourself. Remember, thinking positively about ourselves
does not indicate that we overvalue ourselves and have heads that can’t fit into
doors, it just means that we value who we are.
Additionally, if you found this exercise difficult it could mean that you need to
work on valuing who you are. How can you expect others to value what you
don’t? How can you look for the positives in difficult circumstances when you
can’t do this for yourself? Unfortunately for many reasons, some of us have not
built a healthy self-esteem based on realistic characteristics of self. Instead, we
have a false sense of security because we don’t value who we really are. If we can
elevate our thoughts to positive from negative (especially our thoughts of self),
then we should better be able to elevate how we respond to change. If we can be
positive and allow creativity to permeate our attitudes then maybe we can have an
open mind. With an open mind, positive attitude, and positive self-worth we can
begin to see change as positive. This should go a long way toward starting the
process of embracing diversity.
Acceptance of Self No matter how different we may feel from others or how much we may have been
bullied or how much ego others think we have—there is great benefit in knowing the
positive characteristics associated with “who” we are. A positive self-worth leads to
acceptance of self or as some would call self-esteem. Though related, self-
acceptance is not the same as self-esteem.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 9
Self-esteem refers specifically to how valuable, or worthwhile, we see ourselves;
whereas self-acceptance alludes to a far more global affirmation of self. When
we're self-accepting, we're able to embrace all facets of ourselves--not just the
positive, more "esteem-able" parts. This means that despite what others may find
valuable, others views do not impact how we feel about ourselves because we
know our good points and not so great aspects but we accept it all. My mother-in-
law had a saying…….you must take the good with the bad. It won’t be all good and
it won’t be all bad. If we can do this for ourselves, accept all that makes us who we
are—then shouldn’t it be easier for us to accept both the positive and negative
aspects of change as well as accept others and everything that makes them “who”
they are?
How to Value Diversity Do all beliefs deserve respect?
Table 1: Read the following statements below and indicate which ones you agree
with and why.
1. I believe that anyone has the right to believe anything they want to about
anything at all - but I don't believe they have the right to force others to agree
with them or be upset if others disagree with them. (Agree or Disagree)
2. What happens in your own head is your own business – it is when it comes out
of your mouth and influences your actions that it starts to become relevant to
anyone else. (Agree or Disagree)
3. You don't have to agree with what someone says. It's not about liking the other
person's opinion. It's about realizing people don't always see eye to eye and
accepting that reality whether you like it or not. (Agree or Disagree)
4. Some beliefs are simply not respectable. (Agree or Disagree)
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 10
5. There is no reason we should judge someone just because they believe in
something that we don't or act in ways that we do not. No matter where they
come from and what they think, we should be treating everyone with an equal
amount of respect. (Agree or Disagree)
Not all of the statements above (if agreed to) follow the premise of the textbook.
The premise of this book is that we are all entitled to our beliefs, lifestyle, way of
dress, etc. especially since this is the land of the free. But, does this mean that
we will agree with the viewpoint and choices of others? Probably not.
It is acceptable to disagree with another’s viewpoint, the diverse
views of this text or your workplace views on diversity. However, whether you
disagree with difference or diversity is not the issue, the issue is having the
ability to respect another person’s right to behave and believe as they choose.
But, how far do you take this?
Does this mean we support a serial rapist and this person’s rights to act as they
choose? Of course not.
The laws of the land and ethical workplace expectations are the guides that help
us to determine what rights others have that we should respect. It is important
to note that it is not our opinion that determines where these boundaries of
acceptable and unacceptable fall. As laws change, as people gain more civil
rights, as viewpoints in society provide more equality this all requires us to have
an open enough mindset that even if we don’t agree with these changes or civil
liberties provided in the United States, we can respect the right that others have
to them.
Embracing Diversity
People can be categorized in many ways, such as by gender, race,
religion, ethnicity, sex, language, income, age, ability or sexual orientation.
Unfortunately, these categories are sometimes used to label people unfairly or
to saddle them with stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalized assumptions
concerning the traits or characteristics of all members of a particular group. They
are frequently (although not always) negative and incorrect in application. But,
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 11
rather a stereotype is positive or negative it is wrong because no one fact applies
to all in a group. Ironically, stereotypes discourage closer contact, preventing the
perpetrator from discovering what the individual victims of these stereotypes are
really like. 15
Stereotypes often form the basis of prejudice, a premature judgment
about a group or a member of that group made without sufficient knowledge or
thought. 16
We can also develop prejudices towards a whole group based on a
single emotional experience with one person. Prejudice demonstrates an unfair
bias that does not allow for individual differences, good or bad. It violates
the standards of reason, justice, and tolerance.
Many of today's prejudices have their roots in thousands of years of
human history, such as the institution of slavery in America, the slaughter of
European Jews by Christians en route to the Holy Land during the Crusades, and
numerous religious wars between Catholics and Protestants. Other biases can
be based on media portrayal, personal experiences and influences.
A number of sociologists attribute prejudice to modern social
problems, including urban decay and overcrowding, unemployment, and
competition between groups. 17
Research suggests that people of lower (but not
the lowest) socio-economic status or who have lost status are more prejudiced
because they seek scapegoats to blame for their misfortune. 18
Backlashes against
minority groups are therefore more likely during periods of severe economic
downturn and increased unemployment. 19
Many of us recognize our own irrational prejudices (they may
concern places, foods, ideas, etc., as well as people) and work to overcome
them. In contrast, bigots are those persons who obstinately cling to their
prejudices, displaying a degrading attitude towards others to whom they feel
superior. Various groups have been and continue to be the victims of bigotry,
including racial, ethnic and religious groups, women, persons with disabilities,
transgendered individuals, gays and lesbians amongst others.
We are intolerant if we reject or dislike people because they are different,
e.g., of a different religion, different socio-economic status, or have a different set
of values. When comparing different vs. normal in the United States culture, this
has largely been based on white, heterosexual, able-bodied males, the norm
against which to judge others. But, as we look around our jobs, our school
systems and our communities at large, we will find more women, people of color,
disabled, homosexuals/gay & lesbians and others that don’t fit the
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 12
above norm. It therefore becomes increasingly necessary that our
environments acknowledge a different norm that is representative of all groups. Not
only must the current norm based upon the dominant culture be altered, but so must
our approach to embracing diversity. If not, this can lead to workplace discrimination
which refers to the treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction in favor of
or against, a person or based on the group, class, or category to which that person
belong. It is much more accurate to judge people on individual merit that may
require thinking outside of the box. To think outside of the box of societal norms,
let’s start with the following myth:
MYTH: AMERICA IS A MELTING POT
While it may seem easier to have all cultures assimilate–that is, melt into the
dominant culture, this is not a realistic or fair expectation. According to Holly
Atkins in the December 2001 article: An American 'tossed salad' is the appropriate
cliché she indicates, the melting pot is no more. 20
Today, many people from diverse
backgrounds may blend together but never lose their cultural identity. Therefore,
it makes more sense to change our mindset to the following theory:
FACT: AMERICA IS A TOSSED SALAD
We are all different (some of us could be cucumbers, some tomatoes, some cheese, etc…) one is not better than the other. But, just like each ingredient looks different and adds a different flavor to the salad, so can a diverse workplace produce a greater product if managed effectively. The nice thing about the tossed salad is that as each item is added it never loses its identity or flavor. As we begin to value diversity we should not expect those culturally or ethnically different from us to lose their identity or culture—they should not melt into the pot. Assimilation is not the goal in learning to value diversity but rather the goal is to learn to have an
inclusive workplace where every person is valued for who they are. 21
Once we see that difference is not good or bad, it is just different then we
can begin to understand that a salad with just lettuce would seem bland next to a
salad with lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, olives etc. Requiring everyone to be just
alike would cause America to be “bland.” You know what they say: diversity adds
spice to life. With diversity comes different types of music, food, customs, thought
patterns, dress, etc… and each of these enriches the U.S. culture and workplace.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 13
Despite this enrichment, some groups or individuals may find it more
beneficial to assimilate rather than to hold onto their unique identity. This is
when cabbage may want to change to lettuce. The lettuce may even
welcome this assimilation but then we must remember that assimilation is not an
overnight process. It usually takes two or more generations for the members of a
new group to become sufficiently absorbed into the life of a community so much
so that they lose their separate identity. 22
This assimilation can be easier and
sometimes desirable when those groups assimilating are easily accepted into the
group norm and are considered a valuable entity.
However, some ethnic groups—mainly those of dark skin colors—never
achieve total assimilation. If we are in agreement with the tossed salad
theory, total assimilation should no longer even be the expectation. But even still,
those of dark skin have had a harder time due to the prejudices that
society has exhibited towards people of color.
The truth of the matter is where there are obvious differences due to skin
color, accents, weight, height many in the U.S. society have more in common
than they realize. This common ground supports the notion that while managing
workplace diversity may not be simple; it is to the benefit of many. Learning
to embrace diversity rather than have others try to fit into the norm or melt into
the pot should be the goal of organizations.
But, even though we could all stand to benefit from the tossed salad theory
the workplace is not yet without prejudices that could easily turn to
discrimination. Let’s give a warning here, as some of you may be thinking,
“Prejudices aren’t an issue in today’s world, I’m not prejudice.”
People concerned about and committed to improving inter-group relations
must guard against such clichés as: “I’m not prejudice.” Even as you think about
the tossed salad theory, I am sure that everyone can think of one item going into
that salad that they don’t care for due to one reason or another. But, if this does
not fit you maybe you find that you like one item on the salad better than others,
therefore you have a bias toward one ingredient. Just the same, people can be in
general prejudiced for or against other people. However, there are many laws
against discriminatory behaviors, but there are none against prejudicial attitudes.
However, the good news is if we can learn prejudices we can most
certainly unlearn them. This begins with simple concepts and thought, such
as viewing the world/workplace as a tossed salad where working together is the
order of business. We must also know that of those who maintain their
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 14
difference, no matter how different, we should not judge this person, hold
prejudices against them but accept who they are. But, we can’t get to this step if
we don’t fully recognize our prejudices or negative ways of thinking about difference.
Once we recognize that we do have preconceptions toward others only then can we
start to change our biased thoughts to unbiased thoughts.
Interrogating Our Thinking
How often do we interrogate our thinking? Do we question why we feel the
manner in which we do? Is our thinking justified? Is it because of one or a few
negative experiences? Will my thinking about difference or a particular cultural group
negatively impact my work experiences with this group? The following checklist of
questions can help us to recognize when we are falling into restrictive patterns of
reasoning and to push ourselves beyond these common "traps" (taken from Gentile,
M. C. (1995), Ways of Thinking about and across Difference):
What are my thoughts regarding my rights?
TRAPS
Do I believe I have absolute rights without responsibility? Does my thinking reflect a fearfulness or
insecurity about inadvertently "giving away" my rights?
Am I focused only on preserving my own privileges, rather than also
understanding my appropriate and necessary responsibilities to the larger community I inhabit?
ESCAPE (a better way of thinking)
Does my thinking reflect a security in my
own identity and an openness to new ideas that is born of the awareness that my identity is multiple and dynamic, and that change does not necessarily mean loss?
Am I trying to understand the different costs
and benefits associated with differing identities and positions in that community, including my own?
How do I define myself through my thinking?
TRAPS ESCAPE
Do I define myself by the ways in which I am different from others, or in terms
of "the ways I am not" (i.e., not ignorant, not guilty, not a failure, not weak)?
Do I define myself more complexly, recognizing the differing and even conflicting
aspects of my own multiple identities? Can I admit that I have things in common with the people I most admire as well as with those of whom I am most critical?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 15
What is my thinking towards individuals that do not belong to my cultural
group?
TRAP ESCAPE
Do I define people by their group
identities or associated stereotypes? Do
I see feminine men and think they are
“gay?” Do I see tall hooded black men
and get scared? Do I see White men
and assume they do not value others
outside their cultural group?
I see people as distinct individuals
completely free of any group identity
determination. Instead of seeing a
stereotype, I do not link the individual
to any group but instead take the time
to get to know the individual.
Do I understand that people can belong
to a cultural group without identifying
with the stereotypes or dominant
characteristics of that group and yet
still be a member of that group?
What are my “comfort zones” when confronted with differing viewpoints?
TRAPS ESCAPES
Am I more interested in being "right"
than in learning?
Do I present my point of view in a way
that discourages negative feedback and
questioning?
Am I open to, or even appreciative of,
the potential to change one's mind, to
see things in a new way?
Do I embrace disconfirming data and
multiple perspectives as an opportunity
for learning?
What is my thinking when I stand to lose “something”?
TRAP ESCAPE
Do I approach any attempt to improve
conditions for some, from a defensive
stance of "as long as it doesn't affect
me . . ." ?
Am I willing to redefine the terms of
cost and benefit? Am I willing to
consider that some aspects of myself
may benefit from a choice that costs
other aspects of myself?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 16
How we think has the capacity to impact our actions. While valuing diversity may
seem like a simple concept in theory, it can be at times more difficult to practice. In
the workplace, where individuals may have negative thinking or perspectives (as we
are all human) it becomes necessary to understand that there are approaches to
diversity that can assist us manage this complexity better. There are three
established diversity approaches that can assist us in embracing diversity.
Three Approaches to Diversity The rest of the text is broken down based on the three approaches to addressing workplace diversity. In order to embrace diversity and make equal opportunity a reality it is often necessary to understand and utilize all three approaches to diversity in the workplace. The following table explains (in very simple terms) the differences between the three approaches, using information from the following source: Beyond Race and Gender: Unleashing the Power of Your Total Work Force by
Managing Diversity, author Thomas Roosevelt (1992).23
Table 2: Three Approaches to Diversity
Valuing
Differences
Affirmative Action Managing Diversity
Emphasis here is
on accepting,
respecting and
understanding
differences.
Emphasis is on achieving equality of
opportunity. Seeking to include those
who were formerly excluded.
Corrects recruitment, hiring, training and
promotion tactics that have caused
systematized discrimination.
Emphasis is
on building
specific skills
and creating
policies that
get the best
from all
employees.
Necessary for any
cultural change and
can be ethnically
driven.
Goals are outlined for achieving a
multicultural workplace. It can be legally
driven if a company is in prior violation of
discrimination or seeks a government
contract. It is often voluntary.
Creation of
policies that
are effective
for all
employees
often tied to
rewards and
results. It is
the elimination
of
systematized
discrimination.
This step is
often
strategically
driven.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 17
In order to determine what approach to use for a given situation, it
is necessary to review the factors that are taking place at your organization.
Some companies will need to use all three approaches in a comprehensive
diversity plan, while other organizations may have addressed certain issues and
may need to use only one of the above approaches.23 But no matter which
approach is utilized, it is important for managers to understand what is going on
in their workplace and what changes will need to take place in order to
address the issue(s) effectively.
We begin this discussion of the three approaches with Valuing Differences
(Affirmative Action and Managing Diversity will be discussed later in the
text) because it is my belief that it is hard to manage what we don’t value. It
is very easy to mistreat those things and people that we don’t value. Some
people mistreat animals simply because they don’t value their existence—this
person’s thinking is negative toward animals and comes out through their
actions toward them. This same mindset can extend to individuals.
Anthony Carnevale and Susan Carol Stone, authors of The American
Mosaic, have emphasized that valuing diversity involves "recognizing that
other people's standards and values are as valid as one's own," and note that for
most organizations, valuing diversity requires nothing less than cultural
transformation. 24
This is an extraordinary task, for it requires people—especially
those of the dominant culture—to let go of their assumptions about the universal
rightness of their own values and customary ways of doing things and to become
receptive to other cultures. 25
Valuing diversity requires respecting, understanding and accepting
differences. It does not mean however that you must agree with the
difference. But, if you choose to disagree, you must still show respect, and seek
to understand and accept difference. Respecting diversity starts by first
expanding our cultural knowledge of “American history” to the point where
it becomes inclusive of all groups that have contributed to our great society.
Without this knowledge, it is easy to believe the negative media portrayals
and news accounts that plague certain groups of people. It is also easy to believe
that if I did not learn about these groups’ contributions to society during my early
education then would it be safe to assume “they” provided very little contribution.
But, history is written by the victor. They can tell the story from their
perspective, with only their contributions and in the way that makes them look
the best. When history is only presented by the victor, they have the choice to
put their own story on a pedestal and make others seem inferior or absent by
simply just not including their stories or contributions.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 18
Therefore, without cultural knowledge it becomes easy to believe that only
the heroes you learned about contributed to this great country called the United
States. Without cultural knowledge, it becomes easy to believe the stereotypes and
myths that can often be passed down from one generation to the next—as you may
have little to no positive facts to go against these negative viewpoints. Lack of
cultural knowledge can also result in a lack of value where we don’t treat those
who are different with the respect they deserve. It can also lead to a false sense of
self if you identify with the “victor” group who has presented their story in a
misleading manner. This does not level the playing field and can keep the viewpoint
that some are superior while others are inferior due to a lack of knowledge of these
cultures. Ultimately, this lack of cultural knowledge can serve to justify inappropriate
behavior toward difference which all too often can lead to discrimination in the
workplace. Before, we delve into cultural knowledge let’s get a better definition of
what it is and how it and other components contribute to cultural competency.
Cultural Knowledge Familiarization with selected cultural characteristics, history, values, belief
systems, and behaviors of the members of another ethnic group (Adams, 1995). 26
Cultural Awareness Means developing sensitivity and understanding of another ethnic group. This usually involves internal changes in terms of attitudes and values. Awareness and sensitivity also refer to the qualities of openness and flexibility that people develop in relation to others. Cultural awareness must be supplemented with cultural
knowledge (Adams, 1995). 27
Cultural Sensitivity Is knowing that cultural differences as well as similarities exist, without assigning values, i.e. better or worse, right or wrong, to those cultural differences (National
Maternal and Child Health Center on Cultural Competency, 1997). 28
Cultural Competence Is the set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency or among professionals. It enables that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, &
Isaacs, 1989). 29
Cultural knowledge + cultural awareness + cultural sensitivity = Cultural Competence
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 19
Why is Cultural Competence Important?
Because without it the following can occur:
1. Lack of knowledge - resulting in an inability to recognize differences.
2. Self-protection/denial - leading to an attitude that these differences are
not significant, or that our common humanity transcends our differences.
3. Fear of the unknown or the new - because it is challenging and
perhaps intimidating to get to understand something that is new, that
does not fit into one's world view. 4. Feeling of pressure due to time constraints - which can lead to
feeling rushed and unable to look in depth at an individual’s needs.
Self-awareness is argued to be one of the most important elements in developing
effective collaboration with culturally different individuals and communities. It is
this commonsense approach that begins the process of understanding how our
own perspectives impact how we relate to others. These vital ingredients (cultural
knowledge, cultural awareness and cultural sensitivity) are not only paramount to
an organization’s cultural competence but to our individual cultural competence as
they expand our self-awareness.
Cultural self-awareness becomes the bridge to learning about other
cultures. It seems very difficult to be truly sensitive to another culture until one is
sensitive to his/her own culture and the impact that cultural customs, beliefs,
values, and behaviors have on our development. A professional's impression of
another’s functioning style may be influenced by his/her own, sometimes
unexamined assumptions. Assumptions are those things we take for granted or
accept as truth without proof.
Achieving cultural competence means that we may have to step outside
our own framework. It may be difficult to see strength in individual or collective
behaviors that reflect different assumptions. At first, it may appear that another
person’s deficit may be a weakness, when in fact it may be the strength in their
culture.
Concluding Thoughts
In this chapter we introduce the term diversity and how achieving workplace
diversity has a lot to do with our ability to manage change, be open-minded and
think positively about ourselves, circumstances and others. Workplace diversity is
to be embraced not just regulated by the government through laws. Diversity is
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 20
best managed by understanding the three approaches to diversity and
incorporating those aspects needed in organizations. It is the premise of this text
that diversity must first be valued by individuals which comes through cultural
knowledge and it is only then that the other two approaches of workplace
diversity can best be utilized in organizations. Embracing diversity and all it
entails starts with the individual. But, when it comes to dealing with diversity
we cannot ignore discrimination and prejudices as . . .
“Prejudice is a burden that confuses the past, threatens the future
and renders the present inaccessible”30 Dr. Maya Angelou
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 21
End of Chapter Questions
1. What is the difference between self-acceptance and self-esteem? How does this relate to
valuing diversity?
2. Why is it important to understand that in order to value diversity I don’t have to agree with the difference?
3. Define the three approaches to diversity.
4. What reasons does the text state regarding how harmful “not” having cultural knowledge is to diversity.
5. What is cultural competency and how does cultural sensitivity and cultural awareness contribute to cultural competence.
6. How can cultural competence be used as a gage upon which to judge the workplace environment?
7. Define the following terms: prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination. Explain how prejudices or stereotypes can lead to discrimination in the workplace.
8. Explain why the phrase “America is a melting pot” is a myth and should not be utilized to value diversity.
Internet Exercise
Using the Internet read the article found at:
http://www.leadingage.org/Cultural_Competence_in_the_Workplace_Cha
llenges_and_Solutions_V11N3.aspx
If the website is down please go to www.google.com and type: cultural
competency in the workplace. Once you’ve read the article, indicate how
this organization defines cultural competency and how they feel they have
achieved it.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 22
End of Chapter Exercise
Part A: Cancelling negative thinking
1. List five negative thoughts, memories or emotions that you are aware of
(ones you or others you know have).
2. Next to each negative thought, write a positive thought on that same
subject or viewpoint.
3. Now answer the following questions: a) How hard or easy was it to come up with the five negative thoughts?
Why?
b) How hard or easy was it to come up with the five positive thoughts to
cancel out the negative ones?
c) Do you think it is practical to cancel out negative thoughts with
positive ones, why or why not?
Part B: Take the Pretest Challenge Pretest
Directions: Answer questions 1-13 utilizing your “best” guess. The correct answers
will be given after you have completed the post-test toward the end of the textbook.
True/False
1. Thanksgiving is a celebration that everyone enjoys. Native-Americans especially enjoy this holiday because of the peace it represented to their community.
2. Gay and lesbian people are a threat to the workplace and have few leaders who have contributed to our society.
3. African-Americans even though they started as slaves in this country now have equal opportunity.
4. Disabled employees can be a liability to a company due to missed work time.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 23
5. Caucasian men are accepted in Corporate America because being white and male are the only requirements needed to belong to the “old boys network.”
6. For every job that a man can do, there is a woman able to do the same job.
7. Most people on welfare (a government transfer system where tax payer dollars are given to the poor for housing etc.) are Black and Hispanic women who live off the
system forever.
8. Arabs come to this country and are given government subsidies (free money that is not to be paid back) this is why they are able to buy their own companies.
9. Asian-Americans have always been privileged minorities because of their higher intelligence and because they do not suffer from discrimination or illiteracy in any
capacity.
10. Hispanics are the poorest minority because they are lazy immigrants.
11. Cultural knowledge of various groups is not necessary to preventing discrimination in the workplace.
12. I believe that most people are treated fairly in the workplace and history plays no factor in how people treat each other.
13. It is not necessary to have diversity training in the workplace as most people understand diversity and its implications.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 24
References
1. Worman, D. (2005). Managing Diversity: Linking Theory and Practice to Business Performance Conference. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Retrieved from: http://www.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/D4D2D911- FC8A-4FD2-A814- B80A55A60B87/0/mandivlink0405.pdf
2. Jackson, S.E. & Joshi, A. (n.d.). Research on Domestic and International Diversity in Organizations: A Merger that Works? Retrieved from: http://chrs.rutgers.edu/pub_documents/Jackson_5.pdf 3. Worman, D. (2005). Managing Diversity: Linking Theory and Practice to Business Performance Conference. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Retrieved from: http://www.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/D4D2D911- FC8A-4FD2-A814- B80A55A60B87/0/mandivlink0405.pdf
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Austin, M. R. (1997, August). Managing Change. Manage, 49(1), 15-17.
7. Outlaw, F. (n.d.). Stubbleupon. Retrieved from http://www.uscg.mil/leadership/news/fall99/watch.htm
8. De Meuse, K. P. & McDaris, K. K. (1994, February). An Exercise in Managing Change. Training & Development, 48(2), 55-57. 9. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/61/64/S0946400.html
10. Costello, S. J. (1994). Managing Change in the Workplace: Designing the Flexible, High Performing Organization. New York: Wiley.
11. Ibid.
12. Decker, D. C. & Belohlav, J. A. (1997, April). Managing Transitions. Quality Progress, 30(4), 93-97.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ponterotto, J. G. (1993). Preventing Prejudice: A Guide for Counselors and Educators. Newbury, CA: Sage Publishing. 16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter One: Valuing Diversity 25
18. Essed, P. (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: an Interdisciplinary Theory. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
19. Ibid.
20. Atkins, H. (2001, December). An American 'tossed' salad. St. Petersburg Times.
21. Thomas R. R. (1992). Beyond Race and Gender: Unleashing the Power of Your Total Work Force by Managing Diversity. New York: American Management Association.
22. Ahmed, N. R. (1993, December). Stirring the salad bowl: Diversity continues to increase. Managers Magazine, 68, 12.
23. Thomas R. R. (1992). Beyond Race and Gender: Unleashing the Power of Your Total Work Force by Managing Diversity. New York: American Management Association.
24. Carnevale, A. P. & Stone, S. C. (1995). The American Mosaic: an In-Depth Report on the future of Diversity at Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.
25. Ibid.
26. Adams, D. L. (1995). Health issues for women of color: A cultural diversity perspective. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
27. Ibid.
28. Texas Department of Health, National Maternal and Child Health Resource Center on Cultural Competency. (1997). Journey towards cultural competency: Lessons learned. Vienna, VA: Maternal and Children's Health Bureau Clearinghouse.
29. Cross T., Bazron, B., Dennis, K., & Isaacs, M. (1989). Towards a Culturally Competent System of Care, Volume I. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Child Development Center, CASSP Technical Assistance Center.
30. Maya Angelou quotes. (n.d.). ThinkExist.com. Retrieved from http://thinkexist.com/quotation/prejudice_is_a_burden_that_confuses_the_past/327559.html
Managing Workplace Diversity | 26
Chapter Two: Civil Rights Laws
“Being an American is about having the
right to be who you are. Sometimes that doesn't happen.”
― Herb Ritts
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 27
CIVIL RIGHTS LAWS
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
know what equal employment laws are and how the EEOC works to enforce them.
understand the civil rights laws.
know who the protected classes are.
understand who the age discrimination laws protect.
explain how the workforce can protect the rights of protected classes.
clarify what it means to abide by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act
of 1964 in the workplace.
Chapter Two
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 28
Levels of the Law
When it comes to the law there are various levels of the law that apply to
discrimination. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides federal
protection to individuals from discrimination and these laws apply to the entire
country. Along with the federal law, there are state laws that cover each state
and provide protection from discrimination. Each state has the right to include
protected classes not covered by the federal laws. For instance, there are
currently many states that protect individuals from discrimination on the basis
of sexual orientation. Lastly, there are local laws that govern particular
districts. There are many local laws that protect against discrimination on the
basis of both sexual orientation and gender identity, two entities that are
currently not covered by federal discrimination laws.
Equal Employment Laws Say We Should Value Diversity
The foundation for Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Laws can be traced back
to the U.S. Constitution. However, significant progress in shaping current laws
was made between 1941 and 1991. Executive Orders barring discrimination,
passage of the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment
Act of 1972 are often cited as the cornerstones for eliminating employment
discrimination on the federal level.
The above laws are enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC). The Commission is composed of five Commissioners and a
General Counsel appointed by the U.S. President and confirmed by the Senate.
Commissioners are appointed for five-year staggered terms; the General
Counsel's term is four years.1 The President designates a Chair and a Vice-Chair
and the Chair is the chief executive officer of the Commission.2 The Commission
has authority to establish equal employment policy and to approve litigation. The General Counsel is responsible for conducting litigation.
The EEOC carries out its enforcement, education and technical assistance
activities through 50 field offices serving every part of the nation. T h e EEOC
is an independent federal agency originally created by Congress in 1964 to
enforce Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.3 In addition, the EEOC enforces
the following federal statutes prohibiting employment discrimination,
including: the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, Title I of the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and the Equal Pay Act of 1963.4 The
descriptions following provide a brief summary of these laws.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 29
EEO Laws
Source: EEO Laws and Regulations found at http://www.eeolaw.org/law.html5
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Prohibits employment discrimination because of race, color, sex, national origin,
and religion. Prohibits retaliation for opposing discrimination, filing a complaint, or participating in a related proceeding.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967
Prohibits employment discrimination because of age against persons age 40 and
older. Prohibits retaliation for opposing age discrimination, filing a complaint, or
participating in a related proceeding. This law was amended by the Older Workers
Benefit Protection Act which sets minimum criteria that must be satisfied before a
waiver of any ADEA right is considered a "knowing and voluntary" waiver.
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, Titles I and V
Prohibits employment discrimination because of: mental and physical disabilities
that substantially limit a major life activity; or having a record of a disability; or
being regarded as having a disability. Requires reasonable accommodation of
mental and physical disabilities.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Prohibits wage differentials based on sex for jobs that require equal skill, effort,
and responsibility, and are performed under similar working conditions in the
same establishment ("equal pay for equal work").
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 30
The following information: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is reprinted with
permission from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and clearly
explains what constitutes discrimination according to the previous discussed laws.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964*6
Race & Color Discrimination
As this Act relates to racial/ethnic groups (White/Caucasian, Black/African American,
Asian American, Hispanic/Latino and Native American), it is unlawful to discriminate
against any employee or applicant for employment because of his/her race or
color in regard to hiring, termination, promotion, compensation, job training, or
any other term, condition, or privilege of employment. It also prohibits
discrimination on the basis of an immutable characteristic associated with race,
such as skin color, hair texture, or certain facial features. Even though not all
members of the race share the same characteristic, there would still be a violation
of Title VII based on the previous elements.
Title VII also prohibits employment decisions based on stereotypes and
assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial
groups. Title VII prohibits both intentional discrimination and neutral job policies
that disproportionately exclude minorities and that are not job related. Equal
Employment opportunity cannot be denied because of marriage to or association
with an individual of a different race; membership in or association with ethnic based
organizations or groups; or attendance/participation in schools or places of
worship generally associated with certain minority groups. Title VII also prohibits
discrimination on the basis of a condition, which predominantly affects one race,
unless the practice is job related and consistent with business necessity.
Furthermore, harassment on the basis of race and/or color such as ethnic
slurs, racial “jokes,” offensive or derogatory comments, or other verbal or physical
conduct based on an individual’s race or color constitutes unlawful harassment if the
conduct creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment, or
interferes with the individual’s work performance. Title VII also states that when you
isolate employees on the basis of race or color from other employees or from
customer contact this is a violation. It also prohibits assigning mostly people of
color to predominantly minority establishments or geographic areas. It is also
illegal to exclude minorities from certain positions or to group or categorize
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 31
employees or jobs so that minorities generally hold certain jobs. Coding
applications/resumes to designate an applicant’s race, by either an employer or
employment agency, constitutes evidence of discrimination where minorities are
excluded from employment or from certain positions.
As it relates to color discrimination this discrimination while categorized
with race is slightly different. This slowly emerging form of workplace
discrimination is based on color or skin tone. The unlawful conduct is predicated
not on a person's specific race or nationality, but on the shade of his or her skin,
often involving disputes between people of the same race and among individuals
who act on cultural biases based on whether a person's skin tone is lighter or
darker.
Vice-Chair Naomi Earp of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
told a meeting of the American Bar Association that "colorism" represents a
potential emerging trend in workplace discrimination claims. Color claims over the
past year have risen from 1,400 in fiscal year 2002 to 1,555 in fiscal year 2003,
Ms. Earp reported. She noted the increase may signal a trend attributable, in part,
to the changing demographics of the American workplace, as more claims of
colorism are included along with charges of race discrimination – the most
prevalent charge year after year -- under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
Complaints of color discrimination go both ways, although more complaints
are brought by individuals with darker skin than those with lighter skin. Ms. Earp
reported the majority of charges alleging color discrimination were brought in the
EEOC district offices in the cities of New York, Boston, Miami, Chicago, and
Houston. She observed that color discrimination is inherent in some cultures, such
as in India, Pakistan, and South America. As the United States becomes more
culturally and ethnically diverse, awareness of colorism issues grow in importance,
Ms. Earp emphasized.
Skin tone bias is not unique among people of color; whites also can equate
darker skin with a "negative cultural stereotype." Yet, there is a great deal of
uncertainty over whether discrimination based on skin tone is even illegal,
although the EEOC clearly takes the position it is. In August, 2003, the EEOC's
Atlanta district office announced a $40,000 settlement in a "black on black"
discrimination case against a franchisee of a large restaurant chain. The plaintiff
was a dark skinned male waiter at the restaurant in Georgia when a light skinned
black man began working as the general manager. The manager almost
immediately began harassing the plaintiff, continuously
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 32
making offensive and embarrassing comments about the dark color of his skin,
the EEOC said in its complaint. Co-workers and some customers witnessed the
harassment, the EEOC said. Despite the plaintiff's protests, the harassment
continued, and the plaintiff eventually threatened to call corporate headquarters.
Shortly thereafter, he received the first of four written reprimands for "minor"
offenses, EEOC said, followed by his firing. Although the plaintiff did call the
restaurant chain's hotline to complain about his treatment before being terminated,
allegedly he got no response to his call.
Beyond the monetary settlement in which the employer admitted no
wrongdoing, the restaurant agreed to provide anti-discrimination training to its
employees and to report any complaints at its Georgia restaurants directly to
the EEOC. The restaurant also added a written policy prohibiting discrimination based
on color.
Shortly after the restaurant case settlement, a federal judge in New York
ruled that an African American employee (who was fired after a darker skinned
supervisor allegedly branded her a white "wannabe,") can pursue a race
discrimination law suit against her employer. However, despite these and other
cases in recent years, claims of color discrimination still represent a very small
amount of total employment complaints.
The EEOC received 1,382 charges of color bias in 2002, representing just 2%
of all agency claims. Back in 1987, the EEOC received only 459 complaints of color
discrimination. By 1999, color bias charges were up to 1,304, and they have held
steady ever since. Although the most typical scenario of color discrimination involves
lighter skinned African Americans discriminating against darker skinned African
Americans, color bias cases also have been brought within other groups, including
Native Americans and Arabs.
National Origin Discrimination
No one can be denied equal employment opportunity because of birthplace,
ancestry, culture, or linguistic characteristics common to a specific ethnic group.
Equal employment cannot be denied because of marriage or association with persons
of a national origin group; membership or association with specific ethnic groups,
attendance or participation in schools, churches, temples or mosques generally
associated with a national origin group; or a surname associated with a national
origin group.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 33
A rule requiring employees to speak only English at all times on the job
may violate Title VII, unless an employer shows it is necessary for conducting
business. If an employer believes the English-only rule is critical for business
purposes, employees have to be told when they must speak English and the
consequences for violating the rule. Any negative employment decision based on
breaking the English-only rule will be considered evidence of discrimination if the
employer did not tell employees of the rule.
Furthermore, an employer must show a legitimate nondiscriminatory
reason for the denial of employment opportunity because of an individual’s accent
or manner of speaking. Investigations will focus on the qualifications of the person
and whether his or her accent or manner of speaking had a detrimental effect on
job performance. Requiring employees or applicants to be fluent in English may
violate Title VII if the rule is adopted to exclude individuals of a particular national
origin and is not related to job performance. In addition, an ethnic slur or other
verbal or physical conduct because of an individual’s nationality constitute
harassment if they create an intimidating, hostile or offensive working
environment that unreasonably interferes with work performance or negatively
affects an individual’s employment opportunities.
Title VII also covers immigration-related practices that may be
discriminatory. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) requires
employers to prove all employees hired after November 6, 1986, are legally
authorized to work in the United States. IRCA also prohibits discrimination based
on national origin or citizenship. An employer who singles out individuals of a
particular national origin or individuals who appear to be foreign to provide
employment verification may have violated both IRCA and Title VII. Employers
who impose citizenship requirements or give preference to U.S. citizens in hiring
or employment opportunities may have violated IRCA, unless these are legal or
contractual requirements for particular jobs. Employers also may have violated
Title VII if a requirement or preference has the purpose or effect of discriminating
against individuals of a particular national origin.
Sex Discrimination
Sex discrimination is discrimination based on the birth sex of male or female.
Therefore, protection is provided to being born and identifying with your birth sex.
As modern society has made clear and you will read further in the text, women
have the ability to perform with equal skill and success in every endeavor
engaged in by men -- including employment, athletics, academics and politics. Yet
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 34
discrimination on the basis of sex used against women has a long history in the
United States, and its enduring effects still function to keep women's salaries lower
and opportunities fewer in the employment realm. Although less common, men too
can be subjected to unlawful sex discrimination. No matter what form sexual
discrimination takes -- unequal pay, discriminatory job standards, or failure to
promote -- federal law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.
But what about protections for those people, who don’t identify with their birth sex,
are they too protected under sex discrimination? The appropriate term for this is
gender identity. Gender identity is when you don’t identify with your birth sex and as
of the writing of this text gender identity is not a federally protected class like race
and sex. However, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) takes the
position that it will entertain charges of discrimination asserting gender identity
discrimination and retaliation claims on the basis that such complaints are cognizable
under the sex discrimination prohibition of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Relying on the Supreme Court’s decision in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989), the
EEOC has reasoned that the term “sex” in Title VII encompasses both the biological
differences between men and women, and gender. Thus, Title VII’s prohibition on
sex discrimination also proscribes gender discrimination or sex stereotyping, which
can be defined as any time an employer treats an employee differently for failing to
conform to any gender-based expectations.
For instance, in Veretto v. U.S. Postal Service (2011), the charging party alleged that
a coworker continuously made derogatory remarks about his sexual orientation and
attacked him after learning that he intended to marry his male partner. The Postal
Service ("the Agency") dismissed the complaint on the ground that sexual orientation
discrimination is not prohibited by Title VII. However, this decision was reversed,
ruling that the EEOC has jurisdiction under a sexual stereotyping theory to
investigate whether the claim has merit. The EEOC found that the charging party had
sufficiently alleged a plausible sex stereotyping case where the coworker’s attack
was motivated by the sexual stereotyping that a man should marry a woman.
The EEOC will also consider discrimination against an individual because that person
is transgender (a term referring to when one's gender and sex are not always or
ever equivalent and often used as a referrant to the person themselves) due to sex
which is in violation of Title VII. This is also known as gender identity discrimination.
In addition, lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals may bring sex discrimination
claims. These may include, for example, allegations of sexual harassment or other
kinds of sex discrimination, such as adverse actions taken because of the person's
non-conformance with sex-stereotypes. Title VII’s broad prohibitions against sex
discrimination specifically cover:
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 35
Sexual Harassment which includes practices ranging from direct requests
for sexual favors to workplace conditions that, create a hostile environment
for persons of either gender.
Pregnancy Based Discrimination which includes pregnancy, childbirth, and
related medical conditions and must be treated in the same way as other
temporary illnesses or conditions.
Sexual Harassment
There are basically two requirements for sexual harassment to be prevalent,
unwelcome conduct and incidents of a sexual nature.
Unwelcome Conduct
This conduct is unsolicited meaning the victim has done nothing to incite it and
the victim views the conduct as undesirable or offensive. By undesirable, the
courts have declared that there is a clear distinction between conduct that is
voluntary and that which is unwelcome. A central inquiry of investigations should
be whether the alleged harassing activity was unwelcome rather than involuntary
and how the parties should have known that. A party may voluntarily be involved
in sexual acts even though they don’t want to be, solely out of fear of losing
their job. This would be an example of unwelcome behavior.
Sexual Nature
Some common examples of sexually harassing conduct that’s of a sexual nature
are: Sexual propositions
Comments on the sexual areas of a body
Dirty pictures or jokes of nude or sexually suggestive individuals
Sexually oriented cartoons
Other physical or verbal conduct
The requirement can also be fulfilled through nonsexual verbal and physical
behavior caused by the gender of the individual being harassed. An example of
this is in the case of Hall v. Leus Construction Company (1993), here three female
plaintiffs were subjected to conduct designed to make their work life difficult and
to let them know that women were not welcome on the job site. A few of these
acts were as follows: the men involved in the suit urinated in the gas tank of one
of the plaintiffs car, they had locked the door of the restroom at the job site and
had refused to stop on the road so the plaintiff could go to the
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 36
bathroom letting a dangerous condition persist in the plaintiff’s truck until a male employee
needed to stop to use the restroom. While these acts were not sexual comments or nude
displays, they were still sexual in nature because they were based upon the sex of the victim.
When someone has a potential sexual harassment case, there are two ways to make
the claim:
1) Quid Pro Quo
2) Hostile Environment
Quid Pro Quo
This claim requires showing of unwelcome activity of a sexual nature in exchange for tangible
job benefits (“this for that”) or it is also the loss of tangible job benefits owing to the
rejection of such activity. This is fundamentally, an abuse of supervisory power.
To establish quid pro quo sexual harassment it is necessary to prove:
1. The person was a member of a protected class (group named in a law as protected from
discrimination.) Some protected classes include race, gender, age and religion. 2. The person was subjected to unwelcome harassment.
3. The harassment was based on sex.
4. The person’s reaction to the harassment affected tangible aspects of her or his
compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment.
Hostile Environment
This claim requires showing of frequent, nontrivial acts of a sexual nature that have created the
effect of a hostile, offensive or intimidating working atmosphere. No money damages are
required to be shown. To prove this, it is necessary to show the following:
1. The harassment was unwelcome.
2. The harassment was based on membership in a protected class.
3. The harassment was sufficiently severe or pervasive to create an abusive working
environment.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 37
4. The employer had actual knowledge or constructive knowledge of the
environment but took no prompt and remedial action.
The Supreme Court has set two conditions as the standard for evaluating
whether or not a working environment is “hostile”:
1. A reasonable person* would find the environment hostile or abusive.
2. The victim subjectively perceives the environment to be abusive.
*In its decision on hostile environment sexual harassment cases, the
Supreme Court has not directly addressed the question of whose viewpoint should
be used in assessing the work environment. The Court has not ruled that
decisions should be made from the perspective of the victim or the accused.
Instead, they have the used the reasonable person viewpoint.
Men & Sexual Harassment
According to Julie Crane, a California Attorney at Law, more men are suing for
sexual harassment. Based on cases taken to trial there have been situations
where male employees cite sexual harassment because their male co-workers use
vulgar language constantly, make lewd jokes and sometimes teasingly grab at
their genitals. While this may sound like the kind of horseplay that goes on in a
typical high school locker room, as a manager be assured that you can not just
chose to ignore it. This employee who is the victim of this behavior could (as
some have done) file a claim for sexual harassment with the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC), and if he is as successful as the claimants in
one recent case, he could receive a settlement of $500,000.
The EEOC in the year 2000 stated that men filed 13.5 percent of all the
sexual harassment claims, twice as many as they filed in 1992. The majority of
these charges involve harassment by other men.
Pregnancy Discrimination
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act is an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964. It states that women affected by pregnancy or related conditions
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 38
must be treated in the same manner as other applicants or employees with similar
abilities or limitations.
An employer cannot refuse to hire a woman because of her pregnancy
related condition as long as she is able to perform the major functions of her job. An
employer cannot refuse to hire her because of its prejudices against pregnant
workers or the prejudices of co-workers, clients or customers.
An employer may not also single out pregnancy related conditions for
special procedures to determine an employee’s ability to work. However, an
employer may use any procedure used to screen other employees’ ability to work. In
addition, pregnant employees must be permitted to work as long as they are able
to perform their jobs. Employers must hold open a job for the same length of time
for a pregnancy related absence as jobs are held open for employees on sick or
disability leave.
Religious Discrimination
Title VII prohibits employers from discriminating against individuals because of
their religion in hiring, firing, and other terms and conditions of employment. The Act
also requires employers to reasonably accommodate the religious practices of an
employee or prospective employee, unless to do so would create an undue
hardship upon the employer. Flexible scheduling, voluntary substitutions or swaps,
job reassignments and lateral transfer are examples of accommodating an
employee’s religious beliefs.
Employers cannot schedule examinations or other selection activities in
conflict with a current or prospective employee’s religious needs, inquire about an
applicant’s future availability at certain times, maintain a restrictive dress code, or
refuse to allow observance of a Sabbath or religious holiday, unless the employer
can prove that not doing so would cause an undue hardship.
An employer can claim undue hardship when accommodating an employee’s
religious practices if allowing such practices requires more than ordinary
administrative costs. Undue hardship also may be shown if changing a bona fide
seniority system to accommodate one employee’s religious practices denies
another employee the job or shift preference guaranteed by the seniority system. An
employee whose religious practices prohibit payment of union dues to a labor
organization cannot be required to pay the dues, but may pay an equal
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 39
sum to a charitable organization. Mandatory “new age” training programs,
designed to improve employee motivation, cooperation or productivity through
meditation, yoga, biofeedback or other practices, may conflict with the non-
discriminatory provisions of Title VII. Employers must accommodate any
employee who gives notice that these programs are inconsistent with the
employee’s religious beliefs, whether or not the employer believes there is a
religious basis for the employee’s objection.
As you have seen Title VII guarantees protection against discrimination in
employment on the basis of race and ethnicity, color, religion, sex and national
origin. It then was later amended to include disability. When the first civil rights
bill to follow the U.S. civil war was debated in Congress, it was criticized for
granting “special rights” to African Americans despite African Americans not seen
as “human” but only as property during the slave era. When the Civil Rights Act
was debated in 1964, it was criticized on the basis that it would destroy the
economic viability of companies and attack individual freedom of choice in hiring.
These laws really create more competition in the workplace and seeks to eliminate
entitlement that was provided to certain groups in society. Yet, despite these
objections it passed anyway and applies to companies with more than 15
employees.
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)
Age Discrimination
ADEA protects individuals who are 40 years of age or older from employment
discrimination based on age. The ADEA's protections apply to both employees and
job applicants. Under the ADEA, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person
because of his/her age with respect to any term, condition, or privilege of
employment -- including, but not limited to, hiring, firing, promotion, layoff,
compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training.
It is also unlawful to retaliate against an individual for opposing
employment practices that discriminate based on age or for filing an age
discrimination charge, testifying, or participating in any way in an investigation,
proceeding, or litigation under the ADEA.
The ADEA applies to employers with 20 or more employees, including state
and local governments. It also applies to employment agencies and to labor organizations, as well as to the federal government.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 40
APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAMS
It is generally unlawful for apprenticeship programs, including joint labor-
management apprenticeship programs, to discriminate on the basis of an individual's
age. Age limitations in apprenticeship programs are valid only if they fall within
certain specific exceptions under the ADEA or if the EEOC grants a specific
exemption.
JOB NOTICES AND ADVERTISEMENTS
The ADEA makes it unlawful to include age preferences, limitations, or specifications
in job notices or advertisements. As a narrow exception to that general rule, a job
notice or advertisement may specify an age limit in the rare circumstances where
age is shown to be a "bona fide occupational qualification" (BFOQ) reasonably
necessary to the essence of the business.
PRE-EMPLOYMENT INQUIRIES
The ADEA does not specifically prohibit an employer from asking an applicant's
age or date of birth. However, because such inquiries may deter older workers
from applying for employment or may otherwise indicate possible intent to
discriminate based on age, requests for age information will be closely scrutinized to
make sure that the inquiry was made for a lawful purpose, rather than for a
purpose prohibited by the ADEA.
BENEFITS
The Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 (OWBPA) amended the ADEA to
specifically prohibit employers from denying benefits to older employees. An
employer may reduce benefits based on age only if the cost of providing the
reduced benefits to older workers is the same as the cost of providing benefits to
younger workers.
WAIVERS OF ADEA RIGHTS
At an employer's request, an individual may agree to waive his/her rights or
claims under the ADEA. However, the ADEA, as amended by OWBPA, sets out
specific minimum standards that must be met in order for a waiver to be considered
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 41
knowing and voluntary and, therefore, valid. Among other
requirements, a valid ADEA waiver:
(1) must be in writing and be understandable;
(2) must specifically refer to ADEA rights or claims;
(3) may not waive rights or claims that may arise in the future;
(4) must be in exchange for valuable consideration;
(5) must advise the individual in writing to consult an attorney before signing
the waiver; and
(6) must provide the individual at least 21 days to consider the agreement and at
least 7 days to revoke the agreement after signing it. In addition, if an
employer requests an ADEA waiver in connection with an exit incentive
program or other employment termination program, the minimum
requirements for a valid waiver are more extensive.
Titles I and V of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Disabled Discrimination
The ADA prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in all employment
practices. It is necessary to understand several important ADA definitions to know
who is protected by the law and what constitutes illegal discrimination:
Individual with a Disability
An individual with a disability under the ADA is a person who has a physical
or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities, has a record of such an impairment, or is regarded as having
such an impairment. Major life activities are activities that an average
person can perform with little or no difficulty such as walking, breathing,
seeing, hearing, speaking, learning, and working.
Qualified Individual with a Disability
A qualified employee or applicant with a disability is someone who satisfies
skill, experience, education, and other job-related requirements of the
position held or desired, and who, with or without reasonable
accommodation, can perform the essential functions of that position.
Reasonable Accommodation
Reasonable accommodation may include, but is not limited to, making
existing facilities used by employees readily accessible to and usable by
persons with disabilities; job restructuring; modification of work schedules;
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 42
providing additional unpaid leave; reassignment to a vacant position; acquiring or
modifying equipment or devices; adjusting or modifying examinations, training
materials, or policies; and providing qualified readers or interpreters. Reasonable
accommodation may be necessary to apply for a job, to perform job functions,
or to enjoy the benefits and privileges of employment that are enjoyed by people
without disabilities. An employer is not required to lower production standards to
make an accommodation. An employer generally is not obligated to provide personal
use items such as eyeglasses or hearing aids.
Undue Hardship
An employer is required to make a reasonable accommodation to a qualified
individual with a disability unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the
operation of the employer's business. Undue hardship means an action that
requires significant difficulty or expense when considered in relation to factors such
as a business' size, financial resources, and the nature and structure of its operation.
Prohibited Inquiries and Examinations
Before making an offer of employment, an employer may not ask job
applicants about the existence, nature, or severity of a disability. Applicants may be
asked about their ability to perform job functions. A job offer may be conditioned on
the results of a medical examination, but only if the examination is required for all
entering employees in the same job category. Medical examinations of employees
must be job-related and consistent with business necessity.
Drug and Alcohol Use
Employees and applicants currently engaging in the illegal use of drugs are not
protected by the ADA when an employer acts on the basis of such use. Tests for
illegal use of drugs are not considered medical examinations and, therefore, are not
subject to the ADA's restrictions on medical examinations. Employers may hold
individuals who are illegally using drugs and individuals with alcoholism to the same
standards of performance as other employees.
Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA)
Unequal Pay Nearly fifty years ago, President Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act (EPA) into law,
making it illegal for employers to pay unequal wages to men and women who
perform substantially equal work. At the time of the EPA’s passage in 1963, women
earned merely 59 cents to every dollar earned by men. While
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 43
improvement has been made, women still are paid 78 cents to the dollar for
what men earn doing the same or comparable work.
The Equal Pay Act requires that men and women be given equal pay for equal
work in the same establishment. The jobs need not be identical, but they must be
substantially equal. It is job content, not job titles, that determines whether jobs
are substantially equal. Specifically, the EPA provides: Employers may not pay
unequal wages to men and women who perform jobs that require substantially
equal skill, effort and responsibility, and that are performed under similar
working conditions within the same establishment. Each of these factors is
summarized below (taken from The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission Website):
Skill - Measured by factors such as the experience, ability, education, and
training required to perform the job. The key issue is what skills are required for
the job, not what skills the individual employees may have. For example, two
bookkeeping jobs could be considered equal under the EPA even if one of the job
holders has a master's degree in physics, since that degree would not be required
for the job.
Effort - The amount of physical or mental exertion needed to perform the
job. For example, suppose that men and women work side by side on a line
assembling machine parts. The person at the end of the line must also lift the
assembled product as he or she completes the work and place it on a board. That
job requires more effort than the other assembly line jobs if the extra effort of
lifting the assembled product off the line is substantial and is a regular part of the
job. As a result, it would not be a violation to pay that person more, regardless of
whether the job is held by a man or a woman.
Responsibility - The degree of accountability required in performing the
job. For example, a salesperson who is delegated the duty of determining whether
to accept customers' personal checks has more responsibility than other
salespeople. On the other hand, a minor difference in responsibility, such as
turning out the lights at the end of the day, would not justify a pay differential.
Working Conditions - This encompasses two factors:
(1) physical surroundings like temperature, fumes, and ventilation; and
(2) hazards.
Establishment - The prohibition against compensation discrimination under
the EPA applies only to jobs within an establishment. An establishment is
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 44
a distinct physical place of business rather than an entire business or enterprise
consisting of several places of business. However, in some circumstances, physically
separate places of business should be treated as one establishment. For example, if
a central administrative unit hires employees, sets their compensation, and assigns
them to work locations, the separate work sites can be considered part of one
establishment.
Pay differentials are permitted when they are based on seniority, merit, quantity
or quality of production, or a factor other than sex. These are known as "affirmative
defenses" and it is the employer's burden to prove that they apply. Furthermore,
in correcting a pay differential, no employee's pay may be reduced. Instead, the pay
of the lower paid employee(s) must be increased.
In addition to the EPA, on January 29, 2009, President Obama signed the Lilly
Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009. The Act overturned the Supreme Court
decision in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.(2007), which had severely
limited workers' ability to vindicate their rights under federal anti-discrimination laws
that prohibit pay discrimination. In Ledbetter, the Court held that employers could
not be sued for pay discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 if
the employer's original discriminatory pay decision occurred more than 180 days
before the employee initiated her claim. With the privacy of wage of information
which makes it hard to (quickly) determine if pay inequality exists, the laws have
seemed to favor the employer.
Since January 2009, courts around the country have applied the Lilly Ledbetter Fair
Pay Act as Congress intended for straightforward pay discrimination cases. In cases
involving pay discrimination based on sex, race, disability, and age, courts have
recognized that the period during which a worker may file a discrimination claim
is renewed by each paycheck marred by discrimination. But, not all courts have
interpreted the Act the same. If further progress is to be made toward equal pay
many feel it will not happen unless the Paycheck Fairness Act is adopted.
The Paycheck Fairness Act, introduced in both the House (H.R. 377) and the
Senate (S. 84) many proponents feel will update and strengthen the EPA in
important ways, including:
Toughens the remedy provisions of the EPA by allowing prevailing plaintiffs to
recover compensatory and punitive damages. The EPA currently provides only for
liquidated damages and back pay awards, which tend to be insubstantial. The
change would put
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 45
gender based wage discrimination on an equal footing with
discrimination based on race or ethnicity.
Prohibits employers from punishing employees for sharing salary
information with their coworkers as it stands employers can prevent
employees from sharing wage/salary information. This change
would greatly enhance employees’ ability to learn about wage
disparities.
Eliminates an employer’s loophole where under the EPA.
Currently, when an employer is found to be paying female
employees less than male employees for equal work, the employer
may use the defense that the pay differential is due to something
other than sex.
The EPA which was adopted prior to the current federal class action
rule requires plaintiffs to opt in to a suit. Otherwise, if other parties
have been damaged unknowingly if they are not part of the suit it
cannot be a class action. This new law would allow for class action
suits.
The Paycheck Fairness Act has been introduced twice to Congress in 2010
and 2012 and has failed twice.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination
Neither the civil rights act nor the federal EEO law provides protection on the
basis of sexual orientation (who a person loves). However, Executive Order
11478, as amended; Department Administration Order 215-11; and the
Department’s non- discrimination policy prohibit such discrimination. It is also a
prohibited personnel practice under the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978. The
Department of Commerce has a complaint process for sexual orientation
discrimination.
Furthermore, a bill was introduced into the U.S. congress in the mid
1970’s, which would do for gays and lesbians what various civil rights bills had
done for African-Americans, women and others. It went nowhere. In 1994, a
stripped down version of the bill was introduced to Congress; it had limited range,
guaranteeing only freedom from discrimination in employment. It was called the
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 46
Employment Non-Discrimination Act or ENDA. President Clinton supported
this bill in 1995. He said, “If the bill were passed, it would guarantee that all
Americans, regardless of their sexual orientation, can find and keep their jobs based
on their ability to work and the quality of their work.” It was also supported by: the
Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, by many large corporations (AT&T,
Eastman Kodak, Microsoft, RJR Nabisco, Quaker Oats, and Xerox), and by many
religious organizations, including the National Council of Churches, National
Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice, Southern Christian Leadership
Conference, and the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. Yet, despite the
obvious support this bill still has not passed.
As the workforce becomes more and more diverse, sexual orientation (who you love)
and gender identity (the sex you identify with) have become very hot topics in
discussions regarding employee rights despite neither being a federally protected
class. At last count (as of the writing of this text), however, 32 states, including the
District of Columbia, have passed laws prohibiting employment discrimination based
on sexual orientation and/or gender identity. While federal government employees
and contractors enjoy similar protections, Congress has yet to expand the statutorily
protected classes of race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, disability, and
genetic information to include sexual orientation and gender identity for the millions
of private sector employees in the United States.
The ENDA is again before the United States Congress proposing legislation that
would prohibit private employers with more than 15 employees from discriminating
on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. ENDA would exempt religious
organizations and non-profit, membership-only clubs — except labor unions — from
coverage. Since its inception in 1994, a number of versions of ENDA have been
introduced in Congress. The latest version of the bill was introduced in the 113th
Congress on April 25, 2013, but it failed to pass the House of Representatives
Subcommittee.
While Congress has been slow and reluctant to include sexual orientation and gender
identity as protected classes in employment discrimination, the executive branch has
spurred ahead in providing protection from such employment discrimination to
federal employees and contractors.
Concluding Thoughts
After reviewing the laws surrounding equal opportunity one should realize
that the protected classes mentioned above have rights that must be adhered to in
the workplace. Every manager is responsible for abiding by these laws whether
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 47
trained in EEO laws or not. When someone in a protected class workplace
rights have been violated due to discrimination there is the possibility that the
worker may not only take the issue to upper management, but could also sue the
organization if not resolved.
It takes time to be a walking expert when it comes to abiding by the laws.
However, if you have an open mind, accurate cultural knowledge, and few
prejudices then it becomes easier to treat people as expected in accordance with
these laws. When you have biases (conscious and unconscious), along with
stereotypes that flood your viewpoints and are not open minded it can make it
difficult to provide equal opportunity in the workplace despite what the laws say to
do.
End of Chapter Questions
1. What is the difference between race and color discrimination?
2. What races are protected classes under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964?
3. What is sex discrimination? Under what circumstances can a transgender or gay,
lesbian or homosexual use this protection?
4. As it relates to sexual harassment, what is the difference between quid pro quo
and hostile environment?
5. What is the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation and are
these federally protected classes? Could these groups be protected by state or
local laws?
6. Jim is telling racial and religious jokes to his lunch buddy Jason and Mike over
hears him. If Mike tells the boss about these inappropriate jokes wanting them to
stop and the boss does basically nothing to stop it, would this be considered a
hostile environment? If yes, why. If no, why not.
7. What age group of employees is covered under the ADEA? Why in your opinion
would this age group need protecting from discrimination?
8. ADA stands for what? What protections does the ADA provide to the disabled?
9. As it relates to Disability, define the terms: undue hardship and individual with
disability?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 48
End of Chapter Exercise
For each of the following examples (a-f) state WHAT federal discrimination law is
violated if any and why you felt it was or was not considered discrimination according
to the laws.
a. A disabled employee asks for days off for doctor visits and is denied this request,
without any reason given.
b. Woman is demoted from management after her supervisor finds out she is
pregnant.
c. White male is harassed at work for being married to an Asian woman.
d. A female flight attendant who is Arab must wear a hijab, religious head covering,
this is not part of the uniform and she is fired.
e. A man is a crossdresser and comes to work in a dress and is fired and asked not
to return.
f. A woman is interviewing at a trendy clothing store and she is told she is not the
appropriate weight for the position of sales staff but could be hired to do the
inventory.
g. An advertising agency has a pattern of only hiring “lighter” skinned African
Americans, a darker skinned African American applied who was clearly qualified
yet was denied employment.
Internet Exercise
Part A: Using the Internet or www.google.com find three companies that have
settled discrimination lawsuits in the last two years and indicate the following for
each company:
1. Company Name
2. Year Lawsuit was settled
3. Who were the plaintiffs (people bringing the complaint)
4. Why the company was sued
5. How much they settled for
Part B: Now answer the following questions:
(1) Why is the burden of proof on the plaintiff?
(2) How easy do you think it is for an individual to win a discrimination case against
a corporation?
(3) What does the individual bringing the case stand to lose?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 49
Search Key Words: Discrimination lawsuits settled or Race discrimination lawsuits settled,
Religious discrimination lawsuits settled, Age discrimination lawsuits settled or Sex
discrimination lawsuits settled, etc. If you add the year it should also provide you with
recent settlements
Managing Workplace Diversity | Civil Rights Laws 50
References
1. United States Government Agencies and Organizations. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.west.asu.edu/jbuenke/government/
2. Ibid. 3. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission website. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/
4. Ibid.
5. EEO Laws and Regulations. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.eeolaw.org/law.html
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 51
Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS
“If you're going to hold someone down you're going to have to hold on by the
other end of the chain. You are confined by your own repression.”
— Toni Morrison
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 52
UNDERSTANDING THE ISMS
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
explain the workplace consequences for anti-fat bias.
define ageism and the generational characteristics of the U.S.
understand LGBTQ and its workplace implications.
comprehend the facts surrounding sexual orientation.
learn how to effectively address transgenderism in the
workplace
explain why all people have the right to work free of harassment and discrimination.
determine what classism stands for and how this issue relates to
workplace diversity.
Chapter Three
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 53
ANTI-FAT BIAS
Anti-fat bias is the discrimination or prejudice based on a person's weight. It is
generally seen as weight bias that can transcend to the workplace. According to
authors Puhl and Brownell (2001), obese individuals are highly stigmatized and
face multiple forms of prejudice and discrimination because of their weight. The
prevalence of weight discrimination in the United States has increased by 66%
over the past decade and is found to impact more women than men.
Weight bias can come from stereotypes that people or organizations have
about obese people defined as grossly overweight persons by societal standards.
Some stereotypes that follow overweight individuals are that they are lazy;
they lack self-control or self-discipline, are not competent, but are sloppy and
unorganized. However, this perspective does not coincide with medical research.
The old school portrayal that obesity is just a psychological problem, a simple
matter of self-discipline: “Just eat less and exercise more” is not the new
understanding of obesity which sees it as a dysregulation of energy. The American
Medical Association officially recognized obesity as a disease in June 2013,
following the World Health Organization and other medical authorities.
Yet, the stereotypes surrounding weight are prevalent and can result in anti-fat
bias that severely impacts an overweight person’s quality of work life and
workplace opportunities. In their 2001 review, Puhl and Brownell summarized
research documenting weight-based prejudice and discrimination in employment
settings indicating that overweight and what they define as obese workers face
stereotypical attitudes from employers and disadvantages in hiring, wages,
promotions, and job termination because of their weight. A growing body of
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 54
Research bears out those accounts of weight-based bias. Forty-three percent of
overweight and obese people say they’ve experienced bias against them by their
bosses, one study found. Another calculated that severely obese White women tend
to earn 24 percent less than their normal-weight co-workers. According to the
Council on Size and Weight Discrimination workers who are heavier than average are
paid $1.25 less an hour. Over a 40-year career, they will earn up to $100,000 less
before taxes than their thinner counterparts (Baum, 2004).
As Lewis Maltby reports in his book Can They Do That? “a 2009 survey of two
thousand employers found that 93 percent of them would choose an applicant of
‘normal weight’ over an equally qualified applicant who was obese.” A 2012
HealthDay poll found that 52 percent of obese or morbidly obese people think their
employers have discriminated against them. While a 2008 Yale study found that 40
percent of those who reported a body-mass index of 35 or higher experienced weight
discrimination and that much of that prejudice manifested itself at work. Nationwide,
weight discrimination increased between 1995 and 2005, with 60 percent of
American adults surveyed reporting at least one occurrence of employment-based
discrimination. In most studies, women reported higher levels of prejudice than men.
Yet despite these types of findings, weight discrimination is not a protected
class. In 2013, the anti-weight discrimination bill was introduced in Utah, and it was
voted down 10-four in a committee where it sparked a lot of discussion, and some
laughs according to public documents. Massachusetts state representative Byron
Rushing, of Boston’s South End, has introduced similar legislation in every session
for the last 15 years. The bill finally made it out of committee in autumn of 2013 by
a seven to one vote. Despite that victory, Rushing’s office says it is on the legislative
“calendar,” but there is no indication of when (or if) the full legislature will vote on it.
As of the writing of this text, there are only six cities in the U.S., and one state —
Michigan — where weight discrimination is against the law.
The fight for Michigan’s protections wasn’t without controversy as the bill
passed in an era when gendered help-wanted signs were common and height and
weight restrictions were basically used to keep women and other marginalized
groups from jobs as, say, firefighters or police officers.
The legislation has not come very far with laws against weight discrimination.
However, despite the laws not protecting against this type of discrimination it does
not preclude organizations from adopting policies that eliminate this type of
prejudicial attitudes particularly since two-thirds of U.S. adults are overweight or
obese (Flegal et al., 2012).
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AGEISM
In 1900, almost 70 percent of American men aged sixty-five and older were
gainfully employed or seeking employment. In the 1990s, only 2.8 percent of the
labor force (both men and women) was over sixty-five. This may partly be due to
the myths that surround older workers. The systematized stereotyping of and
discrimination against people because they are “old” is what is referred to as
ageism.
The aged are often stereotypically described as slow, tired, ill, forgetful,
defensive, withdrawn, and unhappier than younger people. The theme around
older people is one of loss. Loss of hearing, sex drive, loved ones etc… But, again
these are all myths that are unfairly attributed to aging. The truth is those who
believe these myths unfortunately know very little about “healthy” aging.
Common sense and myths say we grow old because we wear out, but actually no
wear and tear theory of aging exists.1
Let’s discuss a few of the other myths associated with older workers.
Myth One: Elders are often frail and ill.
Fact One: Harkness (1999) states that “the reality is that society, the
media, and physicians—even gerontologists—have focused on the
6 to 15 percent of elders who are frail and ill.”2
Myth Two: Elders have a loss of sexual desire.
Fact Two: Regarding the sexual decline of seniors, Bortz (1991) reports on a
1984 study by Edward Brecher titled “Love, Sex and Aging” and
states that among the 4,246 participants, who ranged in age from
fifty to ninety-three, the study found that the following percentages
of people were sexually active3:
93 percent of women and 98 percent of men in their fifties
81 percent of women and 91 percent of men in their sixties
65 percent of women and 79 percent of men in their
seventies
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Myth Three: Elders experience a loss of productivity and creativity
Fact Three: Birren in a 1990 study of scientific publications of people in varying age
groups, no one age was found to be the most productive, thus supporting the
conclusion that age cannot be used as surrogate criterion for creativity and
productivity.4
The above myths and facts from the 1990s have not changed. Even today
there are still those who have a fear of old age and death, reinforced by ageism
allowing the younger generation to see older people as low-grade beings.5 But, the
young don’t realize that they are just setting in motion their own negative conditions
in later life. The young if lucky to live long may become a victim of their own
stereotypical belief systems.
These stereotypes no doubt contribute to age discrimination. Age
discrimination is often subtle but despite this subtlety causes workplace issues. A
lack of opportunities and a lack of promotions along with forced retirement are
just a few of these issues.
In order to guard against the ill fates that can occur to older workers, there
have been several laws enacted for their protection. The Age Discrimination in
Employment Act (ADEA) was passed in 1967 and became effective June 1968. The
purpose of ADEA is to promote employment of older people age 40 and older based
on their ability rather than age; to prohibit arbitrary age discrimination in
employment; and to help employers and workers find ways to solve problems arising
from the impact of age on employment.6
There was an amendment to ADEA, which rendered legally unenforceable
most mandatory retirement policies for people up to age seventy. Mandatory
retirement after age 70 was abolished in a 1986 amendment to the ADEA.7 Some
other important Acts are as follows: The ERISA (Employee Retirement Income
Security Act) gives greater protection for pension plans. The 1990 Older Workers
Benefits Protection Act (OWBPA) effective in 1991 provides additional safeguards
against employers pressuring workers to accept early retirement.
Understanding that it is not age but ability that affects what a worker can or
can’t do—goes a long way towards addressing age discrimination.
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Why hire "older" workers?
Older workers are experienced in many cases and can have motivators that drive
them to succeed.8 Some older workers who had children later in life may still have
children in college which is cost that would need funding. Also, along with that
motivation comes seriously focused workers with fewer distractions than some
younger workers.9 However, the point is not to pit younger workers against older
workers but to show that every worker regardless of age has some advantage to
offer the workplace.
While some older workers may retire after a primary career, many workers
in this group continue to work full-time or take contract and consulting roles to
strengthen their own financial positions. They’re looking at adding a few more
years to their pensions, paying off mortgages and helping children purchase their
own homes. Recruiters indicate that some companies still illegally but secretly
acknowledge they simply want a younger applicant. It’s stated as a preference,
but often companies are not examining their biases and the changing employment
outlook so positions go unfilled and there’s still reluctance to hiring older
candidates.10
Not all employers feel this way. Those that don't have biases against older
workers see the value in hiring this group and have found tremendous success in hiring what is referred to as an under-utilized workforce.
Generational Workforce Issues
While there are clearly benefits to having older workers, there are some issues
that result from younger and older employees working side by side. Currently, the
workforce is made up of at least four generations:
The World War II Veterans or Traditionalists,
Baby Boomers,
Generation X, and
Generation Y
Each with its own beliefs, motivations and work ethics.
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Never before in the history of the workforce has a variety of generations
existed with so many massive differences between them, the following chart
illustrates some of these differences. Information for Table 1: Generational
Characteristics of the U.S. Population is taken from American Management
Association and University of Phoenix Generational Study and is based on general
characteristics of the population. However said characteristics are not applicable to
all of the described populations in question.
Table 1: Generational Characteristics of the U.S. Population11
Companies are recognizing that leveraging the strengths of the above
generations is a powerful competitive edge. In order to get everyone working
together towards one goal, it is important to first understand the historical and social
circumstances that shaped each group’s work ethic, and then decipher what their
strengths and weaknesses are.
GENERATION BORN AGE NOW BELIEFS MOTIVATIONS
WWII 1928- 1946
70’s and 80’s Absolutes, Security, Strong Work Ethic, Team Players
Country/Patriotism Advancement Responsibility
Baby Boomers
1946- 1964
50’s and 60’s Few Absolutes, Variety Freedom
Individuality Achievement Relatable
Generation X 1965- 1980
Late 30’s, 40’s & early 50’s
No Absolutes, Lifestyle Concerns, Fun
Own Community Self Discovery Relational Independent Informal Generation Y 1981-
2001 20’s and 30’s No Absolutes,
Lifestyle Concerns, Fun
Own Community Self Discovery Relational Cultural Diversity
Traditionalists & WWII
Let's begin with the oldest generation; the Traditionalists also nicknamed the
"Greatest Generation." The Great Depression and both World Wars forced this
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 59
generation to make great sacrifices in order to flourish. They have been perceived
as having one of the strongest work ethics of any generation and they possess a
fierce loyalty to the company they are employed with.12 Traditionalists and WWII
Veterans also have a rigid respect of authority and rules, therefore, typically do
not rock the boat. This generation took pride in motherhood and was almost
always available at home to raise the children.
Baby Boomers
The Baby Boomer generation became the center of attention due to their
traditionalist’s parent’s beliefs. However, enduring many cultural changes also
influenced this generation to redefine the rules of the Traditionalists especially
when it came to family roles.13 The divorce rate increased dramatically. Although
still influenced with the strong work ethic of their parents, Baby Boomers became
driven achievers in their careers. Their perception of success has often been
defined through material gains. This driven work ethic caused the Boomer's
presence at home to be more vacant resulting in their children, Generation X's
ability to become unusually self-reliant and extremely adept at multi-tasking.
Generation Xers
Xers were the popular latchkey children who often took care of themselves after
school.14 Their free time was filled talking on the phone and online, resulting in a
lack of face to face social skills that their parents had. Witnessing their parents
being laid off because of mergers, acquisitions, and cutbacks; their sense of
security in the workplace was shaken and influenced them to approach life with a
greater sense of balance between work and home. Often they refuse to have
anything interfere with their fun and adventure, therefore, marriage and children
are delayed.
Generation Yers
The newer members of the workforce Generation Y have been the most protected
from economic downturn until now—when they are graduating college.15 They
face higher social pressures than the previous generations and the pressure to
excel in school has dramatically increased for them. The majority of this
generation has endured the most divorces and is often raised by one
parent.16 They are accustomed to being an active member in making family
related decisions and expect to contribute to decisions within the company as
well. For these reasons, they will be the most likely generation to rock the boat
like never before. Growing up during the boom of the Internet, they are a
technically proficient generation, highly intelligent, and confident.17
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When it comes to these groups working together they each must acknowledge that
each group’s work ethic brings something different and valuable to the workplace.
When it comes to management of these various age groups there is one
consistent factor that all generations accept—the value of transferring their skills to
another industry or job function. Therefore, companies should offer career
advancement and development opportunities for all of the generations.
Programs That Appeal to All Generations
Programs that deal with flexibility and work life often appeal across generations. Following are programs found to be of interest to all ages of workers.
Rethink retirement plans.
By shortening the vesting time of a retirement program it allows for career mobility
which could be a benefit for employees who may not be employed long due to
entering the workforce later or those looking for flexible careers.
Flexible work schedule.
It allows employees to vary their arrival and/or departure times from the normal 9 to
5 work day. For those who have family or personal needs to attend, this can be a great benefit.
Create a career pattern.
Some employees are not seeking to advance to management but instead would
like to try different options within the organization.18 By having career opportunities
that focus on learning new skills and building expertise with promotion possibilities
provides additional incentives to those not seeking to climb the corporate ladder.
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Telecommuting/Home Computers.
Having laptops available or computers to purchase through a loan program can facilitate telecommuting options for employees who desire to work at home, thus providing flexible work options.
Employee assistance program.
When employers offer this as a benefit it shows a commitment to the emotional
and physical well-being of its employees and their families. This free service can
be of help to employees during their time of need which can occur regardless of
age.
Floating holidays.
Floating holidays is an incentive that promotes the cultural diversity of the workplace.
Performance-based pay and Merit pay.
These are pay systems that allow for hard work and efficiency to be rewarded.
Performance based pay often gives a lump sum bonus whereas merit pay can
be an adjustment to the employee's salary base. Both of these compliment an
employee for a job well done.
Workplace Culture and Communication.
Having a workplace climate or environment that supports the uniqueness in
individuals and allow for freedom and expression of thought as well as various
communication options including feedback, are some motivators that are
nonmonetary and often meet the needs of employees regardless of age.
The above are just a few examples that can work toward motivating workers of all
ages. Companies that want to hire and retain the best employees must realize
that this has very little to do with age, but instead there needs to be a good
match between the position and the employee. Retaining good employees also
has a lot to do with the workplace environment through the offering of benefits,
addressing older worker stereotypes and generating a work environment that is
appealing to members of each generation.
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Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer & Questioning, Intersex, Asexual (LGBTQIA) in the Workplace
When most people see the acronym "LGBTQIA" they can be often certain what the
first four letters stand for. "L," of course, stands for "lesbian;" "G" is for gay; "B"
stands for "bisexual" and "T" means "transgender." In case, this terminology is
new to you we will begin this discussion by understanding what it means to be
homosexual/gay or lesbian. Being homosexual/gay or lesbian is when a person is
sexually attracted and drawn to members of one's own sex.19 The only basis for
deciding whether one is or is not gay/lesbian is a continuing sexual preference for
partners of the same sex.
The key here is a continued preference. Some people think that just one sexual
act toward the same sex, makes a person gay/lesbian. But, numerous boys and girls
during early childhood and adolescence have homosexual experiences without
lasting effects.20 Also, under special circumstances, such as military service and
prison life, homosexual behavior sometimes occurs on a temporary basis. While
some would like to ignore the different sexual orientations that exist in the world,
several authorities have estimated that perhaps one out of every ten adults could be
classified as homosexual/gay or lesbian translating to millions.21
So, let’s see what you know about the gay life-style?
Questionnaire 1: Gay Life-style
Directions: Please Read each statement below, indicate if you agree or disagree with
the statement.
What do you know about gay men and lesbian women?
1. Gay and lesbian people can ordinarily be identified by certain mannerisms or
physical characteristics (ie. Men who flick their wrists and women with male
"butch" hairstyles).
2. Homosexuality is unnatural.
3. Homosexuals are mentally ill.
4. Most sex offenders are homosexuals.
5. Increasing the civil rights to homosexuals will just cause more people to
choose this lifestyle.
6. Homosexuals make bad employees.
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After reading the above statements did you find you agreed with many of
the statements? If you did, you are like many people who have a lack of
knowledge regarding Homosexuals/Gays and Lesbians. All of the statements
above are false. No matter your choice of sexual orientation, that is who you
choose to love whether it is homosexual or heterosexual shouldn’t everyone have
equal access to the workplace without having to deal with myths and
stereotypes that can lead to discrimination?
Sexual Orientation Facts
FACT ONE. Gay and lesbian people can NOT ordinarily be identified by certain
mannerisms or physical characteristics (ie. Men who flick their wrists and women
with male "butch" hairstyles).22 The truth of the matter is that just like
heterosexual people have various mannerisms and dress styles so do
homosexuals. People who choose to love someone of the same sex cannot
be identified by underlying characteristics as all races, socioeconomic status and
genders represent the homosexual population.
FACT TWO. According to science, homosexuality is natural. University of
Oslo zoologist Petter Böckman, indicates that about 1,500 animal species are
known to practice same-sex coupling, including bears, gorillas, flamingos, owls,
salmon and many others.23 If we don't question this gene trait in animals why is
it such a taboo in humans? Is natural being confused with "normal"? Who defines
what is normal, the Puritan's who came to this "new land" said that sexism was
normal or acceptable behavior, they believed that killing the Natives for their
land was normal or acceptable behavior based upon their religious or cultural
views. So, who has defined what is normal? Does this viewpoint change from
time period to time period--should it?
FACT THREE. Homosexuals as a group are not classified as mentally ill by
the medical community. Mental illness has not been associated solely with sexual
orientation but instead is diagnosed on an individual basis for both heterosexuals
and homosexuals.24
FACT FOUR. Most sex offenders are NOT homosexuals. Over 80% of child
molesters and sex offenders are heterosexual not homosexual.25
FACT FIVE. Do legalizing equal rights for gays/lesbians create more homosexual
individuals? Seemingly laws don't equate to the creation of a person's sexual
orientation no more than it equates to a person's disability. People who think this
way tend to believe that people make a choice to be homosexual. Being "in the
closet" verse being out of the closet is what will probably be impacted if gays and
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lesbians receive equal rights. In countries like the Netherlands or other countries in
Western Europe where same-sex marriages and acceptance of homosexuality have
had legal freedom for many years--there has not been a rise in the number of
homosexual’s reported.26
FACT SIX. There are no studies that show that one’s sexual orientation causes
them to be a “bad” employee.27 Instead there are more statistics that show that
homosexuals are fired just for being "homosexual" with excellent work records. In
March 2004 during the Bush Administration, the White House removed information
from government websites about sexual orientation discrimination in the workplace.
Why? Because federal employees could be fired for just simply being
homosexual.28
In 1998, President Clinton issued Executive Order 13087, reinforcing this
commitment to non-discrimination in the federal workforce with explicit protections
based on sexual orientation. In 2011, the federal government, excluding the Postal
Service, was the Nation's largest employer with about 2.0 million civilian employees.
The federal government’s viewpoint on discrimination against sexual orientation is
stated below:
The United States Government does not discriminate in employment on the basis of
race, color, religion, sex, national origin, political affiliation, sexual orientation,
gender identity, marital status, disability and genetic information, age, membership
in an employee organization, or other non-merit factor. — USAJOBS, the official job
site of the U.S. Federal Government [usajobs.gov]
Same Sex Marriage and the Workplace
June 2015 the headings read, the Supreme Court ruling makes same sex marriage a
right nationwide. A great move toward equality as it relates to the benefits that are
gained through marriage by having the right to be legally united. However, what
happens to those individuals working in states that don’t have protections for sexual
orientation? They could get married, bring in their wedding picture and be fired for
their sexual orientation. Until, federal laws provide anti-discrimination protection for
sexual orientation there is still not workplace equality for individuals working in
states or localities where sexual orientation is not a protected class.
Other Workplace Issues
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Gays and Lesbians in the workplace is a touchy subject for some. One reason is
because of the fears that people have regarding homosexuality. But, if you were
to ask the question: Do you need to know someone’s sexual orientation to know
how well he or she will perform his or her job? I believe most people would
answer no. Many people feel that they don’t need to know about someone’s sex
life in order to work with them. But, when some people think about homosexuality
as a lifestyle it invokes fear.29 Rather than see homosexuals as people with many
facets to their personality and character, they are judged by one factor and one
factor alone—their choice of a love relationship.
Some people even go so far as to hate homosexuals because of this
choice. These people would be considered homophobic. Yet many will clearly see
that it is wrong to discriminate against women or against religion but justify this
type of discrimination. But, discrimination is wrong no matter what the reason.
Understanding difference is about being empathetic (putting yourself in
another person’s shoes), even those situations that we don’t fully understand or
agree with. Remember, you don’t have to agree with homosexuality in order to
provide individuals in the workplace the freedom to love whom they want. Still, it
is so much easier to judge and hold people to “our” beliefs rather than be
respectful.
It would be much easier for management if workers could maintain a
boundary between their personal and work lives. But is this a realistic or even fair
expectation? More often than not, people’s personal lives intertwine with their
work environment. Creating workplace climates that are truly inclusive means
the freedom of not just heterosexuals but of lesbian, gay and bisexual employees
to do simple things like putting their partners’ picture on their desks, or being
able to name who they went on vacation with, or not feeling a need to lie
about whose voice is on the answering machine at home.
One area that management should be concerned with is the workplace myths that
have been generated about gays and lesbians. Stereotyping occurs when one thinks of an
individual as assigned to a group or category and the characteristics commonly associated
with that group or category. One of the workplace myths circulating today is that gays and
lesbians are found only in certain stereotypical professions.30 There is a generalization that
male hairdressers are gay and that female construction workers are lesbians. Other
common misconceptions are that gay men are not aggressive and that lesbians are too
aggressive, or that only gay employees have the AIDS virus.31 Stereotypes become harmful
particularly when they manifest into discrimination. Discrimination against certain people in the
organization is not only a violation of United States Labor Laws or state/local laws; it is also
counterproductive because the contributions of people who are discriminated against and
ignored are not fully utilized. For example, if a manager wrongly believes that homosexual
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male workers are too emotional and submissive; the manager may overlook these employees
for tasks that require assertiveness. These kinds of ill-conceived decisions can result in
companies losing the insights of what may have been very productive workers.
According to Bob Powers & Alan Ellis, A Manager’s Guide to Sexual
Orientation in the Workplace, gay men and lesbian women typically respond to
discrimination in the workplace in several ways, they remain in the closet in
workplaces that are homophobic or they are open and deal with any negative
consequences, including possible expulsion in states or localities that don’t have
discrimination laws addressing sexual orientation.32
The decision to come out in the workplace for a gay or lesbian individual
can be one of the most stressful decisions of his or her life. Many experts say that
hiding one’s sexual identity on a daily basis is also very stressful.33 This hiding
takes a tremendous amount of psychological and physical energy.
Studies show that those who hide their sexual identity in the workplace
often have feelings of fear, guilt and anxiety.34 They can feel fearful of losing their
jobs or being rejected by their co-workers. They can feel guilty for passing
themselves off as heterosexuals, and they feel anxious in their constant vigilance to
hide their sexual orientation.
Furthermore, this fear and discomfort of working with homosexuals in the
workplace may not be as big an issue if we were told the truth about the sexual
orientation of some of our society’s most significant leaders. But, if you were told
that some of these leaders were homosexual/gay or lesbian would it change what
they’ve accomplished? No. So why should any other person’s sexual orientation
affect their ability to contribute in our society and the workplace?
Queer & Questioning, Intersexed, Asexual
In LGBTQ what does the "Q," represent? Some say the word "queer," and others say
questioning. So what exactly does it mean to be "queer?"
Kate Sherry, editor of Queer Life News, says that 'queer' encompasses ALL in the
community, whereas 'gay' is primarily used for only the homosexual male
segment of the community and lesbian for the homosexual female. The word
“queer” was not a politically correct word as it was used to mean strange as it
related to being gay. But, as many groups who have negative terms associated
with their culture, this population took the word queer and used it as
empowerment. It allows there to be a “gray” area (someone outside societal
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norms not just the gay community) when it comes to categorizing life style. For
those who strongly reject traditional gender or sexual identities, or anyone who
feels oppressed by the pressure to conform to the heterosexual lifestyle often use
the word queer.
Someone can be queer when they have realized that they are not straight,
heterosexual or born in the wrong body. Not all people who might fall in this
category like being called queer, but would agree that they are living a lifestyle
that is different from what is considered the social norm. So, can a straight person
be queer? Some say yes.
Furthermore, the "Q" can stand for "questioning," which includes people
living the straight lifestyle but questioning their sexuality or someone who isn't
sexual at all because they are unsure of their identity. It can also encompass a
person who is sexual, but does not neatly fit into a box.
TRANSGENDERISM
To understand transgenderism, it is first important to be reminded of the
difference between sex and gender. Sex is the male or female identity we are
born with. Gender is the individual’s internal sense of being male or female and
the way they express it.
Transgender individuals are people with a gender identity that is different from
the sex assigned to them at birth. Someone who was assigned the male sex at
birth but who identifies as female is a transgender woman. Likewise, a person
assigned the female sex at birth but who identifies as male is a transgender man.
Some individuals who would fit this definition of transgender do not identify
themselves as such, and identify simply as men and women, consistent with their
gender identity.
"Transgendered" is a broad term that encompasses cross-dressers, intersexed
people, transsexuals and people who live substantial portions of their lives as
other than their birth sex.35 "Transgender" is a comprehensive term used to
encompass all manifestations of crossing gender barriers.36 Generally
speaking, a transgender person manifests a sense of self, the physical
characteristics and/or personal expression commonly associated with
a sex other than the one he or she was assigned at birth.
Just like sexual orientation, there is no federal law that protects
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transgendered employees. Some people who fight against equal treatment cite
concern that organizations who provide legal protection from discrimination based
on gender identity and gender expression will only lead to further accounts of
transexualism and cross-dressing. The fact remains that legalities exist to protect
the workplace say from an employee who may want to continually alternate his or
her gender identity in the workplace and to protect employees who may need
to consistently present themselves in a gender other than their birth gender.
Furthermore, when it comes to cross-dressing protecting transgendered
people from discrimination does not mean that employers can no longer require
their employees to present a neat and professional appearance.37 Rather, such
protections would only permit people to dress in a way that supports their gender
expression.
Although transgenderism can be understood as a form of gender
nonconformity, transitioning employees present workplace challenges that may
significantly exceed those presented by certain more common manifestations of
gender nonconformity.38 A transitioning transgender person is one who is modifying
his or her physical characteristics and manner of expression to -- in effect --
satisfy the standards for membership in another gender.39 For instance, in some
workplaces, a woman's decision to forgo skirts, blouses, jewelry and cosmetics and
to begin dressing in a masculine style might result in little more than raised
eyebrows or a few arch comments. Yet in almost any workplace today, deeply held
beliefs about gender roles likely would be challenged by a woman's decision to
modify her sex characteristics by taking male sex hormones and undergoing a
double mastectomy, and to begin identifying, dressing and behaving as a man (thus
transitioning).
Transitioning
Some individuals (transsexuals) will find it necessary to transition from living and
working as one gender to another. These individuals often seek some form of
medical treatment such as counseling, hormone therapy, electrolysis, and
reassignment surgery. These treatments may be deemed medically necessary for
many individuals, based on determinations of their medical providers. Some
individuals, however, will not pursue some (or any) forms of medical treatment
because of their age, medical condition, lack of funds, or other personal
circumstances, or simply because they may not feel the treatment is necessary for
their well-being. Managers and supervisors should be aware that not all transgender
individuals will follow the same pattern, but they all are entitled to the same
consideration as they undertake the transition steps deemed appropriate for them,
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and should all be treated with dignity and respect.
According to Managing transsexual transition in the workplace by Janis Walworth
as many as 200,000 people have gone through a transition from male to female
or female to male during the last several decades in the United States and
perhaps 10,000 more do so each year.40 Transitioning in the workplace has not
always been supported, when this first started with employees they were required
to leave their jobs and start their new life with their new identity elsewhere.41
However, now there are workplace guidelines that don't require employees
to leave, but instead require the workplace to have sensitivity toward this
process. There is a route to transitioning in the workplace. An employee does not
just change overnight from one gender to another.
Transition Process
Notification of Transition
It is the employees' responsibility to let their supervisor or human resource
department know that they are going to be transitioning and what their particular
needs and concerns are and this should be done in advance of the planned
transition date.42 During this meeting, the manager must remain open-minded
and ensure the employee that they will be supported by the organization during
this time of transition.
Management Support
Once management knows of a transitioning employee, it is management's job to
support this individual and provide a workplace free of harassment. If managers
are unsure of how to support a transitioning employee they can seek assistance
from support agencies like the Human Rights Campaign found at www.hrc.org or
from their organization's Human Resource department. The manager can also ask
the employee for suggestions on how to make this transition process easier. The
employee must determine if he or she wishes to inform their co-workers and
clients themselves, or prefers that this to be done for them or not at all. Then
determine the best timing for that process.43 It should be noted that transsexual
employees have the right to be who they are without unnecessary
disclosure of medical information.
However, there will come a time where other employees will become
aware of the transitioning employee. The employees’ response will
often be determined by the amount of education and knowledge they
have regarding the transitioning process. Trainings or briefing sessions
should be completed prior to the employee’s transition. This
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information is necessary so that the organization can provide a supportive
environment free from misunderstandings. Managers in this situation must lead by
example. This is done by treating the employee with value, respecting the
employee's choice in this matter and using the new name and pronouns in all
official and unofficial communication.44
Medical Leave/Name Change
Discuss the expected timeline and anticipated time off required for medical
treatment, if known. In most cases normal sick pay and leave policies will apply.
The employee should be asked if they would prefer to be in a different position
(if possible) during their transition, they should be asked about name changes, they
should also be asked what name or pronoun to utilize during and after the transition.
It should be noted that all employee records, like birth certificates, driver licenses
and school and work-related documents should be under the original name until
the employee informs the workplace of the legal name change. Where a person’s
legal name does not match his or her new name, the new name should be used on
all documentation, such as e-mail, phone directory, company identification card
or access badge, name plate, etc., except where records must match the legal
name, such as on payroll and insurance documents.45
Restroom Approach
The question can often become: during the transition what restroom will the
transitioning employee utilize? The recommendation has been to provide a single-
occupancy or unisex restroom for employees. But once the new identity has been
established, the employee must then utilize the restroom of their new gender.46
Questions regarding sexual orientation and gender identity
As it relates to sexual orientation and gender identity, can you answer the following
question? If a transgendered woman marries a man does that make her a
homosexual (because she was once male)? If you ask many in the transgendered
community it does not make her a homosexual because she did not identify as male
to begin with. Another question…for some homosexuals coming out of the closet is
important is it as important to some transgendered individuals? According to
research, many homosexuals would like to be out of the closet free from
discrimination and able to live life loving freely someone of the same sex but some in
the transgendered community just want to be seen as the gender they identify with
and would like to keep in the closet their birth sex. Until as a society we
completely accept homosexuals, gay and lesbians as well as transgendered
individuals these will likely be issues that these communities must decide how best
to handle. Being free enough to not make these types of stressful decisions may be a
freedom that many outside of these communities take for granted.
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Transgenderism protections
The Civil Rights Act does cover "sex" but federal courts of appeals indicated this was
not to include transsexuals or homosexuals however more recently they have held
that sex discrimination can include gender stereotypes.47 As it relates to gender
identity, the following states and local jurisdictions as of the writing of this text
protect against discrimination:
Protections in the State Level48
Currently California, Minnesota, New Mexico and Rhode Island are the only states
that explicitly include "gender identity" in the states' anti-discrimination laws, but
the following states have law cases where the court or the administrative agency
on human rights ruled that transgender people are protected from discrimination:
The State of Connecticut: Transsexuals may bring claims of sex discrimination
under existing state law, based on Connecticut Commission on Human Rights and
Opportunities ruling Nov. 2000.
The State of Massachusetts: Transgenders are protected under state law prohibiting sex and disability discrimination, based on Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination ruling Oct. 10, 2001.
The State of New Jersey: Transgender workers are protected under state law
prohibiting sex and disability discrimination, based on the 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of
Appeals ruling in Carla V. Enriquez, M.D. v. West Jersey Health Systems, July 3,
2001.
The State of New York: Transgenders are protected under state law
prohibiting sex discrimination, based on court ruling.
Protections in the Local Ordinances and Organizations49
Over fifty localities have adopted ordinances prohibiting discrimination against
transgender people. Jurisdictions that have passed such laws include, among others:
New York City, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, Dallas, Philadelphia, Atlanta, and
Seattle. They also include a number of smaller cities, such as Tucson, AZ; Santa
Cruz, CA; Iowa City, IA; Louisville, KY; Ann Arbor, MI; Toledo, OH; and Tacoma, WA.
Protections in Public and Private Employers
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More and more public and private institutions and organizations are adding
transgenderism to their non-discrimination policies just as they have sexual
orientation. Before assuming that your company, organization or school does not
provide this coverage, the best thing to do is ask what "groups" are covered by your
organizations' non-discrimination policy.
For those organizations that protect on the basis of gender identity, how do they
create a workplace with "reasonable" dress and identity expectations?
The key word here is reasonable, is it reasonable for a man to come into work
dressed as superwoman--maybe if they work in a costume shop but a
superwoman costume may not be considered "reasonable" dress in a corporate
environment. Therefore, a company has the right to require that employees’
appearance and behavior in the workplace are reasonable as it relates to the
company environment.50
How does this issue of dress impact sexual orientation or transgenderism issues?
For some gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgendered people, sexual orientation and
dress are not separate issues. For those who are gay or lesbian that identity far
more with the gender they are not, their dress and behavior may reflect this. So, if
the workplace or jurisdiction protects against sexual orientation discrimination but
not gender identity would a lesbian who dressed in men suits and attire be
protected if she were told that she could not wear men's dress or take on a man's
appearance? No. From a legal standpoint, sexual orientation has not been
considered the same thing as gender identity or expression.51
What happens in those places where there is no protection from discrimination?
Employees can be fired for gender identity issues. Why? Because employers who
have non-unionized or non-contract employees they are defined as at-will. At-
will employees can be fired at the employers "will" for whatever reason they
like including discrimination that is not covered under any federal, state, local law or
company policy.
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Intersexed & Asexual
Intersex: People who naturally (that is, without any medical intervention) develop
primary or secondary sex characteristics that do not fit neatly into society's definitions of
male or female. Many visibly Intersex people are mutilated in infancy and early childhood
by doctors to make the individual’s sex characteristics conform to society’s idea of what
normal bodies should look like. Intersex people are relatively common, although the
society's denial of their existence has allowed very little room for intersex issues to be
discussed publicly. Hermaphrodite is an outdated and inaccurate term that has been used
to describe intersex people in the past.
Asexual: A sexual orientation generally characterized by not feeling sexual attraction or a
desire for partnered sexuality. Asexuality is distinct from celibacy, which is the deliberate
abstention from sexual activity. Some asexual people do have sex. There are many diverse
ways of being asexual.
CLASSISM What is Classism? Classism is defined by many as a systematic oppression of poor and subordinated people where subordinated means without endowed or acquired economic power, social influence, and privilege.53
Classism creates a grouping of people who work for wages by those who have the means by which to control the necessary resources by which other people make their living.54 Classism is often a demographic that relates to socio-economic status. People who are victims of classism are typically living at or below poverty. Classism exists first because those affected by it, often don't realize or believe that it exists and therefore don’t protest against it. Classism also exists because there is a "system" in place that creates beliefs and knowledge that translates into economic opportunity which ranks people according to economic status, "breeding," job and level of education.55
According to various definitions56:
Like racism, classism can be divided into (at least) individual classism and
structural classism. Individual classism is a matter of the prejudices held
and discrimination practiced by individual people (such as making jokes or
stereotypes at those of lower class).
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Structural or institutional classism is a passive form of classism that occurs when
institutions or common practices are structured in such a way as to effectively
exclude or marginalize people from lower classes, which can be due, in part, to
widespread individual classism within the organization or society.
According to Holly Sklar in her article, “Growing Gulf Between Rich and Rest of
America” she indicates that most of us may see classism but not really realize what it
is and one fact that indicates classism exist in America is that the United States has
rising levels of poverty and inequality not found in other rich democracies.57 It is
hard for some people to imagine that their lack of wealth is due to systematized
oppression of people of their kind, but how do you answer for the fact that in the
richest country in the world we battle with literacy, with credit card debt, with
unemployment and low paying jobs yet still manage to have a society of those who
reap many of the benefits of capitalism?
Is it because so many in the U.S. don't desire to succeed economically?
Is it because we skipped the classes in school on wealth creation and
entrepreneurship?
Is it because people have a desire to be poor so much so that they pass on poverty
to their children?
Why would some classify the United States as a society that operates under
classism? Another reason could be because the U.S. has very few options to move
people out of poverty.58 If you are struggling to feed yourself and your kids,
struggling to find a place to live that's decent and safe, struggling to pay bills off
minimum wage income, how do you have the time or the mental energy to do what
it takes to move out of that state of being? If you have never been poor then you
might think it was simple to move from poverty to middle class. But ask those in the
ranks of the poor, I am sure they will tell you something different.
Since 2000, America's billionaire club has gained 76 more members while the
typical household has lost income and the poverty count has grown by more than 5
million people.59 According to United States Senator Jim Webb in his Class Struggle
article he states, "the most important-and unfortunately the least debated-issue in
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politics today is our society's steady drift toward a class-based system,
the like of which we have not seen since the 19th century. America's top tier has
grown infinitely richer and more removed over the past 25 years. It is not unfair
to say that they are literally living in a different country. Few among them send
their children to public schools; fewer still send their loved ones to fight our
wars..."60
When you live in one of the riches countries in the world but don't have
access to adequate housing, child care etc. the issue becomes survival not
wealth attainment. Also, when talking about the poor some don't realize how
this is defined according to the census data that reports these numbers.
The 2009 Poverty Guidelines for the
48 Contiguous States and the District of Columbia61
Persons in family Poverty guideline
1 $10,830
2 14,570
3 18,310
4 22,050
5 25,790
6 29,530
7 33,270
8 37,010
Wealth Pyramid
Paul Kivel in his article, Affirmative Action, Immigration, and Welfare: Confronting
Racism in 1998 which was taken from his speech given at the University of
Kansas he asks us to imagine a pyramid and he explains that this pyramid
represents 100% of the population of the United States.62 In the pyramid he
discusses wealth or the accumulation of our assets, which can be referred to as
our net worth.
In author Paul Kivel's more recent book, You Call This a Democracy he
discusses his economic pyramid as I have described below:
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Top 1% of the pyramid (the ruling class): controls 47% of the country’s wealth,
their net worth is over $3,000,000
Next 19% of the pyramid (the managerial class): controls another 44% of the country’s wealth,
the net worth of each household is over $500,000
THESE TWO GROUPS EQUAL 20% OF THE POPULATION BUT THEY CONTROL
91% OF THE WEALTH OF THE RICHEST COUNTRY IN THE WORLD.
Last 80% of the pyramid
(made up of the middle class, working class & dependent and working
poor): controls only 9% of the wealth, which must be divided among them,
their "average" net worth is $38,000 (where many of the dependent and
working poor are in the negative)
To make sure you completely understand what this represents, we must define
Net Worth.
Net Worth = Assets – Liabilities
Where, assets are items you own of value like an automobile or home and liabilities
are items that you owe like the car note or mortgage.
For instance, let’s assume that you are like many Americans and have the
following living circumstances: Your annual income is $25,000, you rent rather
than own your home, have credit card debt, have a car but you owe on it. You
don’t participate in an IRA (Individual Retirement Account), you have no stocks or
mutual funds (wealth building assets), no other investments and only a small
savings in the bank.
Economic Pyramid63
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Your assets & liabilities may look like this:
Assets Liabilities
Car worth $10,000 Car loan $13,000
Savings $1000 Credit Card Debt $15,000
Total Assets $11,000 Total Liabilities $28,000
Your net worth would be calculated as 11,000 – 28,000 = (17,000) which
mean that you are in the red, because you have a negative net worth. Now where
does this person fall in the pyramid? If you answered in the bottom of the 80th
percentile, you answered correctly. Now you may ask, what does this have to do
with embracing diversity?
Do you think that this 80% of the population fighting for 9% of the wealth
would consist of women and men; African Americans, Caucasians, Latino, and
other races/ethnicities; the disabled and the able-bodied; young and old and
individuals with various lifestyles?
So then, it would seemingly make sense that these people would have
a common ground: fighting together for policies and laws that would make access
to wealth creation a reality which starts with equal workplace access and
opportunity. Instead, what is often going on amongst these groups?
If you answered fighting amongst each other you guessed right—like
Blacks blaming all whites for slavery and racism, white men blaming people of
color and women for their lack of job opportunities or benefitting from Affirmative
Action, Christians against Muslims, the young not hiring the old, etc. Now, how
does this help anyone in this economic group to move ahead? If you answered, it
does not, you guessed right again. But, the fighting that goes on because of
differences, prejudices, and stereotypes helps who in the pyramid?
If you answered, the top 20%, you guessed right. Why, because energy
amongst the largest group (80th percentile) could be utilized to dismantle
policies and programs and systematic isms that exist to benefit only the rich.
Instead this energy is lost on issues that have nothing to do with gaining wealth
and making sure capitalism works for everyone. It keeps those that think they are
free, from experiencing the “real” opportunities that are available in one of the
greatest countries on earth.
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This all occurs while the rich get richer and the rest of the economy
experiences large scale cutbacks in social services, tremendous corporate
downsizing, exportation of jobs overseas, environmental dumping of toxic wastes
(primarily in communities of the poor representing many people of color), hate
crimes (including church burnings, physical assaults, and cross burnings), and
public policy attacks on communities of low socioeconomic status. What results is a
tremendous concentration of wealth and segregation in society along lines of class
more so than any other category.64
Keeping these elements alive can keep the 80% fighting each other when
they really should be embracing diversity. The fact is that many of “us” are in the
same boat regardless of sex/gender, age, race and religion, etc. When you look at
who is in the top 20th percentile, you find they are mostly protestant white males.
However, there are many more white males in the 80 percentile of the wealth
distribution than in this 20th percentile. This further illustrates that the segregation
that exist in society is not just about one race versus another. The fact is that those
in the 80 percentile do not have economic prosperity. They often have lives that
are focused on problems rather than at finding worthwhile solutions. Many in
this group have lack of opportunities but will find it easier to blame this on
another ethnicity, race or gender rather than take a close look at the economic
policies that make the rich richer and the poor poorer.
We must understand that those in the 20th percentile did not just get “rich”
but that many of the economically wealthy have been the beneficiaries of advantage,
while others were disadvantaged. The 80th percentile, the tossed salad of America,
has more in common than they realize wouldn't you think? Now that we know the
economic plight of numerous laborers in this country, we cannot leave this
discussion until it is fully understood how such an unbalanced concentration of
wealth occurs in a “free” society. We must understand the operation of the three
economic systems.
Three Economic Systems
The economic resources (LAND, LABOR & CAPITAL) of a country can be categorized
into one of the following categories or a mixture thereof:
Communism
An economic system where all the economic resources are controlled by the government.65
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There is little to no opportunity for entrepreneurship since the government owns all industry.
Lack of freedom and individual control.
If resources were equally divided, citizens could live well cared for. However, since many governments in these countries have dictatorships, there is no check and balance and often greed becomes a very serious issue, which means all citizens are not cared for.
Can you name some countries that (now or previously) operated under
communism? Are any of these countries places where you would want to live,
such as China, Cuba, Poland (under communist regime until in 1985 when Mikhail
Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed Communist strictures),
Vietnam, Laos, North Korea, etc…? Do many of the citizens from these countries
migrate to the U.S.? Why do you think? If you guessed for freedom, you
guessed right.
Socialism
An economic system where most of the major economic resources are
controlled by the government.66 There are some opportunities for entrepreneurship.
Individual freedom as well as government control is prevalent, how much may depend on the form of government. Political systems that operate under democracy in these countries often indicate a fairer distribution of
economic resources amongst citizens.
Name some countries that operate (now or previously) under socialism? Are any
of these countries places you would want to live, such as Canada, Switzerland,
Sweden etc…? Do many of the citizens from these countries migrate to the U.S.?
Why not? Well let’s look at Switzerland for example.
Switzerland is among the world's most prosperous countries in terms of
private income as in 2003, the median household income in Switzerland was an
estimated 96,000 CHF or US$ 54,000, 26% higher than the 2003 U.S. median of
$43,000, slightly less than that of the wealthiest U.S. state, New Hampshire.67 In
addition to a high standard of living, all Swiss citizens have health insurance that
they pay for themselves with no help from their employer. An American in this
situation might face tens of thousands of dollars in expenses. But under the Swiss
health-care system, individuals pay about a third less on health care than the
average American, in part because of government-enforced price controls.68
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In addition, almost all Swiss are literate (it is estimated that 99% of the
population age 15 and over can read and write).69 Switzerland's 13 institutes of
higher learning enrolled 99,600 students in the academic year of 2001-02 alone
and about 25% of the adult population holds a diploma of higher learning.70 The
Swiss constitution guarantees freedom of worship and the different religious
communities co-exist peacefully and Switzerland consistently ranks high on quality
of life indices, including per capita income, concentration of computer and internet
usage per capita, insurance coverage per individual and health care rates.71 After the
Second World War, Switzerland had absolutely no experience with unemployment
until about 1990. But even now their unemployment rate is very low and they have
one of the most stable economies.
So again I ask you why aren’t the Swiss migrating to the U.S.? The answer
should be simple……. why would they.
Capitalism
An economic system where very few of the resources are controlled by the
government.72 Entrepreneurship is the backbone of the economy.
Individual freedom is prevalent, where you have the freedom (within the laws) to do what you want, live where you want, and fail or succeed based
upon your opportunities. Name a country that operates purely under capitalism? The United States is
the answer. Now why do you think many people migrate here? Freedom of
course. But how free are you if the majority people don’t know how to or have
the ability to build wealth?
So, let’s go back to the original question: How does an unbalanced concentration of
wealth occur in a “free” society like the capitalistic United States? Rather than give
you my opinion, I ask you to think about the following questions.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How in a free society like the U.S., can a small group of people continually
control so much of the wealth?
2. Do you think if the people with the wealth, controlled the media, public school
systems, and other systems where people gained many of their values and
knowledge, the focus could be placed on issues that have nothing to do with
gaining wealth?
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3. Would it be possible to make certain "minority" groups the focus of
society's problems?
4. Could the top pyramiders create (by using the media, etc.) hate
amongst the bottom 80% in the pyramid, to keep the attention off
them?
5. Can those in the 80th percentile be so burdened with day to day life
that issues like wealth and net income become second place to
finding healthy food, transportation to work or school, proper
education for their children, a safe place to live (issues that would
not be of concern if you had wealth)?
While I am not an advocate of the following fact: money or wealth will
make life better, because it alone does not. However, I am an advocate for equal
opportunity in the land of the free. If true equality does exist, then wouldn’t this
equality also exist in areas such as the wealth distribution? In this text, we will
discuss many events that have occurred in the United States that should help
you formulate answers to all of the above questions.
Answering these critical questions becomes important because as you
address workplace diversity you need to know:
why discrimination occurs,
what history has to do with the U.S. cultural
climate,
why the isms still plague the U.S. workplace, why some people have opportunities and some
don’t, and
why a free society might be considered classist.
Despite whether you believe classism exist or not, a few facts cannot be ignored.
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For one, depending on the "breadth" of one's definition, 40-80% of the population
can be considered working class.73 This is true despite the fact that the individuals
themselves might identify as or with the working class. These individuals, however,
are not beneficiaries of middle class privileges because having a certain income does
not equate to having wealth.
A second fact that cannot be ignored is that class issues affect people not
only on an economic level, but also on an emotional level.74 Classist attitudes have
caused great pain by dividing people from one another and keeping individuals from
personal fulfillment or the means to survive. Consequently, the process of rejecting
such attitudes and their accompanying misinformation is an emotional one.75 Since
people tend to hurt each other because they themselves have been hurt, and since
most forms of oppression are accompanied by economic discrimination, class
overlaps with many other social issues, all of which move as we unravel how we've
been hurt.76
Distrust, despair and anger are common consequences of oppression; this
can be internalized or targeted toward others or self. To begin to undo the
damage caused by issues like classism, it is useful for everyone to examine their
own feelings about money, education, privilege, power, relationships, culture and
ethnicity. This advice applies to organizations as well.
Concluding Thoughts
Ageism, Homophobia(ism), Transgenderism and Classism are all issues that can
affect a person of any race or ethnicity. As we address these various “isms” that
can plague the workplace remember—Martin Luther King’s famous saying:
INJUSTICE ANYWHERE AFFECTS JUSTICE EVERYWHERE
Just because you may not be older, transgendered, gay/lesbian or at the
bottom of the wealth pyramid does not mean that those that fit these categories
should not have everyone fighting for their right to work free of discrimination and
oppression.
End of Chapter Questions 1. What does LGBTQ stand for and explain each letter’s definition?
2. How does anti-fat bias impact the workplace?
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3. Explain how those who are young and believe in ageism could be victims of their own mentality?
4. What are the various forms of transgenderism?
5. Name four things a manager could do to help a transitioning employee?
6. Do you believe classism exist in America, why or why not? How can the facts known about this ism be utilized to unite various groups of people?
7. What is the difference between sexual orientation and gender identity?
Internet Exercise
Part A:
In the small space below give one fact that indicates if the six individuals are or
ever were speculated to be gay, homosexual or lesbian along with the website
address or source. To find this information go to www.google.com and type in the
person’s name along with the word “homosexual” or at the search box type “famous
homosexuals in society.”
1. Susan B. Anthony
Source:
2. J. Edgar Hoover
Source:
3. President James Buchanan
Source:
4. Eleanor Roosevelt
Source:
5. Emily Dickinson
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Source:
6. James Baldwin
Source:
Part B.
Managing the Transsexuals’ transition in the workplace. Go to:
http://www.gendersanity.com/sjhhrm.html or go to google and type: managing the
transsexuals transition in the workplace and indicate five tips (do not list the ones
provided in the text or you will receive no points) that can assist transsexuals in the
workplace.
End of Chapter Exercise Net Worth Calculation
Net worth, investing, home ownership are all important concepts to understand in a
Capitalistic economic system. Complete your own net worth, but keep your results
private. Now answer the following questions:
1. Should debt management, net worth and financial information be taught to high school students? Were you taught the basic financial principles?
2. Does it help the rich to get richer if they teach their children the importance of building wealth (ie. the Hilton family)? If yes, how? If no, why not?
3. Explain how socio economic status is a divisor in the United States and how it impacts racial and ethnic groups in your opinion.
4. Choose two of the suggestions below and state how understanding this information could move people from the bottom of the wealth pyramid?
Common Suggestions for Building Wealth
1. Pay off high-cost debt. The best investment most borrowers can make is to pay off consumer debt with double-digit interest rates. For example, if you have a $3,000 credit
card balance at 19.8%, and you pay the required minimum balance of 2% of the
balance or $15, whichever is greater, it will take 39 years to pay off the loan. And
you will pay more than $10,000 in interest charges.
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2. Buy a home and pay off the mortgage before you retire. The largest asset of most middle-income families is their home equity. Once these families have made their
last mortgage payment, they have far lower housing expenses. They also have an
asset that can be borrowed on in emergencies or converted into cash through sale of
the home.
3. Participate in a work-related retirement program. Many employees turn down free money from their employer by not signing up for a work-related retirement program
such as a 401(k) plan. If they did participate, with a dollar-for-dollar match they
would likely receive an annual yield of greater than 100% on their investment.
4. Outside of work, save monthly through an automatic transfer from checking to savings. These savings will provide funds for emergencies, home purchase, school
tuition, or even retirement. Almost all banking institutions will, on request,
automatically transfer funds monthly from your checking account to a savings
account, U.S. Savings Bond, or stock mutual fund. What you don't see, you will
probably not miss. This is a safety net but it is not how you make your money make
more money for you. This occurs through investments such as mutual funds, stocks,
etc.
5. Calculate your risk and return. If you earn 4% interest, your money will double in less than 15 years; at 7% it will double in about 10 years and at 10% it will double in
7%. Use Asset Allocation to reduce your overall risk.
Home Ownership is one way to build wealth—here are some tips to owning a home
taken from home ownership manuals:
Since you most likely will need to get a mortgage to buy a house, you must make
sure your credit history is as clean as possible. A few months before you start house
hunting, get copies of your credit report. Make sure the facts are correct, and fix any
problems you discover. Know your FICO score and what it means.
Aim for a home you can really afford.
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The rule of thumb is that you can buy housing that runs about two-and-one-half
times your annual salary. But you'll do better to use one of many calculators available
online to get a better handle on how your income, debts, and expenses affect what
you can afford.
Don't worry if you can't put down the usual 20 percent.
There are a variety of public and private lenders who, if you qualify, offer low-
interest mortgages that require a down payment as small as 3 percent of the purchase
price.
Buy in a district with good schools.
In most areas, this advice applies even if you don't have school-age children. Reason:
When it comes time to sell, you'll learn that strong school districts are a top priority for
many home buyers, thus helping to boost property values.
Get professional help.
Even though the Internet gives buyers unprecedented access to home listings, most new
buyers (and many more experienced ones) are better off using a professional agent.
Look for an exclusive buyer agent, if possible, who will have your interests at heart and
can help you with strategies during the bidding process.
Choose carefully between points and rate.
When picking a mortgage, you usually have the option of paying additional points -- a
portion of the interest that you pay at closing -- in exchange for a lower interest rate.
If you stay in the house for a long time -- say five to seven years or more -- it's
usually a better deal to take the points. The lower interest rate will save you more in the
long run.
Before house hunting, get pre-approved.
Getting pre-approved will you save yourself the grief of looking at
houses you can't afford and put you in a better position to make a
serious offer when you do find the right house. Not to be confused with
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 87
pre-qualification, which is based on a cursory review of your finances,
pre-approval from a lender is based on your actual income, debt and
credit history.
Hire a reputable home inspector.
Sure, your lender will require a home appraisal anyway. But that's just the bank's
way of determining whether the house is worth the price you've agreed to pay.
Separately, you should hire your own home inspector, preferably an engineer with
experience in doing home surveys in the area where you are buying. His or her job
will be to point out potential problems that could require costly repairs down the
road
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 88
References
1. Achenbaum, W. A. (1978). Old age in the new land. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
2. Harkness, H. (1999). Don’t Stop the Clock: Rejecting the Myths of Aging for a New
Way to Work in the 21st Century. Palo Alto, California: Davies-Black Publishing.
3. Brecher, E. (1984). Love, sex and aging: a Consumers Union report. Boston: Little
Brown.
4. Sternberg, R. J. (December 2005). Older but not wiser? The relationship between age
and wisdom. Ageing International, 30(1).
5. Boone, D. R. (1985). Ageism: A negative view of the aged. ASHA, 27, 51-53.
6. Butler, R. N. (1969). Age-ism: Another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist, 9, 243-246.
7. Fischer, D. H. (1978). Growing old in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
8. What's happening with employment opportunities for the "older worker"? (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.employmentblawg.com/2007/whats-happening-with- employment-opportunities-for-the- older-worker/
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Zemke, R., Raines, C. & Filipczak, B. (1999). Managing the Clash of Veterans, Boomers, Xers, and Nexters in Your Workplace. American Management Association and Wikipedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics
12. Schuman, H. and Scott, J. (1989), Generations and collective memories, American Sociological Review, vol. 54, 1989, pp. 359-81.
13. Freedman, M. (1999). Prime Time: How Baby Boomers Will Revolutionize Retirement
and Transform America. New York: Public Affairs.
14. Meredith, G., Schewe, C., and Haim, A. (2002). Managing by defining moments:
Innovative strategies for motivating 5 very different generational cohorts. New York: Hungry Minds Inc.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 89
18. Billikopf, G. (n.d.). Promotions, Transfers & Layoffs. Retrieved from: http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/ucce50/ag-labor/7labor/04.html
19. Miller, M. (1971). On Being Different: What It Means to be a Homosexual. New York: Popular Library.
20. Bullough, V., Dank, B. M., Fradkin, H. E., Kepner, J. L., Legg, W. D. & Newton, R. E. (n.d.). Commonly Asked Questions and Answers about Homosexuality. Retrieved from: http://www.lhup.edu/diversity/studentlife/qanda.html
21. Ibid.
22. Marcus, E. (1993). Is It a Choice?: Answers to 300 of the Most Frequently Asked Questions About Gays and Lesbians. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.
23. Moskowitz, C. (2008). Same sex couples common in the wild. LiveScience. Retrieved from: http://www.livescience.com/animals/080516-gay-animals.html
24. Fletcher, L. Y. (1990). Lavender Lists: New Lists about Lesbian and Gay Culture, History, and Personalities. Boston: Alyson Publications.
25. Bullough, V., Dank, B. M., Fradkin, H. E., Kepner, J. L., Legg, W. D. & Newton, R. E. (n.d.). Commonly Asked Questions and Answers about Homosexuality. Retrieved from: http://www.lhup.edu/diversity/studentlife/qanda.html
26. Eskridge, W. N. (2006). Gay Marriage: For Better or For Worse? What We've Learned from the Evidence. Oxford University Press.
27. Bullough, V., Dank, B. M., Fradkin, H. E., Kepner, J. L., Legg, W. D. & Newton, R. E. (n.d.). Commonly Asked Questions and Answers about Homosexuality. Retrieved from: http://www.lhup.edu/diversity/studentlife/qanda.html
28. Singh, B. (2004, March). Gay gov't employees lose their protection. Yale Daily News.
29. Winfield, L. (1995). Straight Talk About Gays in the Workplace: Creating an Inclusive, Productive Environment for Everyone in Your Organization. New York, NY: AMACOM.
30. Marcus, E. (1993). Is It a Choice?: Answers to 300 of the Most Frequently Asked Questions About Gays and Lesbians. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.
31. Winfield, L. (1995). Straight Talk About Gays in the Workplace: Creating an Inclusive, Productive Environment for Everyone in Your Organization. New York, NY: AMACOM.
32. Powers, B. & Ellis, A. (1995). A Manager’s Guide to Sexual Orientation in the Workplace. London: Taylor & Francis, Inc.
33. Baird, R. M. & Rosenbaum, S.E. (1997). Same-Sex Marriage: The Moral and Legal Debate. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
34. Fletcher, L. Y. (1990). Lavender Lists: New Lists about Lesbian and Gay Culture, History, and Personalities. Boston: Alyson Publications.
35. Sullivan, L. (1990). From Female To Male: The Life Of Jack Bee Garland. Boston: Alyson Publications.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 90
36. Transgender. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.debradavis.org/gecpage/gectransinfo.html
37. Transgender Equality. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/reports/TransgenderEquality.pdf
38. Griggs, C. (1996). Passage Through Trinidad: Journal of a Surgical Sex Change. London: McFarland & Company.
39. Ibid.
40. Walworth, J. (August 2003). Managing Transsexual Transition in the Workplace. Retrieved from: http://www.gendersanity.com/shrm.html
41. Workplace Gender Transition Guidelines. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.hrc.org/documents/HRC-Workplace-Gender-Transition-Guidelines.pdf
42. Walworth, J. (August 2003). Managing Transsexual Transition in the Workplace. Retrieved from: http://www.gendersanity.com/shrm.html
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Workplace Gender Transition Guidelines. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.hrc.org/documents/HRC-Workplace-Gender-Transition-Guidelines.pdf
46. Ibid.
47. Human Rights Campaign. (n.d.). Transgenderism and Transition in the workplace. Retrieved from: http://www.ren.org/hrcwork.pdf
48. Minter, S. (2004). Representing Transsexual Clients: Selected Legal Issues. San Francisco: National Center for Lesbian Rights. Retrieved from: http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Representing_Transsexual_Clients__Selected_Legal_Issues.pdf
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Brantley, C., Frost, D., Pfeffer, C., Buccigrossi, J. & Robinson, M. (2003). Class: Power, Privilege, and Influence in the United States. Rochester, NY: Wetware, Inc. Retrieved from: http://www.workforcediversitynetwork.com/docs/class_9.pdf
54. School of the Americas Watch. (n.d.). Confronting Classism. Retrieved from: http://www.soaw.org/article.php?id=532
55. Croteau, D. (1995). Politics and the Class Divide: Working People and the Middle Class Left. Philadelphia:
Temple University Press.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Three: Understanding the ISMS 91
56. Ibid. (n.d.). Classism. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classism
57. Sklar, H. (2005, September). Growing Gulf Between Rich and Rest of America. Knight Ridder/Tribune Information Services. Retrieved from: http://www.ms.foundation.org/wmspage.cfm?parm1=305
58. Ibid.
59. Albelda, R. P. & Withorn, A. (2002). Lost Ground: Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Beyond. Cambridge: South End Press.
60. Webb, J. (2006, November 15). Class Struggle. The Wall Street Journal.
61. The United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2009). The 2009 HHS Poverty Guidelines. Retrieved from: http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/09poverty.shtml
62. Kivel, P. (1998, November 15). Affirmative Action, Immigration & Welfare: Confronting Racism in 1998. In Motion Magazine.
63. Kivel, P. (2006). You Call this a Democracy? New York: The Apex Press.
64. Payne, R. & Krabill, D. (2002). Hidden Rules of Class at Work. Highlands, TX: Aha Process Inc.
65. Pride, W. M., Hughes, R. J. & Kapoor, J. (2008). Introduction to Business. Florence Kentucky: Cengage Learning, Inc.
66. Ibid.
67. Economy of Switzerland. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Economy_of_Switzerland
68. Ibid.
69. CIA World Factbook. (n.d.). Switzerland. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/SZ.html
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid.
72. Pride, W. M., Hughes, R. J. & Kapoor, J. (2008). Introduction to Business. Florence Kentucky: Cengage Learning, Inc.
73. Sennett, R & Cobb, J. (1993). The Hidden Injuries of Class. New York: Norton.
74. Ibid.
75. Zweig, M. (2004). What's Class Got to Do With It? Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
76. Albelda, R. & Lapidus, J. & Melendez, Edwin M. (1988). Mink Coats Don't Trickle Down: The
Economic Attack on Women and People of Color. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 92
Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture
What you think, is not always what is.
Unknown
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 93
UNDERSTANDING THE WHITE MALE CULTURE
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
define what it means to be “white” in America.
explain the Caucasian historical perspective.
determine what is meant by WASP.
list ways in which white males have been discriminated in the
U.S.
rationalize why it is important for especially white males to be a
part of the diversity discussion.
Chapter Four
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 94
In 1850, it was relatively simple to describe a White American. In all probability he
or she was of Anglo-Saxon background and Protestant. However, after the Civil
War, immigrants began coming from Southern and Central Europe. They were not
Protestant, not Anglo-Saxon, and had different languages and cultures from those
who preceded them. Despite the fact that each still maintains some of its uniqueness
and has a different historical perspective, many have assimilated into what is
known as the American way or the dominant culture that influences many U.S.
workplace cultures.
Historical Perspective*
In 1980, approximately 200 million White Americans could trace some of their
ancestry back to the following groups (in descending size order): English, German,
Irish, French, Italian, Scottish, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Russian,
Czechoslovakian, Hungarian, Welsh, Danish, and Portuguese.
The White-American experience from its colonial beginnings is fairly short. It
covers a period of approximately 400 years, a period that can be spanned by the
overlapping lifetimes of a half-dozen individuals. Yet the roots of the White-
American experience go deep into the human past. These roots are traced mostly to
the Old World, but not the New.
Individuals who make-up the original White-American people, came to America
from three areas of the world. They were:
a. North Africa related to the Berbers. A Caucasian people, the Berbers are
related in physical type to the Mediterranean subgroup of southern Europe. They
form the base population of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Today they are
mostly Muslims and much of their culture is “Arabized.”
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 95
b. Northwestern Europe. Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Germany,
Ireland, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Norway, Scotland, Sweden,
Switzerland, and Wales.
c. Southeastern Europe. Austria, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Spain, USSR, and Yugoslavia.
But despite these varying cultures of what we call White it was the Anglo-Saxon
and White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) who defined much of what we know
today as the American workplace culture. An Anglo-Saxon and White Anglo-
Saxon Protestant (WASP) male is a person of Caucasoid, northern European,
largely Protestant stock whose members constitute one of the most privileged and
influential groups in U.S. society. In the New World, they were usually the
landlord and their culture and values, with rare exception, were those that defined
the culture.
Their culture and values were normally based on:
• Handwork.
• Perseverance.
• Self-Reliance.
• Puritanism.
• Missionary spirit.
• Abstract rule of law.
The White colonists prior to the Revolutionary War though immigrants by
one definition, did not consider themselves immigrants; rather, approximately
78% of the English population conceived themselves as Founders, Settlers, and
Planters. As the formative population of those colonial societies, theirs were the
policy, the language, the pattern of work, settlement, and many of the mental
habits to which the post-Revolutionary War “immigrants” would have to adjust.
Even though an immigrant is defined as one who settles permanently in a
foreign country or region in colonial America, ONLY those who arrived in America
following the Revolutionary War were considered immigrants. In 1607, the first
permanent English settlement in America was established in Jamestown, Virginia.
The Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620. In 1629, the Puritans
came to Massachusetts Bay. Puritan settlers to the New England area differed
from the inhabitants of other colonies. Nearly all other colonies were settled
without education, driven by poverty or misconduct out of their homeland.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 96
Puritan settlers were British families with respectable social positions. They were
educated and financially secure. They came to America so they could live according
to their own principles and worship God in freedom.
The unique background of these early Puritan settlers established a
foundation for many U.S. cultural norms. The words of the Bible were the origin of
many Puritan cultural ideals, especially regarding the roles of men and women in
the community. While both sexes carried the stain of original sin, for a girl, original
sin suggested more than the roster of Puritan character flaws. Eve’s corruption,
in Puritan eyes, extended to all women, and justified marginalizing them within
churches' hierarchical structures. An example is the different ways that men and
women were made to express their conversion experiences.
According to Puritan belief, the order of creation was simple: the world was
created for man, and man was created for God. If God had created the world with
some beings subordinate to others, he applied the same principle to his construction
of human society. Thus the Puritans honored hierarchy among men as divine order;
this order presupposed God’s “appointment of mankind to live in Societies, first of
Family, secondly Church, thirdly, Common-wealth.” Order in the family, then, was a
fundamentally structured Puritan belief. Puritans usually migrated to New England as
a family unit, a pattern different from other colonies where young, single men often
came on their own. Puritan men of the generation of the Great Migration (1630–
1640) believed that a good Puritan wife did not linger in Britain but encouraged
her husband in his great service to God.
The essence of social order lay in the superiority of husband over wife,
parents over children, and masters over servants in the family. Puritans in colonial
America were among the most radical Puritans and their social experiment took the form of a Calvinist theocracy. Since, the British had been applying pressure on
the Puritans for a while to conform to English customs it is no wonder that so many
British Puritans ended up in the new land. The 1790 census indicated that 78
percent of the 2.75 million Americans were of British background. In July 1831, Dr.
S. F. Smith took the music of the British national anthem and changed the words to
create “America.” The British had taken the tune from the Germans.
During WWI, millions of people living in the U.S. were seemingly more
interested in their former homeland than their newly adopted country. The public
labeled such people “hyphenated” Americans, German-Americans, Polish-
Americans, and Irish-Americans. But despite the previous hyphens, all of these
people eventually melted into the pot and are no longer referred to by their
hyphenated homeland but are just considered white.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 97
Caucasians/Whites in America
The term white or Caucasian is represented of many people from various cultures
whose common denominator is the lightness of their skin color. But, when we talk
about “white” who are we referring to? If you look at the U.S. census definition of
“white” discussed in chapter two we find that “White” refers to people having
origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.
But, if you asked people in the U.S. if a Middle Eastern was considered white the
answer most often would be? “No.” The following groups of people who migrated
to the New Land (the United States) would have been considered “white” as long
as they maintained the dominant culture along with having “white” skin (these are
the largest groups some smaller groups are excluded):
Canadian-Americans.
The history of Canada is closely tied to that of the United States. The “Cajun”
residents of Louisiana trace their roots back to French Catholic settlements in the
provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Run out by the English in 1775,
they settled in Louisiana in places like Lafayette and New Orleans. With them
they brought a unique French influence to the region. Over 4 million Canadians
have immigrated to the United States since 1820. The peak for Canadian
immigration to the United States was in the 1920s when 920,000 Canadians
crossed the border looking for a new way of life. In the 1960’s this number
decreased to 413,000 and in the last decade, 100,000. Canada is made up of
persons primarily of British (45%) or French (29%) descent. Since Canada is a
bilingual country, most Canadian immigrants, regardless of French background,
assimilate easily into American communities.
French-Americans.
The influence upon American life is disproportionately greater than their actual
numbers in the United States. French explorers (e.g., Cartier, Champlain,
Marquette, Joliet, LaSalle) were the first to “discover” based upon the definition of
discoverer (covered in chapter four) areas in the heartland of America (e.g., the
Mississippi River and all lands drained by it); the Great Lakes; the St. Lawrence
River; Lake Champlain; Chicago, and Detroit. In 1562, the first group of French
Protestants (Huguenots) came to America because of religious persecution and
settled in South Carolina. The French fought alongside the colonists in the
American Revolution; Rochambeau and Lafayette were great military minds.
Dutch-Americans.
In 1609, Henry Hudson set out to find a Northeast Passage to the East Indies and
landed in which is now New York. The first Dutch settlement in America was in
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 98
Fort Nassau, near Albany, New York. In 1621, the Dutch West Indies Company was
formed. It promoted trade and settlement in America. The first group of
permanent Dutch settlers came to America seeking religious freedom in America.
The Patroonship System was established in 1629. Land plus ownership rights were
given to anyone settling 50 people on their land within four years. To qualify as a
patroon, a person had to be a major stockholder in the Dutch West Indies
Company since its founding. Although six patroonships were registered, only one
was successfully settled.
In 1640, in a renewed effort to bring more settlers to New Netherland, the
Dutch West Indies Company developed a charter encouraging persons of limited
economic means to settle there. As an early Governor of New Netherland, Peter
Stuyvesant changed it from a trading post to a permanent settlement, which
permitted a large degree of religious freedom. In 1663, a Dutch Mennonite named
Pieter Cornelis Plockhoy established the first socialist community in North America.
In 1668, the Dutch Quakers established the first declaration against slavery in
the United States. In 1758, they expelled from their membership anyone who
bought or sold slaves. The attitudes and behaviors of early settlers to this area
(much of what is present-day New York) greatly influenced the current culture and
characteristics that are distinctive to this part of America. Unrest in the
Netherlands increased immigration between 1829 and 1865. Immigrants settled in
Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, New Jersey, Indiana, and South Dakota.
German-Americans.
The first German immigrants to this country founded Germantown, Pennsylvania, in
1683. By 1766, one-third of Pennsylvania was inhabited by Germans. Most were
poor farmers who settled along the frontier from Georgia to the New England
colonies. The Pennsylvania Dutch was industrious and excellent farmers. They
developed the Kentucky rifle and Conestoga wagon. Although many religious sects
existed in Pennsylvania, there was a strong belief in religious tolerance and
separation of church and state. John Peter Zenger established the concept of
“Freedom of the Press.” Von Steuben introduced a concept of military discipline
during the Revolutionary War, which was instituted throughout the Army. During the
first half of the 19th century, German immigration exceeded all other. Germans
settled all over the country, especially in Rochester and Buffalo, New York;
Cincinnati and Cleveland, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri; and Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
German artisans and craft persons established businesses and helped industrial
expansion. German guilds marked the beginning of trade unions in this country.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 99
Irish-Americans.
The first Irish person to come to America was William Ayers, who was one of
Columbus’ crew. Francis Maguire was one of the original inhabitants of
Jamestown in 1607. John Dunlap, an Irish-American in Philadelphia, printed the
Declaration of Independence. During and after the potato blight in Ireland (1846-
48), immigration to the United States increased.
Italian-Americans.
Italians were among the earliest explorers of the country -- Christopher
Columbus; Amerigo Vespecci (America was named after him); Verrazano
missionaries Marcos de Niza and Eusebio Chino. Philip Mazzei, in 1773,
established a plantation next to Thomas Jefferson’s in Virginia, where he
introduced grapes and olives to America. He also aided the colonists during the
Revolution. Italian immigration increased after the failing of a great political
uprising in Italy in 1848. The peak of Italian immigration was reached during
1900-1920. The majority of Italians coming was poor and settled in New England,
the Great Lakes Region, Florida, and California. Most who could not get work in
their specialties concentrated in the heavily urbanized states along the Northeast
Seaboard.
Polish-Americans.
Several Poles accompanied the British when they landed in Jamestown, Virginia,
in 1608. They were experts and instructors in the manufacture of glass, pitch,
tar, and other products England imported from Poland. They did so well that
other Poles were invited to come. However, they were not allowed privileges
equal to those of the English. As a result of this inequity, the Poles organized the
first American popular assembly and labor walkout in 1619 in Jamestown. Many
Polish helped in the fight for American independence. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and
Count Casimir Pulaski (father of American cavalry) organized some decisive
victories. When Kosciuszko left America, he left his will in the custody of Thomas
Jefferson. He designated that the proceeds from his estate be used to purchase
Black slaves and give them freedom in his name. Prior to 1865, Poles who came to
this country were political exiles. Those who came after 1865 were poor
peasants. They settled in Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and
Milwaukee. Even though they came from rural backgrounds, they became
involved in industry, working in the local and iron fields. Dr. Marie Elizabeth
Zakrzewska, a medical pioneer, was active in women’s suffrage and the abolition
of slavery. She founded the New England Hospital for Women and Children.
Caroline Still, one of the earliest Black women doctors, did her internship at the
hospital. It was also one of the few White nursing schools to admit Blacks.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 100
Twelve percent of Americans who lost their lives in World War I were of Polish background,
even though at no time did the number of Poles in this country exceed four percent of the total
population.
Middle-Eastern-Americans.
Middle-Eastern-Americans are estimated to number 2.5 to 3.0 million in the United States
where their religious affiliation is both Christian and Islamic. This ethnic group is not closely
tracked in the U.S. census and the trail of their immigration to the United States is
sketchy. Many Syrians and Lebanese who immigrated to the United States in the last century
came under Turkish passports. Although the number of Islamic-Americans is on the rise, there is
a large number of the Middle-Eastern population in the U.S. that is made up of Maronite
and Melkite Christians of Lebanese descent. The first Lebanese immigrant to the United
States on record was Anthony Bishallany in 1854. The first Arabic newspaper in the United
States was founded in 1892 as Kawab Amerika (The Star of America).
Early immigration of the Arabs to the U.S. took place between 1886 and 1914. Most
were of Syrian and Lebanese descent and most lived in New York City. Historically, Syria
included Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, and occasionally Iran. In 1919, there were 400,000
recorded Middle-Eastern-Americans living in the United States. The majority was poor, under
educated, and had distaste for indoor factory work.
There were many thousands of them working as slaves on plantations. Others were
primarily traders, peddlers, industrial workers and farmers. Later some enterprises grew into
large businesses such as Haggar and Farah. These early communities cut off from their
heritage and families, inevitably lost their Islamic identity as time went by.
Immigration slowed during the period between W.W.I and W.W.II (1915 - 1945) due to
immigration laws. Immigration quotas imposed in 1921 and 1924 reduced the allowable
number of Middle-Eastern immigrants to less than 1,000. These restrictions were later
repealed, but the flow of these immigrants into the United States has still remained at a trickle.
Arabs who immigrated to the U.S. after 1945 were more educated, professional and
mainly of the Muslim faith and most came from Egypt, Iran and Palestine. This group has been
able to retain more of their culture than the earlier group. Those who arrived during the
first group attempted to distance themselves from some of the Arab world by adopting
western culture and language
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 101
Many of American English words have been borrowed from the Arabs such
as algebra, alcohol, alkali and alcove. The word “al” means “the” in Arabic. Some
of the names of foods in American are also Arabic such as apricot, sherbet, coffee,
sesame and ginger.
*The source of this historical perspective is reprinted with permission from the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute through the Fort Gordon Equal Opportunity Office website.1
Why Migrate to America?
In early times many European settlers came to this land to avoid religious
persecution. However, this was not the only reason to come to this new land:
political oppression, economic opportunity, and dreams of freedom and
opportunity. However, when they came to America how much freedom did these
Europeans really experience?
America’s servitude
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a variety of labor market institutions developed to facilitate the movement of labor in response to the
opportunities created by American factor proportions.2 While some immigrants migrated on their own, many of the immigrants were indentured servants whose journey to the new land was a business exchange. The travel was paid by the “Master” who was the Lord to the indentured servant once they arrived on American soil. One half to two thirds of all immigrants to Colonial America arrived
as indentured servants.3 At times, as many as 75% of the population of some
colonies were under terms of indenture.4
Indentured servitude first appeared in America a little over a decade after
the settlement of Jamestown in 1607.5 Labor was scarce; land was abundant and transportation costs to America were high compared to wages in England. An early economist noted that ... industry is limited by capital; but, through lack of labor, its limit is not always reached in older communities and seldom if ever in
newer countries.6 Indentured servitude appeared to have arisen from a combination of the terms of two other types of labor contract widely used in
England at the time: service in husbandry and apprenticeship (Galenson, 1981).7
In other cases, migrants borrowed money for their passage and committed to repay merchants by pledging to sell themselves as servants in America, a practice
known as “redemptioner servitude.8
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 102
More often than not, the indentured servants were shocked by their new
conditions. Rather than finding venues in which they could practice their profession,
like gardens and orchards, overseers marched servants out to the fields. Many
died, attempted to return, or ran away. In addition to mistreatment, many servants
also encountered contract extension, a popular punishment of planters for rowdy
indentures.
Indentured Servant Contract
(Courtesy of Northumberland County Virginia Records of Indentured Servants 1650-1795)
Master’s Name: Servant’s Name(s): Items:
1. The contract stated that the servant was to work for a set term, usually
four years, during which time they would receive room, board, and clothing in
addition to passage to America.
2. At the end of the term the individual was awarded “freedom dues,” in
the combination of money, tools, clothes, and/or land.
3. Skilled workmen sometimes added a clause exempting them from field
work. Children’s indentures, which were usually bound until the age of 21,
specified that they be taught a trade or given an elementary education.
4. Many German indentures often entered into servitude on the condition
that they be taught to read the Bible in English.
5. Servants were then assembled on deck so planters could interview them
and/or feel their muscles. Then they were auctioned to the highest bidder.
6. Soul drivers were those individuals who would buy in mass and then walk
the servants from town to town, reselling them.
7. In the early years, masters often drove their servants so hard that
the backbreaking regime combined with crude living conditions caused over
50% of the servants to die.
8. Women indentured servants in some colonies had to serve an extra
year if they became pregnant. Once their time of service was over, women
did not receive land, as did men, and only rarely were given money.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 103
Married couples were rarely indentured, and contract records normally listed each
woman who signed on for indentured servitude as either a “single-woman,” a
“spinster,” or a “widow.”9 Contract holders were referred to as “master” or
“mistress,” while the indentured woman was called a “bondswoman” or “bound
woman.” For both men and women, though, the indenture period was strict and
highly regulated, with laws protecting each side of the contract. The law specified,
for example, the clothing that was due to a servant when his or her term was
completed.
On the other hand, women who became pregnant while indentured could
have their terms extended to reimburse the master for the loss of time the
servant was unable to work and for the economic burden of her child.10 Because servants were not allowed to marry, some women used this situation to deliberately become pregnant, hoping that the father of her child would buy out her contract. Indentured servant was a way for people to emigrate but did not
often lead to the life of economic prosperity that was eventually hoped for.11
Throughout some history books Whites may not have been shown to start
in America as servants, as religiously persecuted or as political refuges coming to
seek freedom. Yet, this is exactly how many got their start in America.
White Male Perspective
As we look at the systems in the workplace, they most often are based upon the
white male culture (those who created and controlled the systems). Women
including white women very rarely participated in the workplace and people of
color had no power to determine the direction of the workplace. But as we talk
about “white males” this is done without ever really stating who is considered part
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 104
of the white male group. So, how can we understand the systems they created
without understanding the architects?
Over the course of time, the term "White Male" has come to refer to a group of people who espouse all of the following characteristics: (taken from the source: Addressing the Concerns of the White Man as Full Diversity Partners by Erik
Oosterwal)12
• Northern/Western European descent (although males of southern and
eastern European heritage are commonly included)
• Heterosexual, Male and Not Handicapped
• Middle class (more often upper middle class)
• Mainly Christian (Some Jews are now included)
If any of the characteristics are not met, then that person is often grouped with the associated subordinated group, such as gay, disabled, Arab, etc. White males who have the above characteristics in common also tend to have the same value system. This value system is based upon individualistic culture. Individualistic cultures
generally value self-reliance and autonomy of the individual.13
Believing in fairness and equal opportunities for everyone is critical in more individualistic cultures that often equate hierarchy with rigidity, even if equality is
more of a societal ideal than a reality.14 Furthermore, this individualistic approach
tends to value action, efficiency, getting to "the bottom line," while often
downplaying social interactions in the interests of achieving goals.15
People in individualistic cultures emphasize their success/achievements in job or private wealth and are often aiming up to reach more and/or a better job
position.16 In business they try to improve their connections and to gain more value out of them, not for establishing a good relationship but just to be involved in a calculative way. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote themselves whenever possible. Ultimately, individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to
look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family only.17
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This individualistic value system has also transferred to the workplace culture that many participate in. According to the article, White Men and Diversity: An Oxymoron? by Bill Proudman, White men in the United States work in organizational cultures that have been created by other white men therefore, the prevailing business culture often looks "normal"-it's the way business has always
been done.18 Common characteristics to be found in organizational cultures based
upon those white males who created the organizations years and years ago are as follows: the individual is the most important societal unit and people should take care of themselves because individual achievement is most valued; time is perceived as a quantity and people are expected to save time, spend time, and perform on time; people must dress and be accepted by resembling the European ideal of beauty and status (limited use of color--blues, blacks, gray), smaller sized women, authority in men represents a suit and tie therefore Ethnic hairstyles and religious dress is often seen as unprofessional; also, the workplace's resources belong to the best where access to goods/jobs is determined by competition (the
best) as reflected in test scores, etc.19
But why all the hype you may be asking: is there a problem with those values?
That depends on who you ask.
For those whose values differ—it requires assimilation if the culture of the
workplace is based upon those values.
For instance, many people of color such as, African-Americans, Native Americans,
Hispanic/Latino and most Asian cultures identify with Collectivism.20 Collectivism stands for a society in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong
cohesive in-groups (family, neighborhood or tribe), which throughout people's
lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.21 What is known about collectivism verse individualism is that these cultures are often at
opposite extremes.
Look at some workplace differences on the following page that are based upon
race generalizations.
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Normative Styles & Values for Cross-Cultural Collaboration (Adapted from Candia Elliott, Diversity Training Associates, R. Jerry Adams, Ph.D., Evaluation and Development Institute and Suganya Sockalingam, Ph.D., Office of Multicultural Health, Department of
Human Resources, Oregon.) 22
Work Style (Focus
Group)
Very Little Little Medium Much Very Much
Task Focused vs.
Relationship
Native Am.
Hispanic
Asian Am.
African Am. White
Long term history
between groups
important
White Native Am. Hispanic
African Am.
Asian Am.
Perceived right to
set rules
Native Am.
Hispanic
Asian Am.
African Am. White
Perceived right to
speak freely at
meetings
Native Am.
Hispanic
Asian Am.
African Am. White
Concern with
clock time
Native Am.
Hispanic
African Am. Asian Am.
White
Perceived right to
represent or speak for
group
Native Am.
Asian Am.
African Am.
Hispanic White
Collaborators must have
community respect and
support
White Native Am. Hispanic
Asian Am.
African Am.
The chart above titled, Normative Styles & Values for Cross-Cultural
Collaboration is BY NO MEANS representative of every person in the identified group.
These are norms that researchers have found to be common elements of many in
the associated groups. But if individuals in the workplace follow these cultural
aspects then you can see why the systems that are based upon some aspects of
white male culture don’t work for everyone.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 107
So, what does this mean? It often means that the challenge with white male
culture is not the individual qualities of the culture, but the fact that some
assimilate far more easily into the culture than others. White women, people of
color, and openly gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender individuals often have to
be bi-cultural. They must learn to consciously be seen as competent in the white
male heterosexual culture. What complicates the issues is that often times, white
heterosexual men are not even aware that such assimilation is part of their
colleagues' everyday work experience. This "not knowing" can create difficulties,
strained work relationships, and charges of "He just doesn't get it."
Many White men never have to leave their culture; thus they are often
unaware of the systemic advantages they receive-from being white and/or male-
and how this impacts their partnerships at work with white women, people of
color, and other white men. 23 Systemic advantages are often the unspoken and
invisible benefits that are received by a person because of their group
membership (being white, male, heterosexual, and so forth). These advantages
are made to look normal and available to any person who desires them. Systemic
advantage is not so much what a person has, but it's more what a person doesn't
have to think about on a daily basis. However, receiving systemic advantage does
not entirely prevent white men from being the recipients of mistreatment and
discrimination. But, systematic advantage can leave people outside of this culture
to believe that systems will never advantage those outside of it.
While the highest position in America, President is held by a black man
President Barack Obama White males in many respects still have cultural
dominance due to the powerful positions they hold in Corporate America. White
males hold the majority of top management positions in these companies. These
positions are often gained through two main vehicles: hard work and effort or
through the good old boys network.
A general definition explaining good ol’ boy networks basically says it is a
social network, or at least the perception of it, which heavily influences local business, government, and legal functions and it is said to be very informal and decentralized, there’s no real ‘list’ or organization, it’s just known who is influential and calls the shots locally. It is usually composed of white males that come from local religious or legal organizations that extend opportunities to those
who are most like them.24 This allows “the birds of a feather who flock together”
to maintain their power structure.
So based upon this definition, does this mean that the good ol’ boy network
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 108
is negative? Who wouldn’t extend favors to their friends, or to friends asking
for their friends, or for family members? I’ve often heard the phrase, ‘it’s who you
know not what you know that’s important’ spoken in relation to finding jobs and
good deals. On the other hand, I’ve heard the phrase ‘big fish in a small pond’ used
to describe people who like being the big dogs and block things/people that would
take away their power, even if those things/people are better for the community or
organization. It is this mentality of the power hungry that can make the good old
boys' network seem harmful.
But power (if you have it) can be difficult to give up. Apparently if you’re
connected to the network, you can get perks and deals not offered to the normal population. Membership in the boys' club has some definite advantages for those who can be an associate (not all white males are invited). As a member, you're privy to important information, and many critical business decisions. Club meetings are often held in such places as private golf courses, men's rooms and smoke-filled
cigar bars.24 With its unwritten rule, "No women allowed," and the environment
not necessarily inviting to men of color the informal good old boys' network continues to bar unapproved white males, women and men of color from top
management positions (positions that hold the most power).25
Just as there are white males who have or have had considerable access to
power and privilege and only spread that amongst those like themselves, there are
also many white males who understand what it means to be white and male in
America and have used their influence and power to extend opportunity to those
unlike themselves. There have been people of all races, genders and religious
groups that have been and are advocates for diversity—but white males are the
group that some don’t see in this light. Some think that every white male is a part of
the good ol’ boy network—this is indeed a myth. It is also a myth that white
males are not advocates for the ills of society. To destroy these myths is the very
reason why we address white male advocacy for diversity.
White Males as Advocates for Diversity
Just as there are white males who participate and benefit from their
“whiteness and maleness” in America and from the good ‘ol boy network, there are
many more white males who have been and are advocates for diversity.
Oftentimes, when we discuss the problems of America that transcend into the
workplace (as we will later discuss in this text) it is the “white male” as a group who
is seen as the perpetrator by women and people of color. This is unfortunate as this
does not allow those white males who could be and are advocates for diversity to be
viewed as such—instead there can be a preconceived notion by subordinate groups
that ALL white males are against equality and diversity initiatives.
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As far back as the development of this country, you will find white males who fought for justice and rights of all people. These white males did not believe in the privileges being bestowed upon landowning white men and fought to change this power structure. Even before the declaration of political independence on the part of the British North American colonies, slavery was under attack by a number of religious and political leaders for example, from the Quakers and Evangelicals, such as William Wilberforce (1759–1833), Thomas Clarkson (1760– 1846), and Granville Sharp (1735–1813). Antislavery movements flourished both
in the metropolis and in the colonies.26 In 1787, Abbé Grégoire (1750–1831),
Abbé Raynal (1713–1796), the Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834), and others formed an antislavery committee in France called the Société des Amis des Noirs, which took up the issue in the convened Estates General in 1789 and later pushed for broadening the basis of citizenship in the National Assembly. Their benevolent
proposals, however, were overtaken by other events.27
During the Civil Rights Era on August 4, 1964, in Neshoba Country,
Mississippi, the bodies of three civil-rights workers—two white men and one black male—are found in an earthen dam, six weeks into a federal investigation backed
by President Johnson. 28 James E. Chaney, 21; Andrew Goodman, 21; and Michael Schwerner, 24, had been working together to register black voters in Mississippi, and, on June 21, had gone to investigate the burning of a black church. They were arrested by the police on speeding charges, incarcerated for several hours, and then released after dark into the hands of the Ku Klux Klan, who murdered not
just the black man but all the men.29
Then there is Oliver Hill, a Roanoke-raised civil rights lawyer/pioneer. As
one of the architects of the Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case he recently died at the age of 100 in Richmond, Virginia. Governor Tim Kaine of Virginia spoke of Hill and was quoted as saying "Few individuals in Virginia's rich history have worked as tirelessly as Oliver Hill to make life better for all of our citizens," "His life's work was predicated on the simple truth that all men and
women truly are created equal."30
These are just a few white males who fought for the rights of equality,
there are so many more. There are also a substantial number of white males who
fight today against discrimination and for workplace diversity initiatives. In May
2003, a group of white males known as Angry White Males for Affirmative Action
led by Paul Kivel marched on behalf of Affirmative Action. This issue was being
addressed at the University of Michigan. Paul Kivel created this group of white
males because he states in many of his speeches that he became involved in the
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 110
struggle to end racism as a college student more than thirty years ago.31 It is then
that he began to see the visible and devastating impact that racism had on people of color. He is the founder of the nationally recognized Oakland's Men's Project and has conducted hundreds of workshops on racism and anti-violence for teens and
men all over the country.32 He sees affirmative action and diversity programs
as one way to address the racism that has benefited some and disadvantaged
others.
The bottom-line is that in order to fight the isms, we need all people— white males, women, and people of color, etc. to work against the systems that perpetuate injustice and harm diversity. Yet it is frequently assumed that diversity initiatives should involve only women and people of color. This belief that white males should not participate with diversity is not only false, but also damaging. It keeps white men, who gain just like others from the benefits that diversity provides and white male leaders who represent the largest power base in our culture, from
participating in diversity initiatives.33
So what can white men who are not aligned with diversity initiatives do to aid in
the struggle for equality in the workplace?
Cultivate a hunger for new learning. By learning about other points of view, other cultures, even differences in gender perspectives, white males provide themselves a basis for being effective at fostering diversity and gaining for themselves, and
others, the benefits diversity provide.34
Learn to speak out about what they’ve learned. White men should talk to others including other white men on diversity issues instead of leaving it to those people most directly impacted by workplace inequities. White males may need to recognize that speaking out demonstrates publicly their commitment to the value of diversity and helps to diminish the view that diversity is just about women and people of
color.35
Recognize that they must be equal partners with members of subordinated groups. Partnering in an organization's diversity activities and initiatives lets it be known that not only does everyone have something to gain by diversity but everyone has
something to contribute.36
Recognize that many in their group have not been subjected to the same
experiences of discrimination. Subordinated group members have different
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 111
experiences and views toward equality, thus leaving differing views toward
workplace injustice and perceived opportunity.37
Support diversity initiatives. Change occurs much more easily when it comes from
the top down, not bottom up.38
These are a few suggestions that can help address difference in a positive
manner. But the real point is that—the building of successful diversity
partnerships requires commitment not just from women and people of color but
also from white men.
Discrimination against White Males
Just like other groups, many Whites came to America without freedom but the
difference is they could eventually buy their freedom. Unlike the institution of
slavery that was imposed on many blacks, Native Americans and other people of
color—there was never to be any freedom—EVER. But does this mean that whites
were without discrimination? We know that white women just like many other
women were not given equal rights, as they could not vote, own land or be in
control of their own destiny by many respects (which will be discussed in a later
chapter). But what about White men? As we discuss this history of discrimination
in White America, we will challenge the thought that white males are the sole
group that has not experienced discrimination.
A generation ago, the major labor pool in the U.S. was White males, and
jobs were designed to meet the needs of these workers. Seven out of ten
American workers were men and fathers of families. As a rule, wives did not work
outside the home. So, Caucasian men were the “traditional” workers. In 1990,
they represented about 75 percent of the labor force. Back then life was so much
simpler for management because most in this group held the same values. They
held a belief in Christianity, family, were able bodied and adhered to a
heterosexual lifestyle. However, today with the increase in diversity in the
workplace and lifestyles, we will find that there are more white males as well as
others who do not fit the mode of this traditional worker.
Some White males are parts of groups in society who experience
discrimination in the workplace. These include older workers, disabled workers,
non-Christian workers and homosexuals. But, this is only half of the story, as
these aren’t the only accounts of discrimination against White males in America.
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The Irish
The Penal Laws, a series of ferocious enactments, dating from 1695, and not repealed in their entirety until Catholic emancipation in 1829, were aimed at the
destruction of Catholicism in Ireland.39 These laws were provoked by Irish support of the Stuarts after the Protestant William of Orange was invited to ascend the English throne in 1689, and England faced the greatest Catholic power in Europe – France. At this critical moment the Catholic Irish took up arms in support of the
Stuarts.40 James the II’s standards was raised in Ireland, and he, with an Irish Catholic army, was defeated on Irish soil, at the battle of the Boyne, near Drogheda,
on July 1, 1690.41
This threat to England had been alarming, and vengeance followed. Irish
intervention on behalf of the Stuarts was to be made impossible forever by reducing the Catholic Irish to helpless impotence. They were, in the words of a contemporary, to become ‘insignificant slaves, fit for nothing but to hew wood and draw water’, and to achieve this object the Penal Laws were devised. These laws barred Catholics from the army, navy, the law, and commerce and from every civic activity. Catholics could not vote, hold any office under the Crown, or purchase land,
and Catholic estates were dismembered.42 Education was made almost impossible especially since Catholics could not attend schools, keep or run schools, nor send
their children to be educated in Ireland or abroad.43 They could not purchase land, lease land, keep arms or even receive a gift of land. These Penal Laws even
allowed the Protestants to hunt Catholic priests as a sport.44
The Penal Laws caused material damage that was great; ruin was
widespread, old families disappeared and old estates were broken up; but the most
disastrous effects were moral. The Penal Laws brought lawlessness, dissimulation
and revenge. The Irish character, above all the character of peasantry, did become
degraded and debased. The basis of religion was used to divide the Irish from the
English.
The next occurrence, the Great Potato Famine, caused destruction of the
Irish and forced them to seek refuge in the Americas. The great potato famines of 1845-51 reduced the population of Irish from 8 million to 6.6 million through
starvation, disease and emigration to Britain and America.45 The potato was the Irish’s agricultural base and their main food product. When the potato crop was destroyed by blight, the result was devastating: the people’s only source of food was
gone.46
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Irish Catholics came to this country as an oppressed race. When they were back home these “native Irish or papists” suffered something similar but not as devastating as American slavery under English Penal Laws. Because of this the Irish and African Americans had a lot in common and a lot of contact when the
Irish first arrived in America.47 They lived side-by-side and shared workspaces. In the early years of immigration the poor Irish and Blacks were thrown together, very much part of the same class competing for the same jobs. In the census of 1850, the term “mulatto” appears for the first time due primarily to inter-marriage
between Irish and African Americans.48
Furthermore, there was a custom of marrying White (Irish) servants to Black slaves in order to produce slave offspring. The offspring would be slaves because anyone who had more than 1/8 or so of African blood was considered a
“Negro”.49 Many Irish children became slaves through this custom. If a servant is
forced to mate with a slave in order to produce slave children for her slave master, is she not a slave?
At this point, you may be wondering what happened that allowed the Irish
to finally be accepted into society. Many historians say they gave up their greenness for whiteness. An article by a Black writer in an 1860 edition of the Liberator explained how the Irish ultimately attained acceptance into this White
protestant world that they were outsiders to.50 A Catholic priest in Philadelphia
said to the Irish people in that city, ‘You are all poor, and chiefly laborers, the blacks are poor laborers; many of the native Whites are laborers; now, if you wish to succeed, you must do everything that the White natives do, no matter how degrading, and do it for less than they can afford to do it for.’ The Irish adopted this plan; they lived on less than the White Americans could live upon, and worked for less, and the result is, that nearly all the menial employments was
monopolized by the Irish.51 There were other avenues open to other American
white men, and so the threat of the Irish was not taken so harshly.
Once the Irish secured themselves in those jobs, they made sure blacks
were kept out.52 They realized that as long as they continued to work alongside
Blacks, they would be considered no different. Later the Irish became prominent in the Labor movement, free Blacks were excluded from participation.
Now you may be wondering: I have never heard this story told this way.
Unfortunately, this is not a myth it is the truth. Many historical accounts of this
time however play little significance to race and have presented a biased picture
of the events of this time leaving out very important facts. Race was of such
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 114
importance in America that one oppressed race, Irish Catholics, learned how to
collaborate in the oppression of another race, African Americans, in order to
secure their place in the White republic. Was this wrong? Do you think they knew of
any other options to change their status in this new land?
In an individualistic society it is often necessary for people to do what is best for
them rather than what is good for others. So, the Irish melted into the pot. By
giving up a lot of their Irish cultural heritage and the legacy of oppression and
discrimination back home, they thus gained acceptance. The Irish came to the
U.S. with nothing and were not seen as valuable and so they did what was
necessary in their eyes to gain acceptance and value and to end the discrimination
they felt here in America. The point is that, in a society where difference is
appreciated this would not have been necessary.
German American Wartime Mistreatment
Thanks to federal legislation and effective activism by their ethnic group, U.S.
government mistreatment of the 120,000 Japanese & Japanese Americans is well
known. Many even know that an additional 2,000 Japanese from Latin America
were picked up so that the United States would have prisoners to exchange with
families in this country and in Latin America. But, after almost 60 years, the
German American experience remains buried. The few surviving, aged internees
remember their experiences well, despite years of trying to forget. Many say that
these memories haunt them. Mostly, because they are Americans who revere
freedom and they want the dreadful saga of their wartime mistreatment told so it
will never happen again.
While their numbers are much smaller, the stories are virtually the same. In the days after the Dec. 7, 1941, bombing of Pearl Harbor, some 31,000 “enemy aliens” were swept up—ostensibly because of possible alliances to the Axis
forces.51 Among them were about 10,000 Germans and 3,000 Italians, and the rest
were Japanese and smatterings of other European groups. These enemy aliens lost everything.
The 1918 Codification of Alien Enemy Act of 1798, 50 USC 21-24, permitted the apprehension and internment of aliens of “enemy ancestry” by US government upon
declaration of war or threat of invasion.52 The President was given blanket
authority as to “enemy alien” treatment. Civil liberties could be completely ignored because enemy aliens had no protection under this 202-year old law. Government oppression is likely during wartime, but is it appropriate?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 115
Due to this act, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor Roosevelt issued identical Presidential Proclamations 2525, 2526 and 2527 branding German, Italian and Japanese nationals as enemy aliens, authorizing internment, and
travel and property ownership restrictions.53 A blanket presidential warrants
authorized U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle to have the FBI arrest a large
number of “dangerous enemy aliens” based on the CDI.54 Hundreds of German
aliens were arrested by the end of the day. The FBI raided many homes and hundreds more were detained before war was even declared on Germany.
From 1942 till 1945 thousands of German aliens and German Americans
were arrested, interned, excluded, paroled, exchanged and generally harassed
and discriminated against by a suspicious country.55 Many of the Germans left
Germany because of the Nazis, and then came to the U.S. and were considered Nazis. According to Joseph Fallon, co-author of the five-volume German Americans in the World Wars, writes on his Website: “The majority of the best- selling collegiate and secondary school history texts in the United States claim
that, unlike Japanese Americans, the German and Italian Americans were not arrested and interned; and both the print and electronic media have propagated this myth. He further states, “that for the most part, the history of internment
has been either quieted or distorted.” 56
Italian American Wartime Mistreatment
In November of 1999, Senator Robert G. Torricelli introduced the following bill, “Wartime Violation of Italian American Civil Liberties Act” to provide for the preparation of a Government report detailing injustices suffered by Italian Americans during World War II, and a formal acknowledgement of such injustices
by the President.57
Based on this bill, Congress has made the following findings58:
The freedom of more than 600,000 Italian-born immigrants in the United
States and their families was restricted during World War II by government
measures that branded them “enemy aliens”.
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During World War II more than 10,000 Italian Americans living on the West
Coast were forced to leave their homes and prohibited from entering coastal zones.
More than 50,000 were subjected to curfews.
Thousands of Italian American immigrants were arrested, and hundreds were interned in military camps.
The impact of the wartime experience was devastating to Italian American
communities in the United States, and its effects are still being felt.
A deliberate policy kept these measures from the public during the war. Even
50 years later much information is still classified, the full story remains unknown to
the public, and the United States Government has never acknowledged it in any
official capacity.
A particular section in the Act states59:
“It is the sense of the Congress that … (1) the story of the treatment of Italian
Americans during World War II needs to be told in order to acknowledge that
these events happened, to remember those whose lives were unjustly disrupted and
whose freedoms were violated, to help repair the damage to the Italian American
community, and to discourage the occurrence of similar injustices and violations of
civil liberties in the future.”
The noted poet and philosopher, George Santayana, observed that those who
cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. This is exactly what North
Carolina Representative Melvin L. Watt was saying in the discussion of the bill:
You need to confront the truth before you can deal with assuring that that sad
chapter is not repeated.
So, have white males experienced discrimination? Yes. I conclude this section
with the following myth and fact:
Myth: White males have not experienced discrimination in America
Fact: White males from various ethnicities and backgrounds have and do experience
discrimination in America.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 117
Concluding Thoughts
People of all races, genders, religions, etc. have much to gain by effectively
managing workplace diversity. This starts with people of color not blaming white
males as a group for the ills of the world and ethnic pathology. It starts with white
males eliminating their suspicion that people of color and women excel for only
"those" traits and not their work ethics, skills and ability. Both of these negative
mindsets denude true collaboration and respect. It seems obvious that if White
males still hold the majority of top management positions then for diversity
initiatives to be successful, it must have white male leadership support.
End of Chapter Questions
1. Name groups of white males who have experienced discrimination and
why.
2. How did white women and white men settlers opportunities differ?
3. In America, the Irish, Germans and Italians are no longer referred to as Irish-Americans, German-Americans and Italian-Americans—they are
just White/Caucasians, so why are there still groups that have the
hyphenation such as Arab-Americans and African-Americans? How
does this relate to the melting pot theory from the previous chapter?
4. Why were some White Americans considered immigrants and others not considered immigrants?
5. Do you think that we do not hear about White culture because it is has been the dominant culture and known as American culture? If you
agree, then what are the advantages or disadvantages to having a
culture you identify with as the “main” culture. If you don’t identify
with this then explain what would be defined as American culture and
whose values, lifestyle, etc. it is based upon.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 118
Internet Exercise Using the Internet or www.google.com find an article that addresses the role of white
men and diversity. Summarize what the article says and state if you agree or disagree
with its viewpoint.
Search Key Words: role of white males and diversity
End of Chapter Exercise Do we have the same perspective?
Directions: Using the chart in the chapter that espouses the workplace style differences
between races, answer the questions below. Then find a partner and compare your answers to see if your viewpoints are the same.
1. You are part of a team that has diverse races of individuals. Some people show up late to the meetings even though the times were agreed upon. Others socialize once
at the meeting because they are not task oriented but relationship oriented. Who is
right? How do you bridge the gap—of the extremes?
2. You are having a community fundraiser and trying to elect a leader of your group, do you elect someone with the same background as that community? Why or Why not?
3. There is a group meeting and an employee comes dressed informally. There is no dress code but you know that people are judging this employee by their personal
appearance. You hired this person and know that they are more than qualified to do
the job however by their appearance they are not convincing. You have read the
chart in this chapter and realize that some cultures do not believe in the European
style of formal dress for the workplace. What do you do?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 119
References
1. Fort Gordon Equal Opportunity Office. (n.d.). White American Experience. Retrieved from http://www.gordon.army.mil/eoo/white.htm
2. Ballagh, J. C. (1895). White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia. Baltimore MD: John Hopkins University Press.
3. Binder, F. M. Binder & Reimers, D. M. (1992). The way we lived: Essays and Documents. American Social History, 1, 1607-1877.
4. Cunnington, P. (1974). Costume of Household Servants from the Middle Ages to 1900. London, UK; Harper and Row Publishers, Inc.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Galson, D. W. (1981). White Servatude in Colonial America: An Economic Analysis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
8. Haynie, W. P. (1996). Northumberland County Virginia Records of Indentured Servants 1650- 1795. Westminster, MA: Heritage Books, Inc.
9. Smith, A. E. (1947). Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607- 1776. Chapel Hill, NC.: University of North Carolina.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Oosterwal, E. (n.d.). Addressing the Concerns of the White Man as Full Diversity Partners. Retrieved from http://www.geocities.com/oosterwal/works/whitediversity.html
13. Black, R. S., Mrasek, K. D. & Ballinger, R. (2003, Spring). Individualist and Collectivist Values in Transition Planning for Culturally Diverse Students with Special Needs. Journal of Psychology, 25(2)(3).
14. Ziegahn, L. (2001). Considering Culture in the Selection of Teaching Approaches for Adults. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
15. Ibid.
16. Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and Organizations - Intercultural Cooperation and its importance for survival. London: HarperCollins.
17. Ibid.
18. Proudman, B. (2005, January/February). White Men and Diversity: An Oxymoron? Retrieved from http://www.mcca.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=809
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 120
19. Helms, J. E. (1992). A Race Is a Nice Thing to Have: A Guide to Being A White Person or Understanding the White Persons in your life. Topeka, KS: Content Communications.
20. Ziegahn, L. (2001). Considering Culture in the Selection of Teaching Approaches for Adults, Columbus. OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
21. Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and Organizations - Intercultural Cooperation and its importance for survival. London: HarperCollins.
22. Elliott, C., Adams, R. J., & Sockalingam, S. (n.d.). Office of Multicultural Health, Department of Human Resources, Oregon Retrieved from http://www.vdh.state.va.us/ohpp/clasact/documents/clasact/general/normative.pdf
23. Proudman, B. (2005, January/February). White Men and Diversity: An Oxymoron? Retrieved from http://www.mcca.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=809
24. Ibid
25. Roediger, D. (1991). The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class. New York, NY: Verso.
26. Knight, F. W. (2005, Fall). The Haitian Revolution and the Notion of Human Rights. The Journal of the Historical Society, (5)3, 391-416. 27. Ibid
28. Linder, D. O. (2002, Winter). Bending Toward Justice: John Doar and the Mississippi Burning Trial. Mississippi Law Journal, (72)2. 29. Ibid.
30. Sorenson Institute for Political Leadership. (n.d.). University of Virginia. Retrieved from http://www.sorenseninstitute.org/newsroom/entry/memoriam-oliver-hill
31. Kivel, P. (2002). Uprooting Racism: How White people can work for racial justice. Canada: New Society Publishers.
32. Ibid.
33. Atkinson, W. (2001, September). Bringing diversity to White Men, HR Magazine, 46(9), 76-83.
34. Helms, J. E. (1992). A Race is a Nice Thing to Have: A Guide to Being a White Person or Understanding the White Persons in Your Life. Topeka, KS: Content Communications.
35. Lester, J. S. (1994). The Future of White Men and Other Diversity Dilemmas. Berkeley, CA: Conari Press. 36. Oosterwal, E. (n.d.). Addressing the Concerns of the White Man as Full Diversity Partners. Retrieved from http://www.geocities.com/oosterwal/works/whitediversity.html
37. Katznelson, I. (2005). When Affirmative Action Was White. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Four: Understanding the White Male Culture 121
38. Henry, W., III. (1990, April 9). Beyond the Melting Pot. Time.
39. Dunn, J. (2004). The Glories of Ireland. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12111/12111-8.txt
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Nyland, C., Dimand, R. W. (2003). The Status of Women in Classical Economic Thought. Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Goodbody, R. (1996). Transactions of the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends during the Famine in Ireland. Dublin: Edmund Burke Publisher, 1852.
46. Dunn, J. (2004). The Glories of Ireland. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12111/12111-8.txt
47. Dooley, B. (1998). Black and Green. The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland and Black
America. Pluto Press: London, 1998.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Hodges, G. R. (1998). Slavery, Freedom & Culture Among Early American Workers. New York: M.E. Sharpe.
51. Ebel, K. E. (2003, February 24). WWII Violations of German American Civil Liberties by the US Government. Retrieved from: http://www.ams.org/bookpages/hmath-34/PioneeringWomen2.pdf
52. Ibid.
53. German American Internee Coalition. Retrieved from http://www.gaic.info/history.html
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Earle, S. M. (2000, January 23). Germans, too, were imprisoned in WWII. Concord Monitor. Retrieved from http://www.foitimes.com/internment/Ebelcm.htm
57. U.S. Congressional Bibliographies. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/congbibs/house/106hdgst1.html
58. 106th Congress. PUBLIC LAW 106–451—NOV. 7, 2000 114 STAT. 1947 Public Law 106–451
59. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 122
Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work
Equality is difficult, but superiority is painful.
Serere proverb
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 123
UNDERSTANDING WOMEN & WORK
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
define what some refer to as “women’s work.”
identify how women’s work changed after industrialization.
discuss women and physically demanding jobs.
describe stereotypes that plague various cultures of women.
understand the difference between the glass and concrete
ceiling.
argue equal pay issues.
Chapter Five
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 124
What would the world be like without women? Based upon the theory of procreation,
the world and its population as we know it would be extinct. But, is procreation the
only type of work women are good for? This brings us to the topic of women’s
work—or is there such a thing? In addressing women as a diverse entity in the
workplace it is essential that we address this topic of “women’s work.”
In order for there to be women’s work there must also be men’s work. But, when we
go back to the days when people bartered for a living and everyone worked at
home there wasn’t this designation. Everyone worked the farm, did chores, cared
for the family and participated in a skill or craft that provided a living for the
family. Women chopped wood, worked in the fields, brought kids into the world
and then went back to working. Everyone was paid equally by bartering for
what the family needed, as there was no one “breadwinner.” Yet, somehow
working at home meaning domestic work, family maintenance, the reproduction and
socialization of children became “women’s work.” This work typically earns no
pay whereas working outside the home, a “man’s job” earns pay.
Industrialization Changes Women’s Participation in the Workforce This term “women’s work” was quite common prior to the Industrial Revolution as
the free American born women performed their work tasks in the home and rarely
worked outside the home. In pre-industrial America, women and girls not only
performed much of the labor necessary for family survival but participated in the
household manufacture of yarn, cloth, candles, and food. But, this simple definition
of work life soon ended as the industrial revolution transformed many women’s
lives. By 1790, the availability of water-powered machinery such as spinning
frames and carding machines enabled businessmen to substitute power tools for
women’s hand labor in the manufacture of cloth.1 In December of 1790, the first
water-powered spinning mill opened its doors in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.2 By 1813, 175 other cotton and wool spinning mills, employing entire families,
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 125
punctuated the river rich New England landscape.3 This was the beginning of
women working in factories.
Until the immigration wave of the 1840s many of the female factory workers were single, native-born Caucasian women recruited from middle-class
farms.4 During this time, many of these women worked over seventy hours a
week at substandard wages.
As more women were recruited to work in the factories, the women’s experiences as factory workers varied according to their ethnicity, race, and class, and differed from those of men. An occupational hierarchy among women prevailed in which Yankee women enjoyed the greatest access to the best-paying women’s jobs; daughters of immigrants concentrated in semiskilled positions; and immigrant women worked in the least skilled, most poorly paid occupations. As a rule, free African American women were excluded from factory employment and
were kept mainly as poorly paid domestic workers.5
Rigid gender-based occupational segregation ensured that even the
highest-paid, most senior female factory worker could expect to receive less than a man employed in the same establishment. Furthermore, by the 1840s women represented 50 percent of factory workers in the shoe and textile industries but even with these numbers they rarely worked alongside men; instead, they held jobs whose low wages affirmed the belief that women’s work was less skilled than
men’s and less important to family survival.6
Most women holding factory jobs in the first decades of industrialization
were single and could therefore participate as factory labor. Immigrant and working-class wives and mothers were more likely to participate in the wage- based labor market as outworkers. In New York City, the foremost manufacturing center of the antebellum period, outwork was the dominant form of female
employment and it was also one of the most exploitive.7
Outwork enabled women confined to their homes to contribute to the
family economy while still performing tasks as wives and mothers. But merchants
took advantage of the women’s limited mobility and bargaining power by
withholding and cutting wages. Already doubly burdened by society’s expectations
of them as wives and wage earners, female outworkers coped with their
precarious financial status by accepting more contracted jobs to make ends meet.
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Although upper- and middle-class white women were typically spared the long hours and low wages that characterized both factory labor and outwork, they were nevertheless forced to contend with the ideological devaluation of housework
that industrialization spawned.8 As “real” labor became more closely identified with
work that had a concrete market value, women lost out.
Childbearing, child rearing, cooking, cleaning, and other traditionally female
tasks, whether performed by elite women, working-class women, or a growing
number of domestic servants, were demeaned. The household, increasingly
perceived in opposition to a male-dominated market as a feminized space, came to
be viewed as a site of leisure and consumption rather than labor and production.
This left women’s work out as a variable to be considered when determining the
pay associated with these types of duties.
The Economic System & Women’s Work Would you believe that our economic system in the U.S. (capitalism) has set the
tone for the wage-labor system (pay vs. no pay) used for men and women?
Capitalism operates as a system where prices and wages are often set by demand
and supply, thus making certain items valuable and other’s not so valuable which is
determined by the desired demand for the item and the price paid for it. For
example, we value a Mercedes more than a Pontiac not just because the Mercedes is
a good car but also because it is pricey and that often denotes value. So when we
put women’s work into this context, we find that women’s work is not valuable since
there is no set price paid for it. Meaning women aren’t paid for their work so it must
not be valuable.
Whether you buy this argument or not, it is true that women’s work
continues to be seen by some people as natural functions, instinctive and of little
importance when compared with men’s work. This downgrading of what is known to
many as women’s work has been the cause of many myths surrounding women and
their value to the workplace.
Up until World War II, most White married women living with their husbands
worked outside their homes only if they were extremely poor or if a hardship was
experienced, such as the husband was unable to pay the bills or unable to work.9 If
this occurred the family was shamed and this often negatively affected the man’s
self-esteem because he was unable to fill this societal expectation.
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But, does the above example prove that women were unable to work or do
the same job as men in the workplace or was it that they were expected not to?
Trust me, there is a difference. If we knew more about women’s history we would
know that being able to do a job is more a factor of an individual’s personality,
skills, heredity, learning ability, etc… than just a factor of one’s gender. For every
job that a man can do you will find a woman that is capable of doing that same
job.
Women and physically demanding jobs
If you look at the physical challenges as it relates to male and female
Firefighters, they often don't have to meet the same standards: while men must
be able to bench-press 200 lbs., women are asked only to bench-press 150.10
Does this make it obvious that men are stronger than women and women therefore can’t cut it when it comes to a physically demanding job?
Karen Messing has a book entitled One-Eyed Science (1998) which deals
with occupational health. Some of the ideas she presents in this book can help
explain why differential strength requirements exist for male and female workers
in such jobs as firefighting--though the argument has also been raised for
construction work, police work, certain areas of the military, and other
traditionally male occupations.
According to her chapter "Are Women Biologically fit for Jobs? Are Jobs Fit for Women?" (Ch 3) she indicates that tests of this sort are based on average
abilities.11 Of course, some women will be able to lift the same heavy weight that
some men will not be able to lift and vice-versa. What may make a difference in a woman's ability to lift the object is how she is being told to lift it.
If workers are told that there is one appropriate way to lift an object (like
a person in a fire), and that lifting procedure was developed using men who were the traditional workers in that field, then the procedure will most likely make the
most of men's upper body strength.12 What Messing and her colleagues found was that if women are allowed to develop their own techniques to lift heavy objects, then they will most likely shift the burden toward their lower-body
strength and perform the task successfully; women will use their hips.13
For instance, when women hold babies for long periods of time - they
balance the baby on their hips. This is a practical solution to the problem of
holding and/or lifting heavy objects whether these objects are babies or adults
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caught in a fire. When given some freedom to structure how women will perform certain tasks on the job, women are much more likely to be able to perform on
par with men than when women are told "this is how it needs to be done."14 The argument Messing makes is that jobs traditionally held by men (such as firefighting)
developed tests (such as strength tests) specifically with men's bodies in mind.15
In studying the history of various cultures, we find several examples of
different ethnic groups that prove that women were valued or given the work
responsibilities of men. There were also times in history where little distinction was
given to the work for men vs. women. During the enslavement of Blacks, was it only
the men that worked the fields from sunrise to sunset? No, the price of slaves
was often based upon how healthy and stocky they were—men or women. The
women worked in the field right along with the men and they sometimes did this
with their babies on their back. These enslaved women also were beaten just like the
men and put back in the field to carry on as their male counterparts.
Furthermore, in Messing’s book she uses an example of a baker - also a
traditional male job. The baker must carry sacks of sugar which could be of any
weight – the decision to make sacks of sugar 40 pounds each instead of 20
pounds each is a political decision which takes for granted the strength of the
"average" (male) baker who will be required to lift the bag.15 But such sacks of
sugar could just as easily have been made 20 pounds apiece. Even though some
women could likely lift the 40 lb. bag of sugar if she is allowed to develop a
technique suited to her own body.
Messing's main point is that jobs are adaptable; they have usually been
adapted to men since they were the traditional workers in those positions. When
women come along and ask that the job be adapted to their average capabilities,
however, this strikes people as being unfair, as somehow lowering the standards of
the job, or as admitting that women are not as capable as men, or in creating
"double standards". In fact, the job itself, the techniques, and the equipment used
were designed to "fit" with men's average capabilities (they were and many still
are – male standards) and so are biased in favor of male workers. Again, this is not
to say that some women will not be able to perform the job, but too often the
equipment and techniques used in a particular job are not suited to the average
woman. Then this a rgumen t is used to justify the notion that the average
woman is not suited for the job. However, Messing suggests we think of it
differently, "Fitness for a job must be considered as an interaction between
individuals (with all their possibilities for change) and a plastic, adaptable work environment.”16 As long as the job gets done does it matter if you carry two 20
pound bags or one 40 pound bag?
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In studying Native Americans, we will find many tribes not only shared the
work between men and women (even when it was physically demanding) but
many gave women power over the family and the tribes. If only the pilgrims could
have learned more than just to survive from the Native Americans we would not
have had to fight for rights for women. Rights that already existed in many of the
tribes structure. If we go back and revisit the Thanksgiving Dinner that occurred
at Plymouth Rock we will find that the Puritan women stood and waited as
expected as there men were seated and ate whereas the Native American women
ate right alongside their men because they were considered equal and were
valued. Unfortunately, this country was founded not on the Native American’s
values but on the early settlers who believed women were second class citizens.
In addition, numerous rationalizations have been used by employees for
not employing women in certain fields or for not paying women as much as men.
Many women were and still are excluded from skilled jobs (opportunities to learn
trades). They were and are often forced to accept low wages and poor working
conditions. Basically, in prior times when there was enough men to meet the
demands of the labor force the women who were free to work for wages could be
treated with less favor.
Stereotypes of Women
The above treatment of women in the workplace is not just attributed to the
culture that the pilgrims brought with them to start the new world but is also a
result of stereotypes and sexism. Sexism results in the process of assigning life
roles according to gender, which is passed down from one generation to the next.
Instead of these stereotypes about women being unlearned they continue to
be learned.17 Sexism is conditioning that can start very early in a female’s life.
But, even worse than this are the stereotypes that follow many women
throughout their adult years. These stereotypes interact closely with racial and
class stereotypes and they tend to form many inaccurate representations of
women in the media.
For example, the “Jewish American Princess” concept dominated the film
Clueless (1995) and is still a stereotype used in film today. Bravo television
station created a reality show in 2013 by this title of Jewish American Princess.
Shoshanna Shapiro was seemingly portrayed as a Jewish American Princess on
the HBO show “Girls.” From Shoshanna’s perfectly coiffed hair to a pink Juicy
Couture tracksuit to her admission that her parents are paying $2,100 a month
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for her Nolita apartment, this is in line with this stereotype that Jewish girls are
materialistic, pampered, and narcissistic, as a result of an upper-class privileged
upbringing. This stereotype is seen as negative because rather than show Jewish
women as strong, independent, and wise it is showing them as overly dependent,
spoiled and concerned only with finding a rich husband.
Black and Latina women often fill the roles of domestics, as in films such as
Forrest Gump (1994) and The First Wives Club (1996) even today, mammy
depictions are still shown in modern films such as The Help (2011), Big Momma’s
House (2000) and the current television show the Have and Have Nots a Tyler Perry
film on OWN channel shows both a Black woman and Latina as mammy roles. In
some rap music, the stereotype of the Black woman as emasculating and
manipulative is central to the message. Even though, as you watch the Miss America
pageant you won’t find the women gyrating across the stage (as in the rap videos)
but is it any less demeaning to have women parading around in high heels and
two piece bikinis for the title of Miss or Mrs. America?
Lesbians have had to watch as the pendulum of popular culture swings
from the stereotype of man hating and masculine, to chic and fashionable, going
from one extreme to another. Stereotypes have been used both to define women
and to control them. They limit the possibilities women envision for themselves
and therefore damage women’s self-esteem and deprive society of a woman’s
potential.
The following have been some stereotypes that refer to women in our
society. Many of these are sexual stereotypes of women that are currently in
operation and were formed in the past century under racist and classist ideologies.
Read below and see if you recognize any of the images that have been placed on
women.
Anglo-American Stereotype
Anglo-American women of the upper and middle classes, as we have already
discussed, were generally confined to the following roles: wife, mother, and one not
discussed— also as a mistress. This class of woman was considered to be the White
man’s ideal companion and thus the mother of his children. The White woman was
considered to be the “true woman.” 18 As the true woman she was often expected
to have the following four virtues: piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity.
The external physical signs of true womanhood were delicacy, softness, and
weakness.
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This true woman was placed on a pedestal especially during the antebellum and
post-Civil War South periods. This true woman was to be protected by White
men.19 We will later read of laws that were imparted to not just protect White
women but to protect them from the evils of interracial relationships. But, what
we must remember is that this true woman image did not often extend itself to
the working-class poor White woman. The working class White woman while her
image was tainted; she still was not viewed as negatively as a woman of color.
Native American Stereotype
Native American women have been stereotyped as strong, spiritual “earth
mothers.” During the period where the pilgrims took over the land as well as
control of the Native people, the Native woman was not seen as a threat. She still
is not often seen as a threat and therefore has not been subjected to some
of the more rigorous stereotyping that other women have seen in recent years.
In fact, she along with the males of her ethnicity has been deemed invisible and
really not an important entity in this society.20
However, this has not always been the case. During the period of
colonization and the westward expansion of the United States, two dominant stereotypes of Native women existed. The first was a variant of the mammy stereotype who was loyal and trustworthy which made them useful to White men
of power.21 The second stereotype was as a “squaw”, in which they were just seen as servants to men--be it sexual servitude or domestic; they were also seen as maintaining the Natives’ culture while their men hunted and acted as
warriors.22
Asian American Stereotype
Asian women of all nationalities are most often stereotyped as quiet, delicate and submissive, especially to male desire. The two most common sexual stereotypes
are as a geisha or mail order bride.27 While there have been instances in past
history that used some Asian women as mail order brides, it is not a characteristic that is attributable to many Asian women. The sexual stereotype that prevails around Asian women is one where they lack aggressive behaviors appealing to the
weak characteristic that the “true” woman was to exhibit.28 According to the
stereotypes of submissiveness and weakness, Asian women make ideal wives because they make few demands, never complain and exist only to serve. These stereotypes limit the roles and opportunities for Asian women and are as controlling as the role of weakness for Anglo women and the loud “ghetto”
welfare mother for Black women.
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African American Stereotype
In the nineteenth century, enslaved women of African descent were expected to be physically strong—able to bear fatigue and reproduce “property” for the White
master. 23 African American women became the very image that the “true” woman
was not.24 She was often viewed as promiscuous and overtly sexual and after
emancipation, the stereotype of the strong, Black woman turned into the controlling
image of the mammy—who was a faithful servant to the affluent White family.25
Often in the workplace, Black women have complained of being treated like a mammy where she is expected to appear warm and nurturing at all times.
But, if not nurturing and warm then she can be construed to be “the angry
black woman.” The Sapphire Caricature portrays black women as rude, loud,
malicious, stubborn, and overbearing. This is the Angry Black Woman (ABW)
popularized in the cinema and on television. The Sapphire Caricature is a harsh
portrayal of African American women, but it is more than that; it is a social control
mechanism that is employed to punish black women who violate the societal norms
that encourage them to be passive, servile, non-threatening, and unseen.
Other images exist such as matriarch and welfare mother. Where the welfare
mother is characterized as having a lot of children and this concept goes back to the
breeder role that was expected of Black women during slavery.26 This same welfare
mother with all of her children produced out of wedlock is also categorized as a
bad mother who is content to sit around and live off the government. This
unfortunately is a not just a stereotype but a harmful myth as the largest beneficiary
is White Americans. The fact is, more Whites receive aid than blacks or Hispanics.
Two out of three welfare recipients are children, not adults. And contrary to the
stereotype of families forever dependent, nearly three out of four women receiving
aid get off welfare within two years. Many of the Whites on welfare are daughters
and nieces of middle-class, suburban families who end up on welfare because of a
divorce or an abusive partner.
The last stereotype for Black women as jezebel is another way to view black
women as overly sexual. The belief that Blacks are sexually lewd predates the
institution of slavery in America. European travelers to some countries in Africa
found scantily clad natives. This semi nudity was misinterpreted as lewdness. White
Europeans, locked into the racial ethnocentrism of the 17th century, saw African
polygamy and tribal dances as proof of the African's uncontrolled sexual lust.
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Historians say that these Europeans were fascinated by African sexuality.
William Bosman in his writings described the Black women on the coast of Guinea
as "fiery" and "warm" and "so much hotter than the men." William Smith also
wrote and described African women as "hot constitution'd Ladies" who "are
continually contriving stratagems how to gain a lover." The genesis of anti-Black
sexual arch types emerged from the writings of these and other Europeans;
stating basically the Black woman, as the Jezebel whore due to their interpretation
of only what they saw but not what they knew about these African cultures.
Bottomline, the common theme of all these stereotypes revolves around
the issues of race, gender and class oppression. Making African American woman
much more susceptible to more stereotypes.
Latina/Hispanic American Stereotype
Oftentimes we find some overlap in these stereotypes as they apply to the various women discussed. The mammy stereotype is one not just used for Black women
but also for the Latina as well.29 Not only is she viewed as a domestic help to the white family but has also often been stereotyped to lack intelligence due to the
incorrect English spoken.30 By the 1980s, Latinos increasingly replaced blacks as Hollywood’s domestics. The 1987 TV show “I Married Dora” was even about a man who married his Latina housekeeper to prevent her from being deported. Even megastar Jennifer Lopez played a housekeeper in 2002’s “Maid in Manhattan.” Latinas are also seen as sexually aggressive in response to the cultural stereotype of machismo and sexually repressive. Latino women are commonly typecast as sexpots. Rita Hayworth, Raquel Welch and Carmen Miranda are some of the Latinas in early Hollywood who capitalized on their sexy image. More recently, Eva Longoria played a conniving Latina homemaker who used her looks to advance her agenda in “Desperate Housewives,” and Sofia Vergara continues to play the role of Gloria Delgado-Pritchett on “Modern Family,” which many prominent Latinas argue not only fuels the stereotype that Hispanic women are sexy but also loud, crazy and spicy despite being strict followers of Roman
Catholicism.31 There are current day myths and stereotypes that plague the Latina, such as the image of a barefoot Latino woman running across the U.S.-Mexico border holding on to a rounded belly that houses her soon-to-be-born child is an immigration myth. The United States is known for being a nation of immigrants, but whites and blacks are largely not perceived as being newcomers to America. In contrast, Asians and Latinos routinely field questions about where they're "really from." The people who ask such questions, overlook that Hispanics have
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lived in the U.S. for generations, even longer than many Anglo families.
Now after reading the above I ask you, do you think these stereotypes
influence the way women are seen in the workplace? I f the on ly image of
certa in women tha t you see a re those port rayed on te lev i s i on does
i t i n f l uence what you th ink about those women —part i cu lar l y women
outs ide your cu l ture who you have no d i rect knowledge o f? Does the
stereotypes contribute to the sexual harassment of women in the workplace? Do
they impact the advancement of women in the workplace? Well, if you aren’t yet
convinced that there may be a correlation between our view of women (which is
influenced by many factors including movie portrayal) and their equality in the
workplace then read on to see if any of the following myths grab your attention.
Myths vs. Facts
MYTH ONE Women are only best at being homemakers.
FACT ONE Throughout history when given an opportunity women have participated successfully in both the workplace and as homemakers.
MYTH TWO Women are too emotional to be good managers.
FACT TWO Women and men may have learned different approaches to dealing
with emotions. Even though a woman’s ways of expressing emotions are different, women and men—both express them.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 135
MYTH THREE Women have a low commitment to the world of work.
FACT THREE Studies show that men job hop more than women.32 The perceived
lack of commitment may be due to the fact that disproportionately
more women than men are in dead end jobs.
MYTH FOUR Women lack education and work experience.
FACT FOUR As a whole, female employees possess more education than males, their major problem is getting promotions.33
MYTH FIVE Women are not interested in certain phases of business.
FACT FIVE This may be partly true but only because women have been socialized different than men and therefore lack this type of
business exposure.
MYTH SIX Women are poor economic risks because they are frequently sick and quit work when they have children.
FACT SIX There is no statistically significant difference in the absenteeism of
men and of women employees.34 Some women who leave the workforce to have children re-enter when the children reach school age but many mothers take just a brief leave and return after several weeks.
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MYTH SEVEN Women have equality in the workplace.
FACT SEVEN Women have made substantial strides in the workplace, in large part due to Affirmative Action.35 But, there is still a glass ceiling.
Now that we’ve addressed the above myths, it is necessary to review some
other issues that significantly impact women in the workplace. One such issue is the
glass and concrete ceiling that women face.
Glass Ceiling* *The statistics found in this section is courtesy of The Business and Professional Women’s Foundation
(2005), “101 facts on the status of workingwomen.” 36
The “glass ceiling” is a commonly used term today that implies that while many
women can see the next step up the hierarchy of management, there is a
ceiling/barrier preventing them from getting there. This is based on the fact
that White males still hold over 90% of all top management positions. Only 6 of
the Fortune 500’s CEOs were women in 2002. There were 2 in 1995 and only 11 in
the Fortune 1000 in 2002. Only 3 of the Fortune 500’s CEOs are African
American. Among all Fortune 500 Companies, 393 have no women among their top
5 executives.
Women still comprise less than 5% of firefighters, less than 10% of state and
local police officers, less than 3 % of construction workers, less than 15% of college
presidents, and less than 10% of the senior-level jobs in major companies. In
private industry, white men comprise 65% of officials and managers, with white
women holding 24.8 %, men of color 6.5% and women of color 3.8% of these
positions.
In trying to think of a rational reason for women to be so poorly represented
in these male dominated fields your thought may be that women don’t have
these jobs because they don’t want them. Sorry, but while this sounds good it is just
not the case. Many studies show that women have been traditionally denied access
to nontraditional jobs despite their qualifications.
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The question then becomes: Why in this century do we still have these
types of problems? Well I will offer you one possible explanation—leading
psychologists would tell you that what we think about people, we often act out so
if women are not perceived as “able” to do certain types of jobs then don’t you
think this mindset will impact their employment in these fields? Since what we
think of people often turns into how we act against them, having stereotypes and
myths can prove to be very damaging as it relates to the progression of women in
the workplace.
Another study was published that took this concept of the glass ceiling a
bit further. The study revealed that the difficult but breakable glass ceiling really
refers to the experience of White women in top management but there is another
ceiling that women of color must break through—the concrete ceiling.
Women of Color and the Concrete Ceiling* *The information in this section is an excerpt reprinted with permission from Catalyst Women of Color
Report: A ‘Concrete Ceiling’ Barring Their Advancement in Corporate America. (July 1999). 37
In July 1999, the Catalyst Women of Color Report states that there is a “concrete
ceiling” was barring women of color from advancement in Corporate America.
Women of Color is a three year study that has been the largest and most
comprehensive examination of African American, Asian American and Hispanic
women managers in professional and managerial positions in the U.S. The study
is based on a survey of 1735 women of color, 300 in-depth interviews and a one-
year study of 15 major companies.
“The metaphor of a concrete ceiling stands in sharp contrast to that of the
glass ceiling. Not only is the concrete ceiling reported to be more difficult to
penetrate, women of color say they cannot see through it to glimpse the corner
office,” says Catalyst President Sheila Wellington. “This study is ground breaking.
It adds facts and hard data to the anecdotal information that has dominated the
discussion of women of color in the workplace thus far.” The data reveals that of
those companies that do have diversity programs, the diversity initiatives are not
as effective as they could be or were intended to be for women of color. Seventy
five percent of the women surveyed are aware of training in their corporation
to address race and gender issues, but only 22 percent say their managers
receive adequate training in managing a diverse workforce. More than half (53
percent) of the women feel their companies’ diversity programs are ineffective in
dealing with issues of subtle racism, 26 per cent of the women say that career
development is an important part of their companies’ diversity programs, and
only 17 percent believe their managers are held accountable for advancing
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 138
women of their racial/ethnic group. And in evaluating their work environments, many
women, particularly African American women, cite pervasive stereotypes.
“People assume that all women and people of color benefit from diversity
initiatives,” said Katherine Giscombe, PhD, Catalyst’s project director for Women of
Color, “But this simply is not true. In fact, many women in our study feel that they
are overlooked in these programs. In order to make change for women of color,
companies must zero in on these women and tailor programs to fit their
particular needs. In this case, one size does not fit all.”
Breaking the Glass and Concrete Ceilings
While some companies, are making moves to penetrate these ceilings. There are
also things that females can do early in the educational process to prepare for
these obstacles.
According to Donna Lopiano, of the Women's Sports Foundation, “Much of what
women need to know to become successful entrepreneurs and businesswomen
within large organizations can be learned on the playing field. In many successful
women’s view—they feel every girl should learn team sports because many
corporations are modeled "exactly" after sports teams. One example of this is the
phrase “team player.” So, if you don't know how they work, if you don't know
that language, you are at a tremendous
disadvantage.38
Another glass/concrete breaker is when women learn to build professional
networks and relationships. One way this can be done is by finding a mentor.
Women in the workplace just like entrepreneurs need to carve a path. Within
large organizations women tend to spend so much time fighting for their project
to succeed that they rarely have time to come up for air. Yet networks and mentors
are essential for long-term success; they are also unbeatable sources of advice at
key moments. But, what if your company does not have a formal mentoring
program? Well, I say create your own mentoring relationship. How? Seek out an
experienced player (executive, manager, etc) who knows the rules of the game and
is willing with encouragement from you to coach you through the process.
But what else can help women transition into these higher powerful positions?
Money Smarts. It is necessary for women to have “money smarts” if they are to
break that ceiling. The notion that there needs to be tension between making
money and doing well is a false one that many boys are not usually burdened with,
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said Godfrey in Witness. He states that even Mother Teresa was a powerhouse
fundraiser, a fact not often recognized. Because she had people to feed, she
understood the power of money and how to use it to make social change.39
Actually, there is no “one” solution that can be offered to break the glass
or penetrate the concrete ceiling but with the rise of women as CEOs, board
directors and prominence in politics this illustrates the ceilings can be broken.
While the glass/concrete ceiling is a very serious issue impacting the promotion of
women in the workplace, there is yet another issue that seriously affects a
woman’s ability to be successful in the workplace. This is the issue of equal
pay, which can directly impact a women’s opportunity to financial gain.
Equal Pay Act
Since the early days of women working, they have often been paid substantially
less money for their skill level. Also, as more women participated in male
dominant jobs they have been paid less for doing the same work. You may think
that this is not an issue in the twenty-first century especially with the passing of
the Equal Pay Act of 1963.
But today, many years later, women still are paid less than men—even
when they do similar work and have similar education, skills and experience. In
2002, women were paid 78 cents for every dollar a man received and still has not
changed. That's $22 less to spend on groceries, housing, child care and other
expenses for every $100 worth of work women do.
Because women are paid less now, women have less to spend on their
families and less to save for their futures. And when women retire, they'll earn
smaller pensions than men. Half of all older women with income from a private
pension received less than $5,600 per year, compared with $10,340 per year for
older men. Sure, women have made progress, but not nearly enough and not fast
enough.40 In the years since the Equal Pay Act passed, the pay gap between
men and women has narrowed by less than half, from 41 cents per dollar to 22
cents. And most of the recent change is because men's real wages have been
falling, not because women's have risen. But even at this current rate of change,
it is estimated that women won’t achieve equal pay with men until the year 2050.
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Equal Pay Is an Issue for All Working Women
Over the past few decades, laws barring discrimination in education and
employment have helped give working women opportunities their mothers never
had. Today, women work in many different fields each requiring different skills and
experience paying different wages. But opening doors for working women has not
closed the door on pay discrimination. Equal pay is a problem for all working
women, just to cite a few statistics—based on 2003 data taken from 101
facts on working women41:
For women lawyers, their median weekly earnings are nearly $373 less than
those of male attorneys, and for women administrative support and clericals, they
generally receive about $100 a week less than male administrative support and
clericals;
For women doctors, their median earnings are nearly $679 less each week than men's—or 58.3 percent of what male doctors earn—and for the 95 percent of nurses
who are women they still earn $90 less each week than the 5 percent of nurses who
are men;
For women professors, their median pay is more than $244 less each week than
men's, and for women elementary school teachers, they receive $86 less a week
than men teachers;
For women food service supervisors, who are paid $60 less each week than men in
the same job, and for waitresses, whose weekly earnings are about $46 less than male waiters' earnings.
It's an Issue for Children and Families and for MEN, Too
Equal pay is not just a working woman's issue, it's a family issue. If we ended pay
discrimination against women, family incomes would rise.42 Working parents would have
more to spend on household needs and more to save for their children's education or their own
retirement security; working parents might be able to spend less time at work and more time
with their families, a change that many families would welcome.43
Ending pay discrimination would directly help men. When an employer ends discrimination by
raising pay for jobs traditionally done by women (teachers, for example), men in those jobs get
raises as well. If we had equal pay for work of equal value, the IWPR (Institute for Women's
Policy Research at h t t p : / / www. iwpr.org) estimates, women's pay would be 13 percent
higher and men's pay would go up 1 percent. Furthermore, the law bars employers from
lowering men's pay to correct discrimination against women.
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Women Get Paid Less Because Employers Still Discriminate in Several Ways
Jobs typically held by women pay less than jobs traditionally held by men even if
they require the same education, skills and responsibilities. For example, stock
and inventory clerks, who are mostly men, earn about $520 a week. General
office clerks, on the other hand, are mostly women and they earn only $474 a
week.
Women still do not have equal job opportunities. A newly hired woman
may get a lower paying assignment than a man starting work at the same time
for the same employer. That first job starts her career path and can lead to a
lifetime of lower pay.
Women still do not have an equal chance at promotions, training and
apprenticeships. Because all these opportunities affect pay, women don't move up
the earnings ladder as quickly as men do.
For instance in 2000, Ford Motor Company agreed to pay $3.8 million to
women and minority applicants who claimed they were denied jobs as entry-level
assemblers because of their gender and race. (Michigan Employment Law Letter,
2000)
In 2000, CBS Broadcasting Inc. agreed to pay $8 million to 200 female
technical workers who were discriminated against in salary, promotions and training, as well as harassed and retaliated against for complaining about discrimination. (EEOC, 2000)
In 2002, American Express Financial Advisors Inc. agreed to pay $31
million to settle a sex discrimination suit alleging that female professionals were
paid less and unfairly denied promotions. (Daily Labor Report, Bureau of National
Affairs, Feb. 22, 2002)
Discrimination Is Against the Law
An employer who pays women less than men or denies them job opportunities
just because they are women is guilty of sex discrimination. Two federal laws, an
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executive order and some state and local laws prohibit pay discrimination against
women. These cases can be brought to court as shown above and are often with an
appropriate level of evidence brought to justice.
The Equal Pay Act: Under the Equal Pay Act, which covers most workplaces
states the following: it is unlawful to pay women less than men for work that is "substantially equal"—that is, almost identical unless the pay difference is based on seniority, experience or other legitimate factors.
Title VII: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which covers employers with
15 or more workers, prohibits a range of discrimination, including paying
women less than men even when their jobs are different if the reason for
the pay difference is gender. Title VII also bars discrimination against women
in hiring, promotion, training, discipline and other job aspects and makes
sexual harassment against workers illegal.
Executive Order 11246: A third measure, Executive Order 11246, is a long-
standing presidential directive (which has the effect of law) that applies the
protections of the Equal Pay Act and Title VII to companies that receive federal
contracts.
State and Local Laws: Many states and communities have their own fair employment laws and agencies that enforce equal pay protections and other prohibitions against sex discrimination on the job. These laws are similar to and sometimes stronger than federal laws.
How Do We Fix Pay Discrimination?
The laws that bar pay discrimination include "remedies." Proving discrimination
can be hard and can take a long time. But women who win often get back pay,
new job opportunities and repayment of lawyer fees and other money they spent to
have their rights enforced.
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What Can You Do if You Believe Your Rights Have Been Violated?
(Source: EEOC Website found at http://www.eeoc.gov/charge/overview_charge_filing.html)
1. File a discrimination charge with a federal or state anti- discrimination
agency.
If you believe you have been denied a job, paid less, passed over for
promotions or discriminated against in other ways because you're a
woman, you can file a complaint with the EEOC office in your area.
Generally, you must file your complaint within 180 days of the
discriminatory action. You don't need a lawyer; the EEOC will help
you prepare the case and advise you of additional rights you may
have or steps you should take (including any requirements for filing
complaints with state agencies). To be connected with the EEOC
office in your area, call 1-800-669-4000. The EEOC also can give you
information about state or local fair employment agencies in your
area. You may also contact your state’s Civil Rights Commission.
2. If you belong to a union, talk to your shop steward.
The steward can give you advice about your rights and help you file a
grievance under the collective bargaining agreement. The steward
may also be able to help you file a complaint with the EEOC office in
your area.
So your question maybe: Why Sue the Company?
My answer is why not?
What else can you do when you have been discriminated against and the
company will not rectify it? These companies almost always have a chance to fix
the problem before it goes to court. It is this unwillingness that often prompts
many judges to make the company pay. This is the United States way to rectify
justice. Fighting for rights is not about greed, but about making companies do the
right thing. What will force a company’s hand? An individual employee, most often
not. A court that mandates proper treatment, of course. It is not easy to win a
case as the burden of proof falls on the plaintiff.
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What Else Can You (whether you are a man or woman) Do About Equal Pay?
Support efforts to bring "pay equity" to your workplace. "Pay equity" means
paying equal wages for jobs of equal value to a company. You and your co-workers
(or your union) can encourage your employer to implement a pay equity policy,
including a job evaluation system that reviews and compares the education, skills
and experience needed to perform different jobs. Your employer then may adjust
pay rates so that jobs of equal value to the company are paid equally regardless of
who holds them. In addition, your union can include pay equity among its bargaining
demands. Unions have won hundreds of millions of dollars for women and men by
bargaining for pay equity.
Support new federal and state laws designed to strengthen protections
against pay discrimination and bring pay equity to the workplace. Organize
your friends and co-workers to urge your U.S. senators and House members to vote
for the Fair Pay Act or other proposals that may be introduced in Congress to require
employers to end pay discrimination against women. And push your state legislature
to enact similar pay equity protections. In 2003, 23 states introduced 50 bills
regarding equal pay.
If you work for a state or city government, find out whether efforts have
been made to end pay bias against public employees. Many have. If your
state or city hasn't taken action to end pay bias against its own employees, tell your state and local officials that you want your tax dollars to go to equal pay for working
women!
These issues of the glass/concrete ceiling and unequal pay can be
discouraging—but women have continued to persevere forward and beat the odds.
Women not only have fought for equal rights in the workplace but have fully
participated in making this country great.
In many countries, you will even find that women have held the highest
position of the land proving to be powerful leaders for their countries. But rather
than I go on, how about I ask you to name 15 significant women who have
contributed greatly to their countries well-being. Can you?
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Well, like many people I would assume you probably had a hard time
rattling off names unless they were of athletes or entertainers. But if significant
women in other fields exist, why aren’t we taught about their contributions?
If you were taught, at what point in your education did you learn these
things. Many people educated in the United States would answer college. Yet, isn’t
it important for all people to learn about the contributions of both men and
women as they grow into adulthood?
Even if a few women names have been thrown out there how often has
this information been repeated in your educational process? Remember, learning
is repetition. For learning to take place a permanent change or knowledge must
be gained and remembered. That is why we often learn over and over again about
this country’s forefathers. I would ask you to name five men who are or were
presidents/leaders of countries? Could you do it? Sure. What about five women
presidents/leaders of various countries?
The political contributions of men have been a concentrated area of
learning for many while the significant contributions of women have not seen
the same platform. Throughout history, women were excluded both by law and
often by custom from active participation in the affairs of the state. But, does this
mean that women have not been represented in the political arena?
In the beginning of the 20th century women around the world demanded
the right to vote. It has taken nearly 100 years, but women have achieved
political rights in nearly every country of the world. The fight for these political
rights as well as the leadership that women have exhibited is enough to be noted
in history books.
But women’s contributions often are not included in history books; I bet
you could name 10 significant Caucasian men who contributed to history, but can
you can you name 10 women? Even if you can’t name the 10 men, I would bet if
you were educated in your early years in the U.S., you were taught about
significant men in history. While not knowing women’s history (assuming that you
don’t) is no reason to feel incompetent and respond on the defense. I say don’t
GET ON THE DEFENSE because history is written by the victors. Women were not
the victors and therefore in many cases were left out of the history books. But
thisby no means indicates that women were insignificant, weak or contributed
nothing to their societies.
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Political Dignitaries* *Source: The information found in this section is courtesy of Wikipedia: The Free
Encyclopedia found at http://en.wikipedia.org/
Let me share with you a few stories of women who have excelled in the political
field despite the unseemingly odds and the incredible risks to their lives. There are so
many women in U.S history and World history that I could discuss, but I will limit
the discussion that follows to a few of the most respected women world
leaders.
ELLEN JOHNSON-SIRLEAF OF LIBERIA Born in 1938, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf a widowed mother-of-four in 2006, was sworn in
as Liberia's president, making her Africa's first elected female leader. Mrs.
Johnson-Sirleaf becomes Liberia's first elected head of state since the end of the war
in 2003. The 67-year-old grandmother won 59% of the vote in a November run-off
election, beating Liberian football star George Weah. A former World Bank
economist and veteran politician, Mrs. Johnson-Sirleaf is nicknamed the Iron Lady
but has promised to show a new, softer side as president. Mrs. Johnson-Sirleaf
drew much of her support from women voters, and from Liberia's small educated
elite. She faces the twin challenges of trying to rebuild the country and of fostering
reconciliation. One of her priorities is to reintegrate into society former child soldiers.
She has declared a "zero tolerance" of corruption. Mrs. Johnson- Sirleaf said her
top challenge is to maintain peace, law and order after 14 years of civil war.
INDIRA GANDHI OF INDIA Indira Nehru was born in Allahabad, India in 1917. During her early years she
organized a Monkey Brigade, attended Somerville College at Oxford University,
joined the National Congress Party and was eventually jailed by the British. In 1947,
Indira’s father became prime minister. In 1959, she was elected president of the
National Congress Party then that next year her husband passes away. After this,
Indira resigns her post with the party to take the place of her husband who had
assisted her father. In 1964, Indira Gandhi’s father dies and she gets appointed
minister of information. In 1966, she was appointed as interim prime minister
then five years later she was elected prime minister. Indira served two
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 147
separate terms as prime minister of India helping to lead her country to a premier
position among the developing countries of the world.
QUEEN HATSHEPSUT OF EGYPT Born in the 15th century B.C., Hatshepshut was the daughter of Tuthmose I and
Aahmes, both of royal lineages. She was the favorite of their three children. When
her two brothers died she was in the unique position to gain the throne upon the
death of her father. To have a female pharaoh was unprecedented. As a favorite
daughter of a popular pharaoh, and as a charismatic and beautiful Black (as
defined today) woman in her own right, she was able to command enough of a
following to actually take control as pharaoh before the reign was to be given to
her nephew. She ruled for about 15 years during the New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty,
until her death in 1458 BC.
She left behind more monuments and works of art than any Egyptian
queen to come. Even though Hatshepsut’s name was erased from many images
and from her country’s ruling timeline, historians have proven that she
accomplished what no women had before her. She successfully ruled the most
powerful, advanced civilization in the world. Even if there were some who
resented her success, her success stands for all time.
BENAZIR BHUTTO OF PAKISTAN She was born Benazir Bhutto in Karachi, Pakistan in 1953. Bhutto’s father,
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was elected prime minister a few years after she entered
Radcliffe. After her Radcliffe graduation, she attended and graduated from Oxford
University. After this, she returned to Pakistan in 1977. During this same year, a
military coup ousts her father and she herself was jailed numerous times. Her
father was hung in 1979 and in 1984 she returned to England. In 1987, she
married and then a year later she not only gave birth to her first son but also was
elected prime minister. In 1993, she was reelected for a second term as prime
minister. Both of these times, she was forced out of office, before the end of her
terms.
WILMA MANKILLER OF THE CHEROKEE NATION Wilma Mankiller was born in Tahlequah, Oklahoma in 1945. In 1957, the Mankiller
family moved to San Francisco where she met and married her husband and
birthed two daughters. In 1969, Wilma assisted in the Alactraz takeover protest.
In 1975, she divorced her husband and then moved back to Oklahoma. In 1977,
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she took her first job for the Cherokee Nation. She continued to develop and
implement community projects on the Nations behalf. In 1983, she was appointed
Interim Deputy Chief then elected Deputy Chief. In 1985, she was elected as
principal chief, the first woman to hold this position for the Cherokee Nation. In
1986, she remarried and then the next year was re-elected to a second term as
principal chief. She finally retired as principal chief in 1995.
GOLDA MEIR OF ISRAEL Born as Golda Mabovitch in Kiev, Russia in 1898, Golda migrated to Milwaukee,
Wisconsin as a small child. There she lived out her youth. Many of her adult years
were spent in Palestine where she helped to smuggle Jewish refugees as well as
start her political career. In 1949 when Golda’s sons were five and three, Golda
Meir served as Israel’s first minister of labor till 1956 when she then began to
serve as Israel’s foreign minister. In 1969, she was elected as Israel’s fourth
prime minister. She saw this as an opportunity to have her dream of a new
homeland for the Jewish people come true. But she knew the establishment of the
state was only the beginning of a long struggle for peace with its Arab neighbors.
MARGARET THATCHER OF BRITAIN Born Margaret Hilda Roberts in Grantham, England in the 1925 she attended
Somerville College at Oxford. After graduation Margaret ran for a member of
parliament for Dartford. In 1953 she gave birth to twins as well as began her law
practice. In 1959, she was elected as a Member of Parliament for Finchley. After
having several leadership positions for her party and country, Margaret became
prime minister of Britain from 1979 till 1990. She was the first woman to head a
major Western country. She was also the longest serving British prime minister in
the 20th century.
VIOLETA CHAMORRO OF NICARAGUA Violeta Barrios born in Rivas, Nicaragua in 1929 played a significant leadership role
in her country as she helped to rid Nicaragua of two repressive regimes. She served
as her country’s first democratically elected president form 1990 to 1996. She had
previously taken over the paper, La Prensa, after her husband who was the
publisher was assassinated. His assassination had to do with opposition of the
Somoza government. However, his untimely death did not prevent Violeta from
continuing opposition and in 1979 Somoza fled the country. In 1986 prior to being
elected president, Sandinista government shuts down La Prensa.
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CORAZON AQUINO OF THE PHILIPPINES Born Maria Corazon Cojuangco in Tarlac Province of the Philipines in 1933. She
attended both high school and college in the United States. In 1954, she married
Benigno S. (Ninoy) Aquino, Jr. who was imprisoned 18 years later when martial
law was declared. In 1978, Corazon spoke out for her jailed husband. In 1983,
her husband was assassinated at the Manilla Airport. The following year, Corazon
urged people to vote despite corruption of the government. In 1986, she became
President of the Republic of the Philippines restoring democracy to her country
after helping to oust dictator Ferdinand Marcos. Her presidency lasted till 1992.
Concluding Thoughts
The political contributions of women are only one area in which women have
excelled despite the odds and women continue to excel in all areas of life and the
workplace.
End of Chapter Questions
1. Why was there a change for women and work after industrialization?
2. What makes women able to do physically demanding jobs?
3. Define glass ceiling and concrete ceiling.
4. Why should men support equal pay for women?
5. Why are stereotypes of women dangerous in the workplace and what stereotypes have you noticed in the media or in the workplace?
6. According to the chapter, what can women do to break the glass or concrete ceiling?
7. Name two things the chapter states that either a woman or man can do to help with equal pay?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 150
Internet Exercise
Using the Internet going to the following website, http://www.nwlc.org/our- issues/employment/equal-pay-and-the-wage-gap and read one of the articles on the topic
if this site is not working ogo to www.google.com and type: unequal pay for women to
find an article on equal pay. Now state the title of the article you chose and summarize
what the article says in two paragraphs also indicate if you agree or disagree with the
article’s viewpoint.
End of Chapter Exercise
Take the Women’s History Quiz
Do not use an encyclopedia, the Internet or any other resource to determine the
answers to the questions 1-14 below. The knowledge MUST come from your own
mind, and if you don’t know the answer just leave the question blank.
1. First woman to receive a medical degree in the U.S.?
2. First Black woman to become a millionaire?
3. Led the first revolt in Southeast Asia against the Chinese?
4. First U.S. woman foreign correspondent?
5. First African American and first woman of a southern state to serve in
congress?
6. First woman to travel in space?
7. First woman to rule as emperor in Chinese history?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 151
8. First woman to receive the Distinguished Flying Cross?
9. First woman member of a U.S. Cabinet?
10. Considered the first modern novelist?
11. First published poet in American history?
12. Warrior Queen who fought against the Roman conquerors of Britain?
13. First woman and first Latino surgeon general of the United States?
14. What month is women’s history month?
Did you find it difficult to answer the questions above? If yes, why? If no, why?
What does this say about what we learn regarding significant women in society?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 152
References
1. Toner, P. S. (1979). Women and the American Labor Movement. New York, NY: Free Press.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Abramovitz. M. (1996). Regulating the Lives of Women, Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. Boston: South End Press.
5. Harlan, S. L. & O’Farrell, Brigit. (1982). After the Pioneers: Prospects for Women in Non- Traditional Blue-Collar Jobs. Work and Occupations, 9, 363-386.
6. Ibid.
7. Weiner, L. Y. (1985). From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.
8. Ibid.
9. Abramovitz, M. (1986). Social Policy and the Female Pauper: The Family Ethic and the U.S. Welfare State. Feminist Visions For Social Work, 211-228.
10. Craig, J. M. & Jacobs, R. R. (1985). The Effect of Working With Women on Male Attitudes Toward Female Firefighters, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, (6).
11. Messing, K. (1998). One-eyed Science: Occupational health and women workers. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Messing, K., Lippel, K., Demers, D. L. & Mergler, D. (2000, Fall). Equality and Difference in the
Workplace: Physical Job Demands, Occupational Illnesses, and Sex Differences. NWSA Journal (12)3, 21-49.
15. Ibid.
16. Messing, K. (1998). One-eyed Science: Occupational health and women workers. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
17. Huley, M. & Edwards, M. (1986). The Cross-Cultural Study of Women. New York, NY: The Feminist Press.
18. Loganson, K. (1993, December). Garrisonian Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850- 1860. American Quarterly, (45)4, 558-595.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 153
19. Ibid.
20. Jordan, W. (1974). The White Man's Burden. London, Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
21. Stedman, R. W. (1982). Shadows of the Indian: Stereotypes in American Culture. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
22. Ibid.
23. King, W. (1996). Suffer with them till death: Slave women and their children in nineteenth- century America. In David Barry Gaspar & Darlene Clark Hine (Eds.), More than chattel: Black women and slavery in the Americas, 147-168. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
24. Welter, B. (1976). Dimity Convictions: The American Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Athens,
Ohio: Ohio University Press.
25. Yarbrough, M., Bennett, C. (Spring 2000). Cassandra and the "Sistahs": the Peculiar Treatment of African American Women in the Myth of Women as Liars. Journal of Gender, Race and Justice.
26. Ibid.
27. Lott, J. T. & Pian, C. (1979). Beyond Stereotypes and Statistics: Emergence of Asian and Pacific American Women. Washington, DC: Organization of Pan. Asian. American.
28. Ibid.
29. Karamarae, C & Spender, D. (2000). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues.
30. Keller, G. D. (1994). Hispanics and United States Film: An Overview and Handbook. Tempe: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingual.
31. Ibid.
32. Lipman, H. (2001, May 31). Unbalanced Pay Scales. The Chronicle of Philanthropy.
33. Burke, P. (1996). Gender shock: exploding the myths of male and female. New York: Anchor Books.
34. Sujata, S.V. (1992). Struggles of Women at Work. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
35. Bergmann, B. R. (1996). In Defense of Affirmative Action. New York: Basic Books.
36. The Business and Professional Women’s Foundation. (2005). 101 facts on the status of workingwomen. Retrieved from http://www.bpwusa.org/files/public/101FactsonWorkingwomen2005.pdf.pdf
37. Women of Color Report: A ‘Concrete Ceiling’ Barring Their Advancement in Corporate America. (1999, July). Catalyst.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 154
38. Lagace, M. (2002, November 11). Women Entrepreneurs Usher in the Next Generation, Harvard Business School.
39. Means, G. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.independentmeans.com/imi/press/index.php
40. The Business and Professional Women’s Foundation. (2005). 101 facts on the status of workingwomen. Retrieved from http://www.bpwusa.org/files/public/101FactsonWorkingwomen2005.pdf.pdf
41. Lockyer, S. E. (2005, April 4). Equal pay still a battle of the sexes: 40 years after the pay act was signed into law, women still make less than men. Nation's Restaurant News.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Five: Understanding Women and Work 155
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156
Chapter Six: Understanding the Native American Experience
A lie would have no sense unless the truth were felt as dangerous.
Alfred Adler
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UNDERSTANDING THE NATIVE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
understand aspects of the Native American culture.
explain how Native American women were equal and in some
cases more powerful than men.
learn the contributions of Native Americans to U.S. society.
state the exploitation of Native American values used to gain
land by European settlers.
describe the genocide of Native Americans by the pilgrims.
identify specific treatment of Native Americans in the U.S. today.
describe why mascots that stereotypically depict Native American culture is culturally insensitive.
Chapter Six
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What is your view of Indians/Native Americans?
Do you think of savages running around half naked?
Do you think of a people incapable of maintaining their land which is why they no longer have it?
Is it of a defeated people?
Groups who live on reservations in tepees because they know of no other
way to live or survive the land? A stubborn people who disrespect America?
If any of these are your views of Indians/Native Americans then you have a
viewpoint full of untruths. None of the above depicts Native Americans, their
history or their story. To know the truth about Native Americans is to understand
the indigenous people of this land known as America and how far removed America
is from this great people's values.
Native Americans are the indigenous people of this country. According to
researchers, the indigenous people of "America" have been here for at least
12,000 years where some even believe that these people first started living here
much earlier than that.
It is estimated, based on archaeological data and written records from
European settlers, that up to a possible 30 to 100 million indigenous people lived in
the Americas when the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus began a historical
period of large-scale European interaction with the Americas.1
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Native American Living
Before the Europeans came, there were no people here that called themselves
"Indians." Instead, there were and still are Navajo or Menominee or Hopi, or
Dakota, or Nisqually, or Tlingit, or Apache, etc. They referred to themselves by
their specific nation. They received the name "Indian" from Christopher Columbus
because he thought he landed in India. That is why we preferably use the nation
name or the term Native American to refer to the original inhabitants of America.
The natural environment of the Great West provided life to Native
Americans. It also took life. People learned that working together, and hunting
together, was extremely important. Living alone on especially the plains meant
certain death. It could be a hard life, taught by Nature. The power of a tornado, a
thunderstorm and its lightning, the pressing heat of a summer day, or the
sweeping cold air made everyone very observant of the Earth. The native people
learned from the Earth, the animals and plants. Everything fit together in this
Universe as many tribes understood it, and everyone and everything had its role
and responsibility.
Instead of often being taught the many viewpoints of Native Americans--
one story has often been told. This story involves tepees, war paint and the
savage image. But, when it came to their lifestyle and homes there were many
different types of Native American houses that would fit their lifestyle and their
climate. Since North America is a continent of various land types and conditions,
different tribes had varying degrees of weather to contend with. In the Arizona
deserts, temperatures can hit 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and in the Alaskan
tundra, -50 is not unusual. Naturally, Native Americans developed different types
of dwellings to survive in these different environments as they were a cunning
and skillful people.2
Native American tribes also had different traditional lifestyles. Some
tribes were agricultural-- they lived in settled villages and farmed the land for corn and vegetables. They wanted houses that would last a long time. One such group, the Eastern Woodland Indians had homes called longhouses. Like the homes of the Northwest Culture, these were rectangular homes with barrel
shaped roofs. As their name states, these homes were very long.3 Families shared
these homes, as many could hold up to 60 people. The insides had a long hallway with rooms for each family on either side.
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Not all tribes were agricultural, some tribes were more nomadic, moving frequently from place to place as they hunted and gathered food and resources. They needed houses that were portable or easy to build, such as a tent. The tribes of the Southwest Culture lived in apartment-style buildings. These buildings were made of adobe, clay and vegetables dried in the sun. This type of home was
especially good for areas that had very little rainfall and a hot desert climate.4
Many families lived in each apartment and as families grew, rooms were added on top of the rooms that were already there. Other homes were built that sheltered them from the heat.
If you have ever traveled to the Red Mountains in Sedona, Arizona, you
would find mansions that Native Americans built within the structure of these
mountains. Many of these homes had 10 or more rooms and are still standing inside
these mountains today. It is spectacular to view the architecture and modern day
building of these homes by a people who lived in them many years ago.
No matter what the conditions on the land, the Native Americans survived by
gathering all the things they needed from the natural world around them. They built
structures that fit the environment while also preserving the Earth.
Native American Respect for Women
Native American women traditionally belonged to a culture that gave them respect,
power, autonomy and equality. In the Iroquois tribes of New York, women had
the political right to nominate and recall civil chiefs, they controlled and managed
their families, they had the right to divorce and could determine how many
children they would raise.5
In Blackfoot society, a woman owned the products of her labor including the
tipi that her family lived in.6 A woman was judged by the quality of her work and
treated with respect in reference to her good work.7 Women were seen as
powerful due to their ability to give life.8 The female was so powerful that it was she who unwrapped and rewrapped holy bundles because a man would not be
able to handle this power directly, without her intercession.9 A woman's superior
spiritual power was seen in her ability alone to hold the Sun Dance ceremony.10
Women were also Shamans like the men acting as a medium between the visible and
spirit worlds; practices used for healing or divination. Shaman’s brought blessings to
the people. Clearly, Blackfoot women had influence, power, freedom and
autonomy.
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It was understood in most Native cultures that men and women's work was of equal value and is complimentary. Men hunted and women processed the fruit of his hunts. One did not function well without the other. Each person worked for and counted the possessions one had that they would then give away, because
the giving of gifts was seen as a powerful and prestigious act.11
In addition, unlike the culture of the pilgrims and many in the U.S. today
where relationships are based on a patriarchal structure many Native societies including the Iroquois, Cherokee and Navajo had equa l i ty between men and women. In some nations, men even took the name of the women. These families operated under either matriarchal (a form of social organization in which a female is the family head and title is traced through the female line) or matrilocal (a form of marriage in which, after the wedding, the bridegroom moves
to his new wife's family home) structures.12
Exploitation of Native American Values
The First Nation's Peoples had a great value system. There were normally only
four commandments and they were as follows13:
1.Respect Mother Earth
2.Respect the Great Spirit
3.Respect our fellow man and woman 4.Respect for individual freedom
Native Americans respected the earth but did not feel ownership of it.
But with this viewpoint does this mean that the original inhabitants or indigenous
people of the U.S. did not have any rights to the land they occupied?
The historical antecedents of the legal rights of indigenous people were
found centuries prior to the European arrival in the Western hemisphere.14 So, yes
they did have rights. However, after the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire,
but prior to the colonial travels of Europeans, distinctions were being made
between the various people of the known world. These distinctions were in terms
of Christians and “infidels” where infidels was a term given to people who were
not Christians.15 If you were not a Christian, then you were viewed as a savage--
someone seen as wild and menacing; who would attack brutally and fiercely as a
member of an uncivilized people. This superior/inferior religious attitude continued
despite the similarities between Christianity and the Native’s religions.
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Laws that governed everyone but were only agreed upon by a few
countries, the law of nation, allowed the expansion of Christianity, by acquiring
territory from newly discovered peoples (such as those in Asia and Africa) or from
familiar peoples (particularly the Saracens and Turks) who were unwilling to accept
Christian doctrines.16 Under these laws, a “discoverer” could legally occupy a territory
that was already inhabited (by “infidels”) and extend Christian sovereignty over it.17
This may answer the question as to how Christopher Columbus who was
working on behalf of the Spaniards could be labeled the discoverer of America
when many had previously traveled here, and the Native Americans were living
here when he arrived.
But, how exactly did the Native Americans get exploited?
When the English started to come to the Americas from Europe, they
didn’t particularly care who was already living on the land and they certainly didn’t
have any regards for the Native Americans way of life as the Natives were infidels or
plainly put just savages. Europeans looked at their discovery as a new way of
starting over and due to the law of nations they felt they had complete rights to
conquering land from infidels. The English wanted the land and they did whatever
was necessary to take it from “these savages” as they referred to them.
But, why would you take unfamiliar land from those who are familiar with
how to live and survive on this new territory? This taking of the land was done
after the Europeans knew how to live off the land. Living off the land was only
possible because the Native Americans showed the newcomers how to starve off
disease and survive on a soil that they themselves had lived on for thousands of
years. The Natives respected individual freedom and it was their culture to provide
this assistance. Therefore, instead of trying to force these newcomers (the pilgrims)
off the land they gave them all the assistance they needed to survive and thrive
on it.
As more settlers came they began to expand. But did they honor the
"Indians" for helping them to survive the land or for allowing them to occupy? No,
instead they (the pilgrims and early settlers) not only treated the Natives poorly but
many tried to kill them altogether. These settlers even brought with them
disease like small pox that they purposely gave to the Natives because they knew
the Natives had no cures.
Genocide of Native Americans
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Throughout decades of English immigrants and the formation of the United States,
Native Americans were continually mistreated. They were looked at as “savages”
and were even made slaves. The English had no tolerance of them and many
wanted them dead. This was mostly because they did not share religious beliefs
and they did not share the same way of living. Natives were killed by attack after
attack. Their crops were destroyed by settlers, leaving them dying of starvation.
The settlers had the advantage since a bow and arrow could not beat a gun.
In his book, American Holocaust, David Stannard argues that the
destruction of the aboriginal peoples of the Americas, Native Americans, in a
"string of genocide campaigns" by Europeans and their descendants, was the
most massive act of genocide in the history of the world and he further states:18
During the course of four centuries - from the 1490s to the 1890s -
Europeans and white Americans engaged in an unbroken string of genocide
campaigns against the native peoples of the Americas. [It] was, far and
away, the most massive act of genocide in the history of the world.
(p. 147)"
In 2003, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez urged Latin Americans to not
celebrate the Columbus Day holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for leading the
way in the mass genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish.19
So, now you may be wondering why did the English/Pilgrims or Puritans as they
were called do this.
Puritan Values
The Pilgrims who settled in America were not innocent exiles who unjustly had
been banished from their country as some historians put it. Instead, they were
"political revolutionist" belonging to the Puritan movement, which was seen as
unorthodox and intolerable by the King of the Church of England.20
The Puritans viewpoint could be considered extreme. They had a two-
fold ideology: 1) They knew their Bible well and consequently wrote deeply,
and passionately about it, and 2) They put their knowledge about Christ into
action.21 Compared to the 21st century church, they were biblically intellectual
and f e l t t h a t t h e y w e r e spiritual giants longing intensely for holiness of
saintly living through Jesus Christ. This yearning and desire for a pure spiritual
experience, or an experimental Calvinism, was so overwhelming that they were
religiously zealous for the Kingdom of God and for purity of doctrine in every area
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of life and nothing held them back from attempting to attain this.22
Puritans also had some beliefs that became a part of the culture of this
"new" America. The essence of Puritan social order lay in the authority of husband
over wife, parents over children, and masters over servants. Puritan marriage
choices were influenced by young people’s inclination, by parents, and by the
social rank of the persons involved. Upon finding a suitable match, husband and wife in America followed the steps needed to legitimize their marriage.23
Contrary to popular belief, slavery was not established in America by
uneducated Southern whites as the origin of American slavery sprang from the
minds of Northeastern Puritan colonists, who through a twisted interpretation of the
Bible and a corrupted practice of Europeanized Christianity, delegated black people
to sub-human status, fit only to serve whites and to submit to their every whim
under the threat of the most cruel reprisals and penalties.24
Unlike the Southern slavers and plantation owners, Northern Puritans prided
themselves on their culture, intellectualism, religious piety and moral purity
allowing them to inflict some of the most atrocious crimes against Native
Americans and people of African descent. These Puritans on the new land considered
themselves blessed in the sight of God even while committing the most evil of acts
against the dark skinned people they encountered.25
Pilgrims were "seeing for innocence" in their way of thinking. Since they
were God's chosen elect, they felt this gave them the right to treat women second to
men and to believe that "white" skin was superior to dark skin and that Native
Americans were infidels/savages who could be exposed of--killed off. These are
the value systems upon which this country was founded--is there any wonder why
we have sexism, racism and religious intolerance toward certain groups who appear
different?
But does this mean that certain groups aren't entitled to their beliefs?
When is power in the wrong hands dangerous to those who are different?
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What about Thanksgiving?
Given this terrible history between Native Americans and Pilgrims, why is there a
celebration of Thanksgiving?
Rather than give you my perspective, I'll give you the perspective of a Native
American and her view of Thanksgiving. Jacqueline Keeler, a member of the Dineh
Nation and the Yankton Dakota Sioux works with the American Indian Child
Resource Center in Oakland, California. Her work has appeared in Winds of
Change, an American Indian journal. She writes the following in an article titled,
“Thanksgiving: A Native American View” excerpt below taken from the website
found at http://www.alternet.org/story/4391/:
I celebrate the holiday of Thanksgiving...Thanksgiving to me has never been
about Pilgrims. When I was six, my mother, a woman of the Dineh nation,
told my sister and me not to sing "Land of the Pilgrim's pride" in "America the
Beautiful" but "Land of the Indian's pride" instead.... Bigotry, hatred,
greed, self-righteousness... We have seen the evil that it caused in the 350
years since. Genocide, environmental devastation, poverty, world wars,
racism... when I give thanks this Thursday...I will be thinking of ...how my
ancestors survived the evil it caused.26
Manifest Destiny
After killing the Native Americans, taking their land there still was conquering to
be done by the settlers here in North America. War with the Native Americans
or other nations was not of moral or ethical concern for the European settlers as
they made it their right to continue seizing land. With all the settlers means (guns
and technology) by which to conquer land it became a philosophy that white
America had the “manifest destiny” which is the right to dominate the North
American continent.27 This is where there became a clear distinction not just in
religious beliefs but also in color differences, as now only White settlers had the
right to occupy and possess these lands. Based on this accepted philosophy of
the settlers, the early 1800s were years of extraordinary territorial growth for
free White settlers of the United States.28 During a four year period, the
national domain increased by 1.2 million square miles. Yet, this expansionist
agenda was never a clearly defined movement or one that enjoyed broad
support due to lost rights of the indigenous people and the fact that this was
also a racist philosophy.
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Native American Myths
The image that has been presented to so many of us regarding the founders of
this land brings humility to a group of people who deserve our utmost respect.
Bias about American Indians is often the result of inaccurate information. The
realities of American Indian life are often oversimplified and distorted. Stylized
classroom accounts of Indian life reinforce the “buckskin and feather” and the
“Eskimo and igloo” stereotypes. With such instruction, students are certain to
develop misguided impressions of Native Americans.
In textbooks, movies, and TV programs, American Indians and Alaska Natives
have been treated in ways that tend both to overlook their dignity and to disgrace
their heritage. For example, Indians who defended their homeland from invaders
(and who today seek to preserve their languages and culture) have often been
viewed as enemies of progress. In the context of history, White people are portrayed
as having viewed the Native Americans as barriers to the settlement of the frontier.
In the present, Native Americans have been viewed as a “social problem”, a
drain on national resources. In order to value the contributions of this indigenous
people we must challenge the distortions, stereotypes, myths and racist information
that have been commonplace.
Explanation of Laws Passed to Control Native Americans
When the Constitution was written, it included a provision that implied federal
authority over the conduct of Indian relations. Thereafter, the federal government
- not state governments - was empowered to deal directly with Indian nations.
The Dawes Act On February 8, 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Act, named for its author, Senator
Henry Dawes of Massachusetts. Also known as the General Allotment Act, this law
allowed the president to break up reservation land, which was held in common by
the members of a tribe, into small allotments to be parceled out to individuals.
Thus, Native Americans registering on a tribal “roll” were granted allotments of
reservation land. Each head of family would receive one-quarter of a section (120
acres); each single person over 18 or orphan child under 18 would receive one-
eighth of a section (60 acres); and other single persons under 18 would receive
one-sixteenth of a section (30 acres).29
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While this may seem like a lot of land, let’s first remember that the land
was the Native Americans’ to begin with. Between 1887 and 1934, the U.S.
Government took over 90 million acres, nearly 2/3 of reservation lands from the
tribes without compensation and gave it to the settlers.30 Then once the best
lands were given to the settlers they gave back to the Indians desert land or near-
desert lands unsuitable for farming. Many Indians did not want to take up farming
anyway as the techniques of self-sufficient farming were much different from their
tribal way of life. But, of the Indians who were willing to give this a try they could
not afford the tools, animals, seed, and other supplies necessary to get started.
So, they were left with land that was worthless and could not provide them a
means by which to live.
The Indian Reorganization Act The Indian Reorganization Act is legislation that passed in 1934 in an attempt to
secure new rights for Native Americans on reservations. Its main provisions were
to restore to Native Americans management of their assets (mostly land); to
prevent further depletion of reservation resources; to build a sound economic
foundation for the people of the reservations; and to return to the Native
Americans local self-government on a tribal basis.31 The objectives of the bill were
vigorously pursued until the outbreak of World War II. While the act seems to
restore some dignity to Native Americans, many Native Americans questioned its
purpose which seemed more of gradual assimilation. Their opposition to the act
reflects their efforts to reduce federal condescension in the treatment of Native
Americans and their cultures.32
1924 Citizenship Acts
By the act of June 2, 1924 (43 Stat. 253, ante, 420), Congress conferred
citizenship upon all noncitizen Indians born within the territorial limits of the
United States. The text of the act follows:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Indians born within the
territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be
citizens of the United States: Provided, that the granting of such citizenship shall
not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Indian to tribal or
other property and prior to the passage of the act of June 2, 1924, about two-
thirds of the Indians of the United States were already citizens. There were a
number of different provisions of law by which or under which Indians became
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citizens previous to June 2, 1924.33 But, why did they need citizenship when they
were here first?
The participation of American Indians in the Great War probably accelerated
the granting, by an Act of Congress in 1924, of American citizenship to all American
Indians born in the United States.34 But while it may appear a great gesture, this
citizenship act did not grant Native Americans the right to be both a citizen and
live according to their culture. It granted them only the right to be a citizen and be
governed by the rules of the “White man.”35
Treatment of Native Americans Today
Despite broken treaties and numerous laws created to control American Indians, the
indigenous people of America have never stopped fighting for self-
determination-- government of a political unit by its own people.
Given the track record between the U.S. and Native Americans, one would
hope that the dismal treatment was over. However, Native Americans must still face
very racist symbols and defamation that is often accepted by mainstream America.
From the racially derived “Washington Redskins” to the American Indian mascots
that are found at the professional sports level as well as the elementary, high school
and college levels. Far from honoring Native Americans, many of these mascots are
a national insult, and represent the last vestiges of a time thought to have long
passed when such stereotypes were commonplace. Just as “Sambo” served to
perpetuate racism and bigotry toward the African-American community, these
“Indian” mascots and team names that are depicted stereotypically serve to keep
Native Americans in a similar position. How much more insult should Native
Americans take?
Indian Mascots--politically incorrect or horrifically defaming
While some people are tired of being told how to think and act politically correct, it
is important to note that being politically correct is not just the moral thing to do
but makes good business sense. Many State School Boards have taken a strong
stand against the mascot and team names; in many cases, people have strong
emotional attachments to these names but if they are perceived as being culturally
insensitive then shouldn't they be changed?36
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Why is Native people the only race of people that are permitted to be
used as mascots? Interchange the name of any race with the Indians and it immediately becomes clear that we cannot have teams called The Negroes, or The Asians.37
There is a lot of debate over Indian mascots. But how do you debate the
appropriateness of using racist terms like redskin or using cultural artifacts in a
disrespectful manner? Would there be a debate if it was customary to go a U.S.
baseball game and burn the American flag?
The controversy over the Washington Redskins trademark has brought
this debate to the mainstream. It began with a petition by seven American Indian
activists led by Suzan Harjo in 1992 to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board of
the US Department of Commerce requesting cancellation of the trademark on the
grounds that the word redskin was and is a pejorative, derogatory, denigrating,
offensive, scandalous, contemptuous, disreputable, disparaging and racist
designation for a Native American person
It becomes clear that valuing diversity is not as simple as we would like
to make it. It becomes an issue, when asked to give up something you may value
because it devalues someone else. Issues like the Indian mascots really test our
commitment to diversity, why? It is simple, revisit the definition of cultural
sensitivity and you will see why it is an issue for valuing diversity. Cultural
sensitivity does not mean that a person need only be aware of the differences.
But, to interact effectively with people from other cultures we must move beyond
cultural biases, symbols, language etc. that creates a barrier.
A document titled "What's Wrong With Indian Mascots, Anyway?" (found
at http://www.racismagainstindians.org/UnderstandingMascots.htm) tries to
answer the question it poses38:
"Because virtually the only images that non-native children view of Native people
are of the mascots, most children assume that Native people are dead or were
war-like people. This stereotype diminishes the Native culture and is hurtful to
Native people. Our myths and legends that the Native people were
bloodthirsty killers are perpetuated by the mascot. These myths are what
psychologists deem as "dehumanization," which is necessary in any war to justify
the killing of people. In other wars, we can remember the names used for
Germans, "krauts," Japanese were "Nips," etc. But when wars are over we drop
those names and show respect once again for people who are not our enemies.
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We have never dropped those names and perpetuate a war like attitude towards
Native people by the continuance of those names."
If you believe the claim of being called war-like is an "honor," read Smashing
People: The "Honor" of Being an Athlete that can be found on the Internet. In an
interview with CBSNews.com, on March 20, 2001, author Sherman Alexie
(Spokane/Coeur d'Alene) adds another important point:
"The mascot thing gets me really mad" Alexie says. "Don't think about it in terms of
race. Think about it in terms of religion. Those are our religious imagery up there.
Feather, the paint, the sun that's our religious imagery. You couldn't have a
Catholic priest running around the floor with a basketball throwing communion
wafers. You couldn't have a rabbi running around..."39
I could keep providing examples of how the mascot issue is culturally insensitive
and in some cases downright disrespectful but instead I ask you—Is having a
mascot (depicted stereotypically) really worth the continued racist, culturally
inconsiderate actions that it represents? Do you think it is necessary to take into
account the treatment of Native Americans in this country as it relates to how
sensitive we should be today? If according to your answers you still don't see
anything wrong with Indian mascots or at best don’t see the need to speak up
against them, then I leave you the following words:
"In Germany they came first for the communists, and I didn't speak up because I
wasn't a communist.
Then they came for the Jews,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a Jew.
Then they came for the trade unionists,
and I didn't speak up because I wasn't a trade unionist.
Then they came for the Catholics,
and I didn't speak up because I was a protestant.
Then they came for me,
and by that time no one was left to speak up."
--- Said by Rev. Martin J. Niemoller in 1945
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Native American Contributions and Inventions*
*Information below is copied with permission from various encyclopedias.
Foods Edible plants domesticated by Indians have become major staples in the
diets of peoples all around the world. Such foods include corn (maize),
manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squashes and pumpkins,
tomatoes, papayas, avocados, pineapples, guavas, chili peppers, chocolate
(cacao), and many species of beans.
Animals Indians were the first to raise turkeys, llamas, guinea pigs, and honeybees
for food.
Non- edible
plants
Other plants of great importance developed by Indians include cotton,
rubber, and tobacco.
Medicines Indians discovered the medicinal use for quinine. Also, Canadian Indians
knew how to prevent scurvy by eating plants rich in vitamin C, and they
passed this information along to the Europeans.
Mathematics The Maya of Mexico appear to have been the first to use the zero in mathematics.
Scholars believe that Asians traveled across the Pacific Ocean and learned about the
zero from the Maya.
Government Indian governments in eastern North America, particularly the League of the
Iroquois, served as models of federated representative democracy to the
Europeans and the American colonists. The United States government is
based on such a system, whereby power is distributed between a central
authority (the federal government) and smaller political units (the states).
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Economy Indian contributions to the modern world's economy have been
enormous. In the 1500's, Indian labor produced the gold and other
valuable metals that helped bring the Spanish Empire to the height of its
power. In the following centuries, Indian labor in the North American fur
trade contributed significantly to the wealth of England, France, the
Netherlands, and Russia.
Partial List of Inventions
abstract art- Abstract art was used by nearly all tribes and civilizations of North
and South America. Native American art was believed to be primitive until the
1990s, when it served as inspiration for the modern American abstract art
movement.
adobe- Adobe was used by the peoples from South America, Mesoamerica, and up to
Southwestern tribes of the U.S. It is estimated that it was developed around the
year 3000 B.C.
almanacs- Almanacs were invented independently by the Maya. Their culture arose
and they began using them around 3,500 years ago, while Europeans are known
to have created written almanacs only after 1150 A.D. Almanacs are books
containing meteorological and astronomical information, which the Maya used in
various aspects of their life.
anesthetics- American Indians used coca, peyote, datura and other plants for
partial or total loss of sensation or conscious during surgery. Non-Indian doctors had
effective anesthetics only after the mid 1800s. Before this, they either had to
perform surgery while the patient felt pain or knock the patient out.
balls, rubber- The Olmec produced rubber balls around 1700 B.C. They were the first
people to develop and play with rubber balls as well as manufacture other objects
of rubber.
basketball- Basketball was played by the Olmec 3,000 years ago. The game
followed the Olmec's creation of the rubber ball. See Mesoamerican ballgame for
more information on this ancient sport.
calendars- Were developed throughout North America, Mesoamerica, and South
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America. They are known to have been in used since 600 B.C. American Indian
calendars were so precise that by the 5th century B.C. they were only 19
minutes off.
chewing gum- American Indians in New England introduced the settlers to
chewing gum made from the spruce tree. The Mayans, on the other hand, were
the first people to use latex gum; better known to them as chicle.
chocolate- The Mayans were the first to drink cocoa. This tradition was later
passed on to the Aztec's who called the beverage xocalatl. Natives in
mesoamerica introduced it to the Spanish and Portuguese, but they kept the
beloved xocalatl from the rest of Europe for nearly a century.
corn (maize) - The domestication of maize, now cultivated throughout the world,
is one of the most influential technological contributions of Mesoamericans.
dog breeds- Dog breeds believed to have been bred by Native Americans are the
xochiocoyotl (coyote), xoloitzcuintli (known as xolo or Mexican hairless),
chihuahua, the Carolina dog, and the Alaskan malamute.
electricity- The Moche invented electricity through chemical means somewhere
between 200 B.C. and 600 A.D. Electrical current was produced by dipping copper
into an acid solution.
embalming- Egyptians are known for mummification which began around 2000
B.C. In what is now Chile however, the Chinchoro are known to have been
embalming and mummifying their dead since 5000 B.C. which would make them
the world's earliest embalmers. Embalming is using preservatives to prevent
decay of the body.
geographical names- Native Americans have had a major impact in names of
locations and places commonly used today. There are 26 states in the United
States alone whose names derive from Native Americans. Most notable however,
are the countries of Canada and Mexico. Names do not limit themselves to
political states; there are also mountains, rivers, cities, lakes, and counties
deriving from indigenous terms.
hammocks- Hammocks were commonly used in the Caribbean, South and Central
America at first contact with Europeans. The Spanish liked the comfortable way of
sleeping and adopted them. Europeans eventually used them as the primary way
of sleeping on ships.
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hockey- Both field hockey and ice hockey are based on a game called shinny. This
American Indian stickball game was played throughout North America well before
the European arrival.
llamas- Indigenous people from Peru domesticated llamas in around 5000 B.C.
rubber balloons- The Olmec were the first people to use rubber balloons. Their
civilization arose in B.C 1700 in the Yucatan Peninsula.
spinning top- North American Indians invented the spinning top. A device used as a
toy and made out of wood.
tipi- A cone shaped, portable dwelling popularized by Native Americans of the
Great Plains. Tipis were warm, durable and comfortable and could be easily broken
down and packed. A settlement could be ready to move in about one hour.
tortillas- this staple food well known today was used throughout Mesoamerican and
Southwestern cultures. Although they were mainly made of corn, squash and
amaranth were also popular among the natives. The tortillas were wrapped around
different fillings such as avocado. Today this has resulted in the creation of the
modern taco, burrito, and enchilada.
Concluding Thoughts
As we close with this chapter, one thing should be clear—America has treated the
Natives of this country with disdain, disrespect and in some cases dishonor toward
their humanity and culture. This can make some feel ashamed, embarrassed and
even guilty for this treatment. It is okay to feel this, but what becomes more
important is what we do with these feelings.
If you feel ashamed, don’t—feel empowered. Make it a point to teach your
children, friends and family the truth about the Natives of this country—this can
go a long way toward erasing the many myths that exist. If you feel embarrassed,
don’t—feel empathy. Celebrate Thanksgiving in a different manner not as a victory
toward the pilgrims but as respect and honor toward the Natives of this country
for their suffering and loss. If you feel guilty, don’t—instead feel responsible. Use
this accountability to work toward restoring honor to this culture
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as it relates to the mascot issue, Native American sovereignty, and other issues
that Native Americans still must fight for. Remember, strength lies in numbers
and we all need to use our voices to speak up for this most honorable race of
people.
End of Chapter Questions
1. Define the following terms and indicate how they relate to Native
Americans:
a. Indigenous People b. Discoverer c. Infidels d. Law of Nation(s)
2. Name and describe two laws that were implemented to control Native
Americans.
3. What is manifest destiny and how does it relate to “who” could acquire
land?
4. How does America explain the taking of Native American land or does it and what does continued disrespect say about how Native Americans are
valued in U.S. society?
5. What were the four values of Native Americans? How were these exploited by the pilgrims?
6. Why did the Venezuelan President urge Latin America not to celebrate Columbus Day?
7. In what ways did Native American nations respect their women?
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8. What were the Puritan viewpoints toward the following: a. dark-skinned people b. women c. religious freedom
9. Besides tipis, what were some styles of homes that Native American nations utilized? Indicate if they are still used today
in U.S. society?
10. For each statement below, indicate if it is an appropriate way to
show respect to Native Americans and indicate why or why
not. a. A company creates a new potato chip and names it
“redskin” potato chips and on the bag shows a Native
American in “red” face.
b. During a school pep rally, the school utilizes the religious symbols (such as the images of eagle feathers,
symbols of clothing, song, dance) of Native Americans
to get the crowd excited.
c. When someone at work takes back a gift they gave you, you refer to them as an “Indian Giver.”
d. During the month of November your organization creates factual literature on the various cultures of
Native Americans.
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Internet Exercise
Using the Internet, look up the following address:
http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/iroquois.html or go to www.google.com and
search for “Iroquois Constitution”. Once you have retrieved the document,
skim it so that you can answer the two questions below.
a. What famous document in U.S. history sounds similar to the document on the above website?
b. What is this document’s view on women, religious freedom, and the designation of power?
End of Chapter Exercise
What is the “real” Thanksgiving Story?
Using the Internet, look up the following address:
http://www.manataka.org/page269.html or go to www.google.com and search for
“The Real Thanksgiving Story.” Once at the website Teaching About Thanksgiving
read “Introduction for Teachers” and “The Plymouth Thanksgiving story.” Now
complete the following:
(1) Explain five things that you learned from this story. (2) State if you were taught this version of the story and if yes what impact did this
have on your view of Native Americans. If you were not taught this version of
the story, indicate what impact did the story you were taught have on your
view of Native Americans. If you did know about Thanksgiving, state what
your views are regarding the U.S. treatment of Native Americans.
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References
1. Population history of American indigenous peoples. Retrieved from http://www.Population_history_of_American_indigenous_peopl es
2. Anderson, K. (1993). Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Publishers.
3. Ibid.
4. Buskirk, W. (1987). The Western Apache: Living with the Land before 1950. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
5. Buffalohead, P.K. (1983). Farmers Warriors Traders: A Fresh Look at Ojibway Women. (Doc No. 28).
6. Kehoe, A.B. (1995). Blackfoot persons. In L. F. Klein & L. A. Ackerman
(Eds.), Women And Power in Native North America, 113-125. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Popick, J. (2006). Native American Women, Past, Present and Future. Lethbridge Undergraduate Research Journal, 1(1).
12. Ibid.
13. Native American Culture. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.greatdreams.com/native.htm
14. Jaimes, M. A. (2003, Spring). Patriarchal Colonialism and Indigenism: Implications for Native Feminist Spirituality and Native Womanism. Hypatia, (18)2, 58-69.
15. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Six: Understanding the Native American Experience
179
16. Morris, G. T. (1995). International law and politics toward a right to self- determination for indigenous peoples. Washington: Center for World Indigenous Studies.
17. Ibid.
18. Stannard, D. (1993). A review of American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. England: Oxford University Press.
19. Columbus 'sparked a genocide'. (2003, October 12). BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3184668.stm.
20. The Pilgrim fathers; or, The journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.archive.org/stream/pilgrimfathersor00inchee/pilgrimfathersor00in chee_djvu.txt
21. McMahon, C. M. (n.d.). A Puritan's Mind. Retrieved from http://www.apuritansmind.com/PuritanArticles/PuritanRoots.htm
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Shelton, S. M. (2004). The Puritans, and The Myth of Democracy. Retrieved from http://www.afromerica.com/columns/shelton/vantagepoint/mythofdemocracy. php
25. Ibid.
26. Keeler, J. (2000, January 1). Thanksgiving: A Native American View. Pacific News Service. Retrieved from http://www.purewatergazette.net/nativeamericanthanksgiving.htm
27. Kluger, R. (2008). Seizing Destiny: The Relentless Expansion of American Territory. New York: Random House.
28. Ibid.
29. General Allotment Act or Dawes Act, Statutes at Large 24, 388-91, NADP Document A1887. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.Archives.gov
30. Ibid.
31. Wunder, J. R. (1985). No More Treaties: The Resolution of 1871 and the Alteration of Indian Rights to their Homelands. In Working the Range: Essays on the History of Western Land Management and the Environment. Westport,
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Six: Understanding the Native American Experience
180
CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 39-58.
32. d'Errico, P. (2000). Sovereignty: A brief history in the context of U.S. Indian law. Phoenix: The Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics.
33. Kappler, C. J. (1927, March 4). Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Government Printing Office, 1V, laws.
34. Camurat, D. (1993). The American Indian in the Great War: Real and Imagined. Retrieved from http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/comment/Cmrts/Cmrt8.html
35. Ibid.
36. Rabbit, W. (2009, February 7). Indian Mascots and death threats to a 15 yr. old. Daily Kos.
37. Rose, C. (2002). The STAR - Students and Teachers Against Racism. Retrieved from
http://www.racismagainstindians.org/UnderstandingMascots.htm
38. Ibid.
39. Team Names and Mascots. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bluecorncomics.com/mascots.htm
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Chapter Seven: Understanding the African American/Black Experience
Not to know the past is to be in bondage to it, while to remember and to know is to
be set free.
Dr. Sigmund Freud
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UNDERSTANDING THE AFRICAN AMERICAN/BLACK EXPERIENCE
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
define chattel slavery.
identify several slave revolutions.
describe the slaves impact on the American Revolution.
understand why slavery was worse in America than other
countries.
discuss the Willie Lynch Speech and Jim Crow Laws.
provide examples of the treatment of Blacks today.
Chapter Seven
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According to George Henderson in Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Issues and
Strategies:
“Ethnicity and race are often confused in the United States. For example, Hispanics
from the Americas and Puerto Rico with African ancestors, even though they tend to
identify with their native country, are frequently and erroneously labeled African
Americans in the U.S. workplace. The terms blacks, African Americans, and
people of color are popular. Some writers use them interchangeably without
understanding that African Americans do not include peoples of African descent who
are not American citizens; and people of color refer to minorities that have darker
skin tone such as: Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans and the like--not just African
Americans.”1
So in order not to confuse you, we are going to be addressing the plight of a
race of people who have been called many things from Negroes to colored to
Blacks and now African American. Today, terms like "Negro," and colored are
considered derogatory in many quarters (due to political overtones). The term
"Black" still has some currency because not all those with brown skin have a
homeland of Africa which is assumption if referring to someone as African-
American.
The term "African American" (aka Afro-American, Black American, or Black) is
generally used for Americans with at least partial Sub-Saharan African ancestry.
Many African Americans are the direct descendants of captive Africans who survived
the slavery era within the boundaries of the present United States, although some
are—or are descended from—voluntary immigrants from African, Caribbean, Central
American or South American nations.
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According to 2007 U.S. Census Data there are about 40 million Blacks or
African Americans in the United States including those who indicate that they are
more than one race. Black makes up 13.5 percent of the total U.S. population.2
This figure represents an increase of more than half a million residents from one
year earlier. The projected black population of the United States (including those
of more than one race) for July 1, 2050 is 67 million.3 On that date, according to
the projection, blacks would constitute 15 percent of the nation's total population.
We will begin this discussion with the experience of the first Blacks who
arrived in America. Just like other immigrants, these free Blacks saw opportunity.
One example, of a free African looking for opportunities in America is Juan
las Canerias, who sailed with Columbus on the first voyage. He was like many
Africans in Europe at the time, in that they had achieved freedom and had spent
several years in Spain as domestics, soldiers, clerks, and artisans.4 According to
Madeleine Burnside in Marooned: Africans in the Americas 1500 - 17505:
Juan Garrido, another free man of African descent, joined Ponce de
Leon’s expeditions to the Caribbean and subsequently traveled to
Mexico with Cortez. His experience appears to have been entirely
similar to that of any other Spaniard and, ironically to 20th century
eyes, the wealth produced by these expeditions came from the sale of
Native American slaves. Garrido was accustomed to this, as slavery
was a way life for the conquered in Spain. For centuries, the Moors
had been enslaved by Spanish Christians and Christians by Moors, and
sub Saharans had been brought to the slave markets of Italy and
Spain, along with the Slavs and other eastern Europeans.
Europeans enslaved each other as easily as Africans have ever been
accused of doing. According to a new study, Europeans were even enslaved by
White Africans (North Africa). This study indicates that a million or more European
Christians were enslaved by Muslims in North Africa between 1530 and 1780 – a
far greater number than had ever been estimated before.6
Why enslave others? Slavery was profitable. Free labor allows those in
power to gain wealth at the expense of others. Slavery also existed as a means to
utilize criminals. Those who were convicted of crimes instead of being punished by
death or other means, they paid their debt to society by enslavement.
But enslaving individuals who would otherwise want their freedom meant
isolation. Slaves who were “not” isolated could run away. Therefore it became
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common practice to look outside of your own country for slaves. This is one
reason that many of the Native Americans did not end up as slaves in America but
were instead killed or sent to other countries as slaves. Native Americans knew
the land and therefore would not be easy to isolate. For slavery in America to flourish
and exist with ease, the slaves needed to come from outside the land-- come to
an unknown territory.
A prime area for slaves was on the west coast of Africa called the Sudan.
This area was ruled by three major empires Ghana (790-1240), Mali (1240-1600),
and Songhai (670-1591).7 Other smaller nations were also canvassed by slavers
along the west coast; they included among them: Benin, Dahomey, and Ashanti.
Africans were ideal for this isolated placement in the Americas, as they would
recognize immediately that they had no hope of getting home. But this was not
the only reason the people of Africa were enslaved. The peoples inhabiting those
African nations were known for their skills in agriculture, farming, and mining.
The Africans of Ghana were well known for smelting iron ore, and the
Benins were famous for their cast bronze art works.8 African tribal wars produced
captives which became a bartering resource in the European slave market. Other
slaves were kidnapped by hunters. The main sources of barter used by the
Europeans to secure African slaves were glass beads, whiskey and guns.9
Slavery as a form of free labor was on the rise as products like sugar,
coffee, cotton, and tobacco became in great need. Many countries like Spain,
France, the Dutch, and English wanted their colonial plantation system to work to
produce these good and the most profitable means of doing this was by cheap or
free labor through slaves. The slave trade was so profitable that, by 1672, the
Royal African Company chartered by Charles II of England superseded the other
traders and became the richest shipper of human slaves to the mainland of the
Americas and the slaves were so valuable to the open market - they were eventually
called "Black Gold."10
But, we know African slaves were valuable because of their skill level but to
the Americas they also were valuable because the Native Americans were
difficult to be used as slaves in their own land. Native Americans knew the land
and could therefore easily escape. So, it would just be easier to kill off the Native
Americans. Africans were also brought to the colonies to replace Native American
labor as the Natives died out to the diseases they caught from the Europeans.
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For those Native Americans who were not killed they would be bartered
for African slaves and would become slaves elsewhere. After King Philip’s
War in 1697, thousands of Wampanoags were sent to the Caribbean in
exchange for Africans.11
Slavery in America
Slavery in America has its own unique story but before this is discussed, one
question: Why were the Africans chosen as slaves?
According to many researchers like Peter Wood, the Western Africans
lived comfortable lives punctuated by the usual environmental and ecological
problems that one would expect in the 6th century through the 19th century.12
Actually Wood states in his text: "it was because of their settled domestic
situations that Africans made good targets for slavery and the slave trade.
The very similarity of their material existence to the Europeans of that period
made it possible for them to function in the plantation economy of the
Americas. If they were wild people living in jungles they would not have made
good workers so, they were plucked from their lands not only for their brawn,
but for their skills as well.”13
The number of Africans brought to the Americas has been hard to
estimate. While records of the “official” trade are reliable, records of the early
trade and smuggled slaves are non-existent. Estimates vary between 9 and 15
million. The slave trade began in the 1500s with only several thousand being
bartered or stolen, then over the next 400 years there were tens of thousands
being shipped.14 However, the slave trade dramatically increased from the last
quarter of the 17th century through the first quarter of the nineteenth, with more
slaves being shipped in the trades last one hundred years than in the previous
three hundred.15 The total estimate of slaves shipped to the United States is more
than 600,000.
What happened to make the slave trade grow? Sugar, which was a warm
climate crop, created demand for hard working slave (free) labor. Then there were
the plantations of tobacco and cotton. While slavery had been a profitable
institution to many in the world, slavery in the United States took on a different
meaning. Slaves in other areas often could work off their time or even buy their
freedom, but slaves in the U.S. were considered a permanent fixture as they were
not even considered humans worthy of rights and freedom.16
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This inhumane treatment started from the point of transferring the slaves from
Africa to this part of the world. This transference is known as the Middle Passage and
it was an example of what the slave institution would be like in America. Brutal,
disgusting, horrifying and frequently fatal was it for the Africans to live through the
Middle Passage.17 But it also showed the African’s capacity for survival and fight as
the rebellion of the slaves started at this point also. So upon arrival, the Europeans
tried to lessen any further likelihood of slave rebellions by transporting people in
mixed ethnic groups so that they could not communicate with other transported
Africans or family members. This enslavement of blacks was not just about people
working the fields and being treated as peasants. As stated earlier, many countries
have enslaved people, even countries in Africa. But, it must be stated again that these
institutions of slavery were quite different than the enslavement of Blacks in the U.S.
Imagine you, your children, and spouse arrive in an unknown country in a
ship on which many people died during the voyage. They didn’t just die trying to
escape but died because women and children who were less valued were thrown off
the ship to decrease the ship’s weight. Now, you and your family are standing on an
auction block with people flocking around you as though you are workhorses. Then,
in a language you are not familiar with you hear words, then see your children and
husband sent away each to different places. You are then tied up and gagged to
keep the noise of your tremendous emotional outcry down. You arrive alone (without
your family) on new land and are stripped, inspected, and raped. You are then
given new clothing, tools and scraps that no one else wants to eat.
You are forced to work from sun up to sun down, working in the field and
raising the White folk’s children. When there is the slightest bit of rebellion you are
stripped and hung on a tree and beat till blood covers your body. You are taken
down and given some time to heal and put right back to work. You are the possession
of your master who has total control and will work you, beat you, rape you, and drink
the milk out of your breast that’s for your newborn baby, all at his desire. You have
no rights and are not even considered human; you’re just somebody’s
possession.
This is just one illustration that depicts the experience of slavery from a
woman’s perspective. There are so many other stories that also depict the horrific
experience of slavery in the U.S. But, rather than bombard you with story after
story of how the slaves were treated, it is necessary that you understand that slavery
was not as depicted on the television production of “Gone with the Wind.”
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Slaves were not out there in the fields singing because they were happy to be
slaves.
The brutality of this slave institution was not accepted or tolerated by the
slaves. These people who fathered the Civil Rights Movement or Black Freedom
Movement as it is often called have a history consumed with a fight for equality.
Their fight was unlike the immigrants who voluntarily came here and found
discrimination and fought against it. The Africans and their generations of
American born children were forced here into a situation where they were treated
worse than the wild animals that walked the streets.
Therefore, the Africans had to fight to get back the dignity and rights they
had lost. While there were many movements for this fight for dignity, the most
well-known is The Civil Rights Movement, which is a century long history,
rooted largely in Southern Black communities. This struggle was against the
legally mandated structures of White supremacy.18 The movement was
mobilized and sustained with the mass protests of the 1960s. But, as important
as this movement was, it would not have happened if the slaves had not mounted
revolutions that forced the issue of freedom and then the issue of equal
treatment. The slave revolutions started when they got off the boat and did not
end until freedom was proclamated.19
Slave Revolutions
Slave revolutions took place because the African people never lost sight of their
heritage or their freedom. They did not choose to immigrate here or leave their
bountiful continent, which is one of the richest continents in the world. Africa also
the first known civilization to man was years ahead (as it relates to intelligence
and structure) of many other continents of the world. These great African ancient
civilizations that the slaves came from were just as splendid and glorious as any
on the face of the earth. These Africans came from greatness and were forced to
leave it and would not be satisfied until they were free again.
While some history books and television shows would like to make you
think that Africans were savages out in the wild--naked, hungry and illiterate--this
is not the true picture of Africans at all. If we were to buy this image, it would
make the enslavement of these people in the U.S. seem more like a favor than
the brutality that it was. It would seem that there was no reason for the Africans
to fight back and if there are no historical accounts of these people fighting back,
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then maybe people will believe there was some value to slavery in America.
But the truth is there was no value to slavery except to those White slave
owners who amassed a fortune from the free labor. According to the 1860 U.S.
census, nearly four million slaves were held in a total population of just over 12
million in the 15 states in which slavery was legal.20 Of all free persons in the 15
slave states, 393,967 people (8%) held slaves.21 The majority of slaves were held by
planters, defined by historians as those who held 20 or more slaves.
So, from the time that the first African was captured until completion of the
Emancipation, slaves struck out against the institution in one way or another.
Actually, many Africans rebelled even before making it to the ship. Reports show
that many Africans committed suicide before they would be taken from their
homeland.22 "Many more committed suicide while crossing the Atlantic. Some
others revolted and/or plotted revolt during the voyage. Once subjected to American
slavery, many Africans ran away, some found refuge with the Native Americans.
Others lived in maroon camps."23
Runaways who banded together or who had joined with the Native Americans
occupied these maroons. Their existence was fragile and although maroon
communities provided a haven for the runaways, it was also an opportunity for new
alliances or for flight to thinly populated lands where new life could be made. As the
European conquest expanded it became harder for slaves to find anywhere to
escape to. But, they never stopped looking for safe havens or stopped fighting for
their freedom.
Herbert Aptheker, a famous historian and author, has recorded hundreds of
insurrections. Many slave revolts in America were small and ineffective because the
slaves did not have access to weapons or resources to fight against the
plantation owners who had access to money and weapons.24 However, three
insurrections in particular chilled Southern hearts. These were led by Gabriel
Prosser, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner and occurred within the short span
between 1800 and 1831.25 In the spring of 1800, Gabriel, slave of Thomas H.
Prosser, a 24 year old man who stood six feet two inches tall began laying plans
for a slave revolt that would enlist between 2,000 and 50,000 slaves and field
hands.26 People of all races participated. The plan also enlisted the aid of such
resident aliens as the radical Frenchman Charles Quersey and the probably German
Alexander Bedeenhurst, and Lucas, a non-Black worker.27 Gabriel envisioned the
conspiracy as the promised realization of the American Revolution, the struggle of
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oppressed workers of all races as well as slaves against the
“merchants”. This was not a war on race but on class.
At this time there were many oppressed white workers who were
indentured servants, not free or able to take advantage of capitalism. Gabriel
committed his followers (the oppressed) to his vision. They planned and organized
for several months where they were able to assemble weapons. They collected
clubs, swords, and other crude weapons. On the day of the insurrection, Gabriel
and his followers had some bad luck--a severe storm hit Virginia which wiped out
many roads and bridges.28 There plans were then delayed. This delay hurt them
though as word had gotten out about what was occurring.
After several masters on plantation knew of the details, they got the
government of the United States involved. The government took swift action and
26 of the 35 organizers including Gabriel were hung, and the other nine were
transported to Louisiana.29 In September 1800, during the first weeks of the trials
of Gabriel’s comrades, the slaves of South Carolina were staging an uprising as
well.
In Charleston, some 20 years before these trials of Gabriel’s, a slave
named Denmark Vesey won $1,500 in a lottery with which he purchased his
freedom.30 During the following years he worked as a carpenter. Originally from
the island of St. Thomas, Denmark had been enslaved for a time in Haiti (around
1781).31 While Denmark could have been satisfied with his own freedom, he was
not. He was knew that others were enslaved and he could not just do nothing
about this so he created a plan for an insurrection.32 According to Author Norman
Freedman, "he and other freedmen collected two hundred pike heads and
bayonets as well as three hundred daggers to use in the revolt, but, before the
plans could be put into motion in 1882, a slave informed on them."33
Most of the members of Denmark's group were from the “African Church”
(the secessionist Methodist Episcopal Church). Over a hundred arrest were made,
including four whites who had encouraged the project, and several other leaders
including Denmark were executed.34
Some additional slave insurrections and conspiracies (these are just of few of the
many) are discussed below35: In 1826, the people of Newbern, being informed
that forty slaves were assembled in a swamp, surrounded it, and killed the
whole party. Other citizens were discomforted in Hillsboro and Tarboro in North
Carolina by these types of uprisings.
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In August of 1839, Joseph Cinque led an African revolt on the slave ship
Amistad with 53 Africans aboard, killing the captain: “the vessel was then
captured by a United States vessel and brought to Connecticut.” “Defended
before the Supreme Court by former President John Quincy Adams, and were
awarded their freedom.” This was the basis for the American Film, Amistad.
On November 7, 1841 the slave ship Creole of Richmond, Virginia was
transporting slaves to New Orleans; the crew mutinied and took her to
Nassau, British West Indies. “The slaves were freed and Great Britain refused
indemnity.”
Gabriel, Denmark, and their countless predecessors had been intelligent,
cunning, rhetorical, and powerful Black figures, but in 1831 a truly
charismatic leader emerged from the slave social order—Nat Turner. While
Gabriel was a resistance leader, Denmark a preacher, Nat Turner was a prophet.
Nat’s warrant came from God and the Holy Spirit. Nat’s African born parents read
the marks on his head and breast as confirming that the child was a prophet who
would be able to recount tales of events before they occurred as well as tell
the future.36 His grandmother told him that he would never be of any use to
anyone as a slave. Nat proved these things to be true because as a child he had
a thirst for knowledge and could give insight into things as a child. Nat soon
knew that he was destined for great things.
Several years before an 1831 rebellion, Nat began to experience visions
and inner voices.37 He used these visions and inner voices to assemble slaves
basing their plans on what was to occur—their eventual freedom. On August 22,
sixty to eighty slaves and free Blacks rose up to join Nat.37 For two days they
ravaged Southampton, killing some fifty-five adults and children of the
slave- holding classes. ''Nat eluded capture for almost two months. While he
was at large, a panic seized large parts of Virginia, North Carolina and Maryland .
. . The panic rolled over a large part of the South. It was the barking of a
dog that betrayed Nat. When he was finally captured, guns fired all over
Southampton County. At his trial he pleaded not guilty, saying that he did not
FEEL guilty. Nat Turner was found guilty and sentenced to hang until he was
“dead! dead! dead!”38
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There is documented evidence of conspiracies throughout the entire
duration of chattel slavery. Few actually realized fruition, since most were
discovered or betrayed by scared and or loyal servants. Moreover, there were
plenty of individual acts of rebellion, including a refusal to work hard, poisoning,
arson, killings, and the breaking of tools, faking sickness, and escape (e.g. the
Underground Railroad”). Native Americans often aided the slaves, and for various
reasons, including retribution and conviction, some Whites too.
It is no doubt that during this time slave insurrections and the fear of
their occurrence created great a need for alarm among the White general
population. Because of this fear, they built shelters so they could escape if
necessary, slept with guns and even a number of them had heart attacks which
caused their death.
Due to this fear and the physical strength of the slaves the plantation
owners had to seek various methods for trying to control the slaves. They often
would use poor Whites to catch the slaves once they had run. They created slave
patrols, which were enlisted groups who could enforce laws against the slaves.39
state militias. Slave patrols were often equipped with guns and whips and would
exert brutal and racially motivated control.40 Militias were organized to handle
revolts. White preachers were used to instill docility and the acceptance of the lot
of slavery. Many bible verses were twisted to say that being Black was a curse
and slavery was an accepted manner to handle these cursed people (many
churches still preach that being black was a curse). They also told their
congregations that if slaves were obedient, they would be rewarded in the
hereafter.
Even with these resurrections and control methods those in the south did
not want the news of what was going on to get back to the white populace. They
censored reports and distorted just how amenable the slaves were to slavery.
They did not want Whites outside of their areas and foreigners to learn of the
warlike environment that had been created due to the Africans fighting back. They
still felt that they could get the "Negroes" under control.41
Slaves and the American Revolution
While this unrest between slaves and their owners continued, the U.S. found
themselves fighting the American Revolution for the same thing—freedom.
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During this time of war, do you think the Africans stopped their fight?
Would you (as a slave) have helped the U.S. fight for freedom? Did you read
about the slaves’ role during the American Revolution? If you heard of nothing
regarding the slaves during the American Revolution was it because they just
quietly sat back and watched?
Well, despite what you may have heard or not heard, Africans played a
significant role in the American Revolution. They fought on the opposition’s side in
many roles because they were promised their freedom by the opposition. Those
who did not fight in the war, continued to stage slave uprisings. Therefore, the
American Revolution was not a solitary insurrection but several simultaneous
upheavals. Yet, according to author and historian Cedric Johnson, in his book on
slavery and the constitution, he notes few historians or others portray the Revolution
preferring instead to follow George Bancroft (another historian) in staging the
Revolution as a “culminating event” that transformed a complex colonial society
“into a comfortable, democratic nineteenth-century society that was, after all,
good enough for everyone.”41 The American Revolution was hardly anything of the
kind, for it bequeathed civil rights on what Linda Grant DePauw, professor of
history at George Washington University, estimates to be only 15 percent of the
population, leaving poorer colonists, the slaves, all women, and Native Americans
to the mercies of a few.42
This limited freedom was not what most Americans fought for—the poor
whites, the Blacks, and the Native Americans possessed a radically different mission.
There were also many uprisings that occurred before this time that forged the
American Revolution. Many of these uprisings were that of Blacks (the enslaved and
the free). This war of the Blacks, frequently allied with Native Americans and
sometimes abolitionist colonials, provided the occasion for the liberation of what
some estimate to be one hundred thousand slaves, a fifth of the Black population.43
This constituted the largest emancipation of slaves in the Americas prior to the
Haitian Revolution. But many historians have treated these events as though they
did not happen because they are not recounted in many American history books.
Willie Lynch & Slavery
As the slaves fought back and died as punishment, the White slave owners
continually sought out ways to keep control without losing their free labor. One
example was the “Willie Lynch Chip.” The “Willie Lynch Chip” was a controversial
letter that some say did not exist, but if it did not exist it certainly was a system
that was used to control slaves whether Willie Lynch was the author or not.
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Whether you accept that the Willie Lynch speech existed or not--isn't the issue
(the method of control is). Kenneth Stampp in his important work on slavery in
the American South, The Peculiar Institution (1956), uses the historical records to
outline the five rules for making a slave44:
1. Maintain strict discipline. 2. Instill belief of personal inferiority. 3. Develop awe of master’s power (instill fear).
4. Accept master’s standards of “good conduct.”
5. Develop a habit of perfect dependence.
The Willie Lynch speech follows these same rules of thumb. Willie Lynch
Chip was named for a White slave owner named William “Willie” Lynch, who
supposedly, in a speech delivered on the banks of the James River in 1712, said
there were many ways to maintain control over Black slaves.45 His strategy of 287
years ago is still being used, in the view of many. The city Lynchburg, VA is
named after this man's brother John Lynch. The word lynching was coined
because of their family's practice of beating, tarring, feathering and hanging his
Black victims coined as "Lynch law."46
A replica of the speech given in 1717 by William Lynch follows below47:
Gentlemen:
I greet you here on the banks of the James River in the year of our Lord
1712. First, I shall thank you, the gentlemen of the Colony of Virginia, for
bringing me here. I am here to help you solve your problems with slaves.
Your invitation reached me on my modest plantation in the West Indies
where I have experimented with some of the newest and still the oldest
methods for control of slaves. Ancient Rome would envy us if my program
is implemented.
As our boat sailed south on the James River, named for our illustrious king,
whose version of the Bible we cherish, I saw enough to know that your
problem is not unique. While Rome used cords of wood as crosses for
standing human bodies along its old highways in great numbers, you are
here using the tree and rope on occasion.
I caught a whiff of a dead slave hanging from a tree a couple of miles
back. You are not only losing valuable stock by hangings, you are having
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uprisings, slaves are running away, your crops are sometimes left in the field too
long for maximum profit, you suffer occasional fires, your animals are killed.
Gentlemen, you know what your problems are; I do not need to elaborate. I am not
here to enumerate your problems. I am here to introduce you to a method of
solving them.
In my bag I have a foolproof method for controlling your black slaves. I
guarantee that if installed correctly it will control the slaves for at least 300 years.
My method is simple and members of your family or any overseer can use it. I
have outlined a number of differences among the slaves, and I take these differences
and make them bigger. I use fear, distrust and envy for control purposes. These
methods have worked on my modest plantation in the West Indies and will work
throughout the South. Take this simple list of differences, think about them. On top
of my list “age” but it is there only because it starts with “a”, the second is
“color” (or shade); there is intelligence, size, sex, size of plantation, status of
plantation, attitude of owner, whether the slave lives in the valley or on a hill, east,
west, north, south, has fine hair or coarse hair, or is tall or short.
Now that you have a list of differences, I shall give you an outline of action,
but before that, I shall assure you that distrust is stronger than trust, and envy
is stronger than adulation, respect, or admiration. The Black slave after receiving
this indoctrination shall carry on and will become self-refueling and self-generating
for hundreds of years, maybe thousands.
Don’t forget you must pit the old black vs. the young Black and the young Black
male vs. the old Black male. You must use the dark skin slave vs. the light skin
slave. You must also have your white servants and overseers distrust all Blacks, but
it is necessary they trust and depend on us. They must love and respect and trust
ONLY us.
Gentlemen, these kits are your control; use them. Have your wives and children
use them, never miss an opportunity. My plan is guaranteed, and the good thing
about this plan is that if used intensely for one year, the slaves themselves will
remain perpetually distrustful.
Thank you, gentlemen.
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It is believed that Willie’s message or this type of system was passed
around the South as an effective way of handling Black slaves. These new types of
control worked through violence but also through a divide and conquer
philosophy. Many White slave owners embraced this thinking in order to control
their possessions (the slaves) and increase their profit.48
Cotton was the largest imported product during this time period and if the
plantation owners did not have the slaves to pick the cotton and work for free
they would lose a tremendous amount of money. Can you imagine having
hundreds of workers who worked for free, were fed the scraps that your family
would not eat, that you spent no amount of money on to take care and could work
from sun up to sun down. Many families became wealthy as a result of this free
labor. Additionally, the United States became a prosperous country on the backs
of slaves.49 These slave owners would do what they could to keep this free labor
as long as possible. But, despite this huge incentive to keep control of slaves,
slavery did not last.
The slaves ran, utilized the Underground Railroad, and fought for their
freedom. This freedom was gained through their bravery, ability to survive the
cruelest circumstances, intelligence to learn this new land and language through
the desire to be as physically free as they were in their minds. But, in an
environment where the slaves were against slave owners who had everything to
lose if slavery was abolished, this was not a fight of all Whites against Blacks.
Sure, Willie Lynch taught many White minds to distrust Blacks, a distrust that we
still see today. But, there were other Whites who knew that slavery was an
inhumane institution and they worked with the Africans to abolish it.
White & Black Abolitionists
By the 1840s those associated with the abolitionist movement had gained
strength in American life. Abolitionists made slavery a moral issue and used the
political process of citizen protest and actions to increase pressure for change.
Though the abolitionist movement did not cause the Civil War, it clearly defined its
moral principles.
The very first abolitionist demonstration in America took place in 1688. A
group of brave Quakers gathered in Germantown, Pennsylvania, to voice their
religious objections to the slave trade.50 At first, few free Whites paid much
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attention to the Quakers' calls for an end to slavery. But, eventually those men
and women of all races who participated in the abolitionist movement made their
case through speeches, pamphlets, and journals. In these spoken and written
words by individuals such as William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and
Angelina Grimke Weld they captured the moral passion of their cause.
Many when they think of slavery see blacks verse whites. But, when you
note that oppressed whites joined in the fight against slave owners (the merchants),
that whites risked their own freedom in order to teach blacks the American
language (a language very different from their native tongue), that whites
joined forces to become abolitionist as well as walk alongs ide blacks during the
civil war—this African American experience cannot be blamed on “whites” as a
group because not all whites bought into what was occurring to blacks in
America.
The first abolitionist organization on record, the American Colonization
Society, was founded in 1816 and focused on gradual emancipation by individual
slaveowners.51 Once the slaves were freed, some thought it best that they be
returned to Africa. William Lloyd Garrison, a White man and reformer from Boston,
directly challenged the claims of this mindset. He felt that such an approach was
racist and focused more on returning slaves than on ending slavery.52 He also
challenged the central writers of the U.S. Constitution because it was the document
that granted freedom to all.
On January 1, 1831 he published the first issue of The Liberator, which
became one of the leading antislavery journals in the U.S.53 In a church basement;
he organized a new abolitionist group, the New England Anti-Slavery society that
included Blacks and Whites. In 1833, he and 62 others established the American
Anti-Slavery society. This organization became what many referred to as “militant in
their views” because they started threatening all slave owners.54
Abolitionists used different tactics to persuade the nation to end slavery.
The primary method was the moral appeal to do the right thing and to convince
Christians that slavery was a sin. Other abolitionists used more direct methods
such as bringing anti-slave petitions before Congress and by forming alternative
political parties. Another approach was to boycott goods made by slave labor
hoping this economic method would be felt through loss of profits.
Mob violence was following abolitionists wherever they took their message.
When William Garrison wrote an editorial attacking mob violence for The Liberator,
Amgelina Grimke, a White Quaker, wrote a private heartfelt
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response in support of Garrison but hesitated to send it.55 After a few days she
mailed it and without permission, Garrison published it in his paper. Many
abolitionists believe that it forwarded the movement immensely, but it forced
Angelina and her sister Sarah to repudiate the letter and remain Quakers in good
standing or embrace the abolitionist movement.56
They decided to embrace the abolitionist movement and were met with
the same violence that Garrison had spoken of in his letter. Many abolitionists
welcomed them as women because as southern women they knew first hand of
the horrors of slavery. The Grimke sisters helped the cause because they reached
an untouched segment of society—southerners and women. Yet while they were
welcomed by some abolitionists, some did not welcome them as they felt they
were abandoning their God given role as women.57 They came to understand that
their sex would be used against them as another way of attacking the anti-slavery
movement—as would be the case for thousands of women to come. The Grimke
sisters became loyal feminists because they realized that if they did not create an
environment in which women could operate, they would not be effective in the
fight against slavery.
Furthermore, Angelina became the first American women to address the
state legislature on behalf of slavery and women’s rights.58 Sarah Grimke
addressed slavery but also addressed it from a woman’s perspective. She also did
a review of the bible to understand how it related to women. Through her study of
the bible she offered one of the most coherent arguments for woman’s equality of
all races yet written by a woman in Letters on the Equality of the Sexes.59 She
identified and characterized the difference between sex and gender taking race
and class into consideration. She tied the subordination of women both to
educational deprivation and sexual oppression. She identified white males,
individually and as a group, as having benefited from the subordination of women.
These women worked twofold as they saw the connection between slavery of
Africans and subordination of women.
These types of issues of course added to the complexity of the abolitionist
movement. But there was a much further complicated issue that was addressed
by Black abolitionist Frederick Douglass. Douglass and other Black abolitionists
sharpened the view even more: they called attention to the effects of slavery and
discrimination felt by Blacks.60 This was different because White abolitionists
tended to see slavery and freedom as absolute moral opposites, while African
Americans knew that there were degrees of freedom. Many of the Black
abolitionist experienced discrimination from some of their White abolitionist
colleagues. The White abolitionist refused to hire Blacks. Due to this difference
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and Douglass speaking out against this discrimination, there was friction between
Douglass and Garrison and they went their separate ways.61
While there were many issues that the abolitionists brought forth by
addressing slavery, each had a different commitment to their view. But, despite
their differences, both Black and White and male and female abolitionists agreed
more than they disagreed and generally worked together. They supported each
other’s publications, worked together fighting discrimination as well as slavery,
and united in defending themselves against attacks of people who regarded them as
dangerous fanatics.
Jim Crow Laws
Once slavery was abolished, it was clear that the slaves were not the only ones
who had been exposed to Willie Lynch’s brainwashing methods. The White servants
and family members of these slave owners had also been brought into Willie’s
ways of thinking, the distrust and fear of blacks that he so advocated still existed.
Plus, there was still an air of White supremacy. Many Whites still felt that Blacks
were inherently inferior and to supported this belief sought rationalization through
religion and science—as some still attempt to do today.62 During the 1880’s, the
U.S. Supreme Court was inclined to agree with the White supremacists
judgment and began to strike down the foundations of the post-Civil War
reconstruction.63 It declared that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was unconstitutional.
There were also many attempts made to keep Blacks and Whites separate. In
1896, the Supreme Court legitimized the principle of “separate but equal” in its
ruling Plessy v. Ferguson. The high court ruling led to an explosion of “Jim Crow
Laws” named after Jim Crow a Black character in minstrel shows. From the 1880s
until the 1960s, a majority of American states and cities enforced segregation
through these Jim Crow Laws. The following pages give some examples of Jim
Crow laws from various states and are taken from
www.eastridgehigh.org/academics/departments/english_languageArts/documents /Jim_Crow_Webquest.doc
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Jim Crow Laws from Varying States
Nurses No person or corporation shall require any White female nurse to nurse in wards of rooms in hospitals, either public or private, in which
Negro men are placed.
Buses All passenger stations in this state operated by any motor
transportation company shall have separate waiting rooms or space and separate tickets windows for the White and Colored races.
Restaurants It shall be unlawful to conduct a restaurant or other place for the serving of food in the city, at which White and Colored people are
served in the same room, unless such White and Colored persons are effectually separated by a solid partition extending from the floor upward
to an instance of seven feet or higher, and unless a separate entrance from the street is provided for each compartment.
Pool and Billiard Rooms It shall be unlawful for a Negro and White person to play together or in company with each other at any game of
pool or billiards.
Toilet Facilities, Male Every employer of White or Negro males shall provide for such White or Negro males reasonably accessible and separate
toilet facilities.
Intermarriage the marriage of a person of Caucasian blood with a Negro, Mongolian, Malay, or Hindu shall be null and void.
Theaters Every person…operating . . . any public hall, theater, opera house, motion picture show or any place of public entertainment or public
assemblage which is attended by both White and Colored persons shall separate the White race and the Colored race and shall set apart and designate… certain seats therein to be occupied by White persons and a
portion thereof, or certain seats therein to be occupied by Colored persons.
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Railroads the conductors or managers on all such railroads shall have power, and are hereby required, to assign to each White or Colored passenger his or her respective car, coach or compartment. If the passenger
fails to disclose his race, the conductor and managers, acting in good faith, shall be the sole judges of his race.
Wine and Beer All persons licensed to conduct the business of selling beer or wine . . . shall serve either White people exclusively or Colored people
exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room at any time.
Reform Schools The children of White and Colored races committed to the
houses of reform shall be kept entirely separate from each other. Circus Tickets All circuses, shows, and tent exhibitions, to which the
attendance of . . . more than one race is invited or expected to attend shall provide for the convenience of its patrons not less than two ticket offices
with individual ticket takers and receivers, and in the case of outside tent performances, the said ticket offices shall not be less than twenty-five (25) feet apart.
Housing Any person . . . who shall rent any part of any such building to a Negro person or a Negro family when such building is already in whole or in part in occupancy by a White person or White family, or vice versa when the
building is in occupancy by a Negro person or Negro family, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of
not less than twenty-five ($25.00) nor more than one hundred ($100.00) dollars or be imprisoned not less than 10, or more than 60 days, or both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.
The Blind The board of trustees shall . . . maintain a separate building ... on
separate ground for the admission, care, instruction, and support of all blind persons of the Colored or Black race.
Intermarriage All marriages between a White person and a Negro, or
between a White person and a person of Negro descent, to the third
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generation, inclusive, or between a White person and a member of the
Malay race; or between the Negro and a member of the Malay race**; or between a person of Negro descent to the third generation, inclusive and a
member of the Malay race, are forever prohibited, and shall be void.
**The Malays are the race of people who inhabit the Malay Peninsula (what is
today Peninsular Malaysia) and portions of adjacent islands of Southeast Asia,
including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that
lie between these areas.
Education Separate schools shall be maintained for the children of the White and Colored races.
Promotion of Equality Any person . . . who shall be guilty of printing, publishing or circulating printed, typewritten or written matter urging or
presenting for public acceptance or general information, arguments or suggestions in favor of social equality or of intermarriage between Whites
and Negroes, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to a fine of not exceeding five hundred ($500.00) dollars or imprisonment not exceeding six (6) months or both.
Intermarriage The marriage of a white person with a Negro or mulatto or
person, who shall have one-eighth or more of Negro blood, shall be unlawful and void.
Hospital Entrance There shall be maintained by the governing authorities of every hospital maintained by the state for the treatment of White and
Colored patients separate entrances for White and Colored patients and visitors, and such entrances shall be used by the race only for which they are prepared.
Prisons The warden shall see that the White convicts shall have separate
apartments for both eating and sleeping from the Negro convicts.
Education Separate free schools shall be established for the education of
children of African descent; and it shall be unlawful for any Colored child to attend any White school, or any white child to attend a Colored school.
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Intermarriage All marriages between . . . White persons and Negroes or
White persons and Mongolians . . . are prohibited and declared absolutely void . . . No person having one-eighth part or more of Negro blood shall be
permitted to marry any White person, nor shall any White person be permitted to marry any Negro or person having one-eighth part or more Negro blood.
Education Separate rooms [shall] be provided for the teaching of pupils of
African descent, and [when] said rooms are so provided such pupils may not be admitted to the school rooms occupied and used by pupils of Caucasian or other descent.
Textbooks Books shall not be interchangeable between the White and
Colored schools, but shall continue to be used by the race first using them. Libraries The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a separate
place for the use of the Colored people who may come to the library for the purpose of reading books or periodicals
Militia The White and Colored militia shall be separately enrolled, and shall never be compelled to serve in the same organization. No organization
of Colored troops shall be permitted where White troops are available, and while White troops are permitted to be organized, Colored troops shall be
under the command of White officers. Intermarriage All marriages between a White person and a Negro, or
between a white person and a person of Negro descent to the fourth generation inclusive, are hereby forever prohibited.
Cohabitation Any Negro man and White woman, or any White man and Negro woman, who are not married to each other, who shall habitually live in
and occupy in the nighttime the same room shall each be punished by imprisonment not exceeding twelve (12) months, or by fine not exceeding
five hundred ($500.00) dollars.
Education The schools for White children and the schools for Negro children shall be conducted separately.
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Juvenile Delinquents There shall be separate buildings, not nearer than
one-fourth mile to each other, one for White boys and one for Negro boys. White boys and Negro boys shall not, in any manner, be associated
together or work together.
Mental Hospitals. The Board of Control shall see that proper and distinct
apartments are arranged for said patients, so that in no case shall Negroes and White persons be together.
Barbers No Colored barber shall server as a barber [to] White women or
girls.
Burial The officer in charge shall not bury, or allow to be buried, any Colored persons upon ground set apart or used for the burial of White
persons.
Restaurants All persons licensed to conduct a restaurant, shall serve
either White people exclusively or Colored people exclusively and shall not sell to the two races within the same room or serve the two races
anywhere under the same license.
Amateur Baseball It shall be unlawful for any amateur White baseball team to play baseball on any vacant lot or baseball diamond within two
blocks of a playground devoted to the Negro race, and it shall be unlawful for any amateur Colored baseball team to play baseball in any vacant lot or baseball diamond within two blocks of any playground devoted to the
White race.
Parks It shall be unlawful for Colored people to frequent any park owned or maintained by the city for the benefit, use and enjoyment of White
persons . . . and unlawful for any White person to frequent any park owned or maintained by the city for the use and benefit of Colored persons.
Transportation The . . . Utilities Commission . . . is empowered and directed to require the establishment of separate waiting rooms at all
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stations for the White and Colored races.
Teaching Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college, or institution where members of the White and Colored race are received and enrolled as
pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in any sum not less than ten dollars
($10.00) nor more than fifty dollars ($50.00) for each offense. Fishing, Boating, and Bathing The [Conservation] Commission shall have
the right to make segregation of the White and Colored races as to the exercise of rights of fishing, boating, and bathing.
Mining The baths and lockers for the Negroes shall be separated from the
White race, but may be in the same building. Telephone Booths The Corporation Commission is hereby vested with
power and authority to require telephone companies . . . to maintain separate booths for White and Colored patrons when there is a demand for
such separate booths. That the Corporation Commission shall determine the necessity for said separate booths only upon complaint of the people in the town and vicinity to be served after due hearing as now provided by law in
other complaints filed with the Corporation Commission.
Lunch Counters No persons, firms, or corporations, who or which furnish meals to passengers at station restaurants or station eating houses, in
times limited by common carriers of said passengers, shall furnish said meals to White and Colored passengers in the same room, or at the same
table, or at the same counter.
Child Custody It shall be unlawful for any parent, relative, or other white person in this State, having the control of custody of any White child, by right of guardianship, natural or acquired, or otherwise, to dispose of, give or
surrender such white child permanently into the custody, control, maintenance, or support, of a Negro.
Libraries Any White person of such county may use the county free
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library under the rules and regulations prescribed by the commissioner’s
court and may be entitled to all the privileges thereof. Said court shallmake proper provision for the Negroes of said county to be served
through separate branch or branches of the county free library, which shall be administered by [a] custodian of the Negro race under the supervision of the county librarian.
So, what does this mean regarding the Treatment of Blacks Today?
Race is a real part of black people’s lives—so much so that it keeps them guessing
about why they are being treated a certain way when situations occur. “Is it
because I’m black or is it me?” “Was that an insult because I am black or just
because…?”
As people, we might not be aware of it every day but it only takes a look,
a word, an inappropriate action, or an overt denial of basic rights or privileges to
make race present, felt, and therefore real.
These are burdens of the past that still affect many today and can
become an everyday experience for Blacks. Race and inequality has been the
cause that has united Blacks (despite attempts to divide and conquer); fighting
for the promise of mutual respect and a level playing field of economic
opportunity. The struggle for many Blacks or Blacks as a group continues because
after hundreds of years of mistreatment, forty years of equal rights laws and a
Black President (President Barack Obama) it just is not enough to level the
playing field and keep blacks from wondering “is it just me or is it because I am
black.”
Despite having a Black man as the President of the U.S. it still has not
changed the mind of some that see Black men (young and old) as violent and
criminal acting—a force to be protected against.
Many blacks are just a few generations removed from their slave
ancestors, so would slavery still bother them? Would confederacy symbolism and
nooses that represent lynching’s still bother them? Would words utilized during
slavery (like boy, colored people, fetch this) still bother them? The answer in
many cases is yes--as for many blacks the wounds are still open and have not
healed.
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But who should be responsible for this healing? Whites? This would make a
complex problem seem simple. Majority of whites did not benefit from slavery, did
not participate in slavery and have not directly done an injustice to blacks.
So then how does healing occur?
A start would be a serious apology for the brutal treatment of Africans in this
country. This actually has begun when Rep. Steve Cohen, a Democrat from
Tennessee, drafted the resolution and presented it to the House on July 29, 2008
indicating in his speech that a total of 120 lawmakers, including two Republicans,
co-sponsored the resolution, Cohen said.64
In February, the Senate apologized for atrocities committed against Native
Americans, and the body apologized in 2005 for standing by during a lynching
campaign against African Americans throughout much of the past century. Twenty
years ago, Congress apologized for interning Japanese Americans in concentration
camps during World War II.65
While an apology for slavery has long been an issue for African Americans it
is often stated that this apology was prolonged because of the issue of reparations.
There has yet been any type of reparation and the apology continues as Iowa
Democratic Senator Tom Harkin sponsored a resolution that passed on June 17,
2009 that "acknowledges the fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and
inhumanity of slavery," and "apologizes to African Americans on behalf of the people
of the United States for the wrongs committed against them and their ancestors
who suffered under slavery and Jim Crow Laws."66
So now what?
Reparations (repayment for all the hundreds of years of free labor that corporations and land owners had)?
More laws and policies to stop racial profiling, an unfair criminal system targeted
towards Blacks (read the sentencing project found on www.google.com) and
enforcement of workplace policies that would level the playing field forcing equal
treatment?
History books in the K-12 curriculum that teaches the real story about people
of color in the country?
Media that is not focused on black violence which always makes the headline aside
from other group's violence?
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You think about what would it take. Most certainly an attack on
Affirmative Action (the policy that seeks to level the playing the field) is probably
not the answer. Politicians and big business (those) who have directly benefited
from slavery have to recognize that America would not be the “powerhouse” it is
today without those hundreds of years of free labor. So now that that was all
done, do you just walk away and say oh well we, the U.S. are (in some eyes)
okay now?
Unfortunately, still today you can find that “race” an obvious difference
among people—perpetuates itself in many negative ways. Are there those who are
afraid of Blacks because they have been portrayed as violent even though they
were the ones taking the lynching’s and not giving them? Is it not the case that
blacks still disproportionately live separate from their suburban counterparts
where acceptance and integration in certain neighborhoods is occurring very
slowly? Is it not the case that Blacks get racially profiled when it comes to crimes,
jobs, driving, and voting opportunities? The list could continue but you get the
point.
There is still another disparaging fact—despite all of this oppression against
blacks in this country, Blacks have and continue to make significant contributions
to our U.S. society; yet, this has not been included in American history. Black
history month is when you learn about African American contributions but you
learn very little about the Black scientists, doctors and inventors (areas that are
perceived as only for the intellectual best). We learn instead that blacks
contributed when it benefited themselves during the Civil Rights Era. We hear
about black athletes and entertainers. But is this all that Blacks in America have
and continue to do? If you don’t know the real answer then that is unfortunate. If
we are to continue in our quest for valuing diversity, it is not only
necessary to understand the past and the struggles of different groups in our
society, but it is just as important to understand each group’s contributions.
Otherwise, we wonder: why do “these people” deserve the respect and equal
treatment they are always demanding.
Concluding Thoughts
Restoration of the rich history that slavery and segregation severed seems
necessary if we are to understand why yet still today we are addressing various
plights from social to systematic racism faced by blacks. Few would argue against
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the fact that nearly four decades of employment law have made a significant
change to the face of the American workplace. But, after hundreds of years of
racism toward Blacks, equal opportunity is not yet a realism for African Americans.
End of Chapter Questions
1. What is meant by chattel slavery? Why was slavery in America more brutal than other
slave institutions?
2. In what manner did the slaves fight back against slavery?
3. How does the Willie Lynch speech still impact blacks and whites today?
4. Is equal opportunity a reality today for blacks, why or why not?
5. Is the following a true or false statement: All whites were in favor of slavery, explain your answer.
6. What does the following: racial profiling (targeting individuals for suspicion of crime or wrong
doing based on the individual's race),
current (2014/2015) police brutality or killing by police of unarmed Black men,
racial disparities (unequal care due to race) in health care according to the 2010 National Healthcare Disparities Report
Have to do with stereotypes and prejudices toward blacks and how can this create
unequal treatment of Blacks in the workplace?
Internet Exercise
Using the Internet, go to
http://inventors.about.com/od/blackinventors/a/black_inventors.htm or to the following
site to look at a more extensive list of black inventors
http://inventors.about.com/library/blblackinventors.htm or go to www.google.com and
type: black inventors
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Now list eight to nine of the inventions that would change how you interact in
your life.
Now answer the following question: Blacks seem to be highlighted when it
comes to sports and entertainment or civil rights—what is your view on
sharing these important scientific contributions to U.S. society, how can this
cultural knowledge (area of knowledge and contribution perceived as only for
the intellectual best) change or enhance one’s view of Blacks? How could it
help Black children? How could it help non-Black children?
End of Chapter Exercise
Read the following known facts:
A. Eight thousand years ago, people in present-day Zaire developed their own numeration system, as did Yoruba people in what is now Nigeria. The Yoruba system was based on
units of 20 (instead of 10) and required an impressive amount of subtraction to identify
different numbers. Scholars have praised this system, as it required much abstract
reasoning.
B. More than 35,000 years ago, Black Egyptians scripted textbooks about math that included division and multiplication of fractions and geometric formulas to calculate the
area and volume of shapes. Distances and angles were calculated, algebraic equations
were solved and mathematically based predictions were made of the size of floods of the
Nile.
C. Before the European invasion of Africa, medicine in what is now Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa, etc. was more advanced than medicine in Europe. Medical procedures
performed in ancient Africa before they were performed in Europe:
vaccination,
autopsy,
limb traction and
broken bone setting,
bullet removal,
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brain surgery,
skin grafting,
filling of dental cavities,
installation of false teeth,
Caesarean section,
anesthesia and tissue cauterization
surgeries under antiseptic conditions universally when this concept was only emerging in Europe
D. The picture that has been shown as it relates to people in the continent of Africa or go to google and choose “images” not “web” then type: pictures starving children in Africa
Now answer the following five questions:
1. By only seeing the picture in (D) as it relates to Africans, what association would people make about those who currently or come from the continent or 54 countries of Africa?
2. What does knowing the “real” facts about Africa say about the skills and intellect of many of the ancestors of Blacks in America?
3. Some people say that slavery did Blacks a favor because they were uncivilized people, yet this is not accurate of many of the countries of Africa now or past days…what arguments can
you make against this belief based on the facts in a-c above.
4. In the first few chapters, we state that knowing cultural history is important, how does what you learned in the chapter about the fight of blacks for equality, the skills and talents of
Africans/blacks go against the stereotypes that are still very prevalent toward Blacks
today.
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5. If someone was raised to believe that Blacks were inferior (due to slave status etc.) as a
people or just violent or ignorant, how does just knowing this small amount information in
the exercise among the many other facts found at:
http://atlantablackstar.com/2013/12/07/10-african-kings-and-queens-whose-stories-must-be-
told-on-film/5/ and http://www.africanlegends.info/ and http://www.greatblackheroes.com/
regarding the history of Africans or contributions of Blacks change that perspective
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References
1. Henderson, G. (1994). Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Issues and Strategies.
Westport, Connecticut: Praegar Publishing.
2. U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). African Americans by the Numbers. Retrieved from http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmcensus1.html
3. Ibid.
4. Burnside, M. (n.d.).Marooned: Africans in the Americas 1500 - 1750. Mel Fisher Museum. Retrieved from http://www.kislakfoundation.org/millennium- exhibit/author1.htm
5. Ibid.
6. Davis, R. C. (2009). White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500- 1800. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan Ltd.
7. Klein, H. S. (1999). The Atlantic slave trade. New York: Cambridge University Press.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Thorton, J. (1997, November). The business of slavery. New York Times Book Review, 11.
11. Burnside, M. (n.d.). Marooned: Africans in the Americas 1500 - 1750. Mel Fisher Museum. Retrieved from http://www.kislakfoundation.org/millennium- exhibit/author1.htm
12. Wood, P. (1974). Black Majority. New York: Random House.
13. Ibid.
14. Burnside, M. (n.d.). Marooned: Africans in the Americas 1500 - 1750. Mel Fisher Museum. Retrieved from http://www.kislakfoundation.org/millennium- exhibit/author1.htm
15. Ibid.
16. Thomas, H. (1997). The slave trade: the story of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440- 1870. New York: Simon & Schuster.
17. Howard, T. (1971). Black voyage: eyewitness accounts of the Atlantic slave trade. Boston: Little, Brown.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Seven: Understanding the African American/Black Experience
215
18. Bennett, L., Jr. (1966). Before the Mayflower: a history of the Negro in America, 1619-1964. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
19. Ibid.
20. 1860 Census Results. (n.d.). The Civil War Home Page. Retrieved from http://www.civil- war.net/pages/1860_census.html
21. American Civil War Census Data. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.civil- war.net/census.asp?census=Total
22. Howard, T. (1971). Black voyage: eyewitness accounts of the Atlantic slave trade. Boston: Little, Brown.
23. Dixon, L., Hynes, G. & Nelson, C. G. (n.d.). A Black Perspective of American History. Retrieved from http://www.duboislc.org/BlackPerspective/BlackPerspectivePart3.html
24. Aptheker, H. (1983). American Negro Slave Revolts. New York: International Publishers.
25. Genovese, E. D. (1992). From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
26. Aptheker, H. (1983). American Negro Slave Revolts. New York: International Publishers.
27. Ibid.
28. Genovese, E. D. (1992). From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
29. Ibid.
30. Wood, P. H. (1974). Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion. New York: Knopf.
31. Ibid.
32. Coombs, N. (1972). The Immigrant Heritage of America. New York: Twayne Press.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Katz, W. L. (1990). Breaking the Chains: African-American Slave Resistance. New York: Macmillan.
36. Ibid.
37. Robinson, C. J. (1997). Black Movements in America. New York: Routledge.
38. Oates, S. B. (1975). The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion. New York: Harper and Row.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Seven: Understanding the African American/Black Experience
216
39. Genovese, E. D. (1992). From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
40. Ibid.
41. Johnson, C. (2007). Revolutionaries to race leaders; Black power and the making of African American politics. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
42. Bennett, L., Jr. (1966). Before the Mayflower: a history of the Negro in America, 1619-1964. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
43. Ibid.
44. Stampp, K. (1989). The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South. London: Vintage Publishing.
45. Slave Chronicles. (2004, July). The Willie Lynch Letter and The Destruction of Black Unity. Black Wallstreet.
46. Wells, I. B. (1893). Lynch law. Retrieved from http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/wellslynchlaw.html
47. Slave Chronicles. (2004, July). The Willie Lynch Letter and The Destruction of Black Unity. Black Wallstreet.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. The Northern Abolitionist Movement. (2005-2006). American Civil War Reference Library. New York: Thomson Learning, Inc.
51. Sisterhood and Slavery: Transatlantic Antislavery and Women's Rights. (2001). Retrieved from http://www.yale.edu/glc/conference/civin.pdf
52. Means and Ends in American Abolitionism. (1969). New York: Pantheon Books.
53. Ibid.
54. McPherson, J. M. (1964). The Struggle for Equality. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
55. Lerner, G. (1971). The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina. New York: Schocken Books.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Seven: Understanding the African American/Black Experience
217
60. Taylor, K. H. (1996). Black Abolitionists and Freedom Fighters. West Bloomfield: Oliver Press.
61. Means and Ends in American Abolitionism. (1969). New York: Pantheon Books.
62. Jentz, J. B. (1977). Artisans, Evangelicals, and the City: A Social History of the Labor and Abolitionist Movements in Jacksonian New York. City University of New York: Ph.D. dissertation.
63. Franklin, J. H. & Moss, A. A. Jr. (1988). From slavery to freedom: a history of Negro Americans. New York: Knopf.
64. Fears, D. (2008, July 30). The Washington Post. Retrieved from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/29/AR2008072902279.htm
65. Ibid.
66. Hannah, D. C. (2009, June 19). Congress Apologizes for Slavery. Retrieved from: http://www.diversityinc.public/5995.efm
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Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience
A wise man makes his own decisions an ignorant man follows
the public opinion.
Chinese Proverb
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UNDERSTANDING THE ASIAN AMERICAN AND LATINO MIGRATION EXPERIENCE
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
understand why the Chinese, Japanese and Filipino migrate(d) to the United States.
identify laws that halted immigration and enacted
mistreatment against the Chinese, Japanese and Filipino.
recognize why the Mexicans, Puerto Ricans and Cubans migrate(d) to the United States.
comprehend discriminatory actions against the Mexicans,
Puerto Ricans and Cubans.
describe why some in the United States wanted the Asian
and Latino populations in America and why some did not.
apply what is learned to immigration issues and the concept of cheap labor in today’s workplace.
Chapter Eight
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ASIAN AMERICAN MIGRATION EXPERIENCE Who are Asian Americans?
Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Koreans, Vietnamese, Cambodians, ethnic Lao, Hmong,
Thai, Samoans, Tongans, & Asian Indian are just a few of the ethnicities that are
considered Asian American. Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese, Asian Indians, Koreans,
and the Vietnamese constitute nearly 90% of all Asian Americans.
Many would also like to add Hawaiians, Samoans, & Guamanians to the above list
however they should not be added, as they are Pacific Islanders. Pacific Islanders
make up smaller numbers as compared to the population of Asian Americans in the
United States and therefore will not be discussed.
Each Asian American group is very distinct with its own history, language and
culture. The ancestral tongues of Asian Americans range from Tagalog to
Japanese to Hindu to Korean. They also practice various religions such as: Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism and Roman Catholicism just to name a few. Any person
of Asian descent, either native or foreign born, living in the U.S. is considered
Asian American. But, many of Asian descent still identify strongly with their country
of origin. They may often be more likely to refer to themselves as Japanese or
Chinese American, etc… rather than just Asian American.
Many of Asian descent as well as other immigrants come to the U.S.
seeking relief from their communistic economic systems and dictatorial leadership. In
many communistic countries the government has control of all the land, labor and
capital (money). They can therefore make it very difficult for the average citizen
to have any freedom or wealth. In a communistic country those in rule could
decide to take 90% of the wealth and divide it amongst 2% of the population and
the other 98% of the country could live in extreme poverty. The people who leave
these countries and migrate to the United States are often in search of the many
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freedoms and individual wealth that the U.S. has to offer.
CHINESE AMERICANS
The first significant immigration to America came about in the 1850s when gold
was found in California. The Californians didn’t seem to mind when more than
80,000 fortune seekers from every corner of the globe descended on the gold
mines.1 The Chinese (mainly men) were among these seekers whom California
rolled out the welcome mat for.
While the Chinese may have come for gold, the U.S. wanted them here
because they needed cheap labor to work in the fields, factories and on the
railroads.2 The word got out and more Chinese men came to assist the U.S. in
building up its country. As the population of California continued to increase, by
1852, 10% of the 250,000 people were Chinese.3 But, now they weren’t
welcomed. Some whites were becoming furious at their arrival as they felt they
were a threat for their employment.4 There were soon cries like, “California for
Americans” that were heard across the state.5
The government, however, refused to pass laws forbidding foreigners to
mine, nor did the government limit immigration. This outraged many Whites
because they were not only mad about the Chinese participation but also
considered the Native Americans and Mexicans who lived in California foreigners
as well.6 Never mind the fact that the both the Native Americans and Mexicans
lived in California and elsewhere in the U.S. centuries before the arrival of White
settlers.
In these days of the California Gold Rush, the young American Republic
was pursuing a dream of “Manifest Destiny.”7 That is, stretching its borders in
every direction for the free development of multiplying millions. America needed
strong, reliable workers and they found them in the Chinese. The Chinese were
also in abundance and would work for minimal wages. Therefore, the government
did not want them to leave.8
Some whites in Congress, however, didn’t just want to use the Asian
Americans for cheap labor they wanted to secure citizenship rights for them by
amending the Naturalization Law of 1790.9 This Law specified that only “whites”
were eligible for naturalized citizenship. However, this only received one-third of
Congress’ support and the fight against the Chinese did not end here.
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Another very detrimental act towards the Chinese was passed. The Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882 was a victory for those who wanted to rid the U.S. of Chinese
immigrants. This Act was the first and only immigration law in American
History to target a specific nationality as it prohibited the Chinese from entering
the U.S.10
At the time of the Act there were 70,000 documented Chinese men and
fewer than 4,000 Chinese women in the U.S.11 These numbers posed a serious
problem for the Chinese bachelors, because there were so few Chinese women
and most non-Chinese women shunned their company. Furthermore, many of
these men only wanted Chinese women because they did not want to jeopardize the
ethnic purity of their lineage.
But over time, as the Chinese men assimilated to American life these aliens
did marry American women who were citizens. They themselves were then able to
achieve citizenship. But, the government felt that America’s Anglo-Saxon way of life
was in jeopardy and so they then passed the Draconian Cable Act in 1922.12 This
act punished American women for marrying these Chinese men. Their punishment
was a loss of U.S. citizenship. This act was fought and repealed in 1936, but until
then American women stayed clear of Chinese men.13
But those angry Whites with power did not stop there, there were other
acts passed that were similar to the Cable Act, such as the Exclusion Act. The
Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A.
Arthur on May 6, 1882. It was one of the most significant restrictions on free
immigration in U.S. history, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers.14 By
1943, the Exclusion Act was finally repealed and a statue was put into place that was
to be completely colorblind. However, this new law only allowed an annual quota
of 105 for naturalization (citizen by oath).15 This law did not alleviate the obvious
racism that had been targeted towards the Chinese. For example, if there was a
Chinese born in Canada they still fell into this category of naturalization, but if a
person of European ancestry was born in Canada they could enter as a non-quota
immigrant despite the fact that both of these individuals would have been Canadian
citizens.
So even though the Chinese came for freedom and wealth once here they
struggled for equality and dignity. Yet despite all these setbacks, there were still
many Chinese Americans who contributed significantly to American history. The
construction of the Central Pacific Railroad line was a feat accomplished mainly by
the Chinese. Of the 10,000 laborers in the Central Pacific, 9000 were Chinese.16
They worked extremely hard, clearing trees, blasting rocks with explosions,
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shoveling and carting away debris and laying tracks. A thousand of these Chinese
workers lost their lives in this endeavor.17
But, when the railroad was done and the golden spike was driven to
commemorate the momentous occasion, no Chinese were present. Despite their
significant contributions, the Chinese had been purposely left out of the
ceremonies as well as from the “famous” photograph of Americans who drove the
golden spike.18 As if this wasn’t enough, to add insult to injury, the Central Pacific
then laid-off almost all of the Chinese.
Rather than return home to a government controlled impover i shed
China, these now unemployed Chinese gathered in San Francisco where they
joined with other Chinese ex-miners in the manufacturing fields. San Francisco,
the 9th leading manufacturing city in America, may have not acquired this title
had it not been for the Chinese. The Chinese were in low paying jobs in these
manufacturing companies and even when they did the same work as Whites,
their wages were less. This hostility exhibi ted toward the Chinese was not
only discriminatory (according to today’s laws) but also raci st.
While every culture or ethnicity has the premise to be racist, in
understanding racism, an important variable to understand is the presence of
power. It is the power to enforce the “prejudgment” of superiority or inferiority
that leads to racism. Author Judy Katz in studying “White” racism wrote, “Racism
is perpetuated by Whites through their conscious and/or unconscious support of a
climate and institutions that are founded on racist policies and practices.”19 The
racial prejudice of these White people (those at the top of the wealth pyramid who
have power) coupled with their political, economic, and social power allows them
to be able to enforce discriminatory practices on every level of life.
Racism can make it very difficult it’s victims to achieve success, but it
does not prevent success. In this climate of racism, the Chinese have
continued to aid the U.S. For instance, the horticulturalist Ah Bing developed in
Oregon the popular Bing Cherry and in Florida Lue Gim Gong bred oranges that
were resistant to frost, thus enabling Florida’s nascent citrus industry to get off
the ground. In 1957, Tsung-dao Lee and Chen-nin Yang were awarded the
prestigious Nobel Prize in physics for breaking the conservation-of-parity law.20
The Chinese also advanced their community, for example in 1852 in San
Francisco the first Chinese theater was established in a building brought from
China; then in 1854, to advance their own interest San Francisco’s first
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Chinese Newspaper was published.21 A few years later an organization was formed
known as the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association which arbitrated on
behalf of the Chinese, their social welfare and community interests.22
During this time of racial discourse directed toward the Chinese, it did not
prevent the Chinese from fighting for their rights. In one such case Yick Wo, who
was convicted of operating a laundry without a license, took his case to the
Supreme Court and they found that “the law was administered with an evil eye” to
drive Chinese out of business; the law was struck down as discriminatory and this
was a key case in defining the 14th Amendment.23
JAPANESE AMERICANS
In the 1880s the Japanese government lifted its ban on emigration. Thousands of
Japanese, mostly from the countryside, came to Hawaii and later to the United
States.24 They came as many other immigrants did, because of the prospect of a
brighter financial future. But, their difference was that while they came to work hard
and save money, they also planned to return home. They were planning on being
sojourners, that is, travelers. They just wanted to come, live and work for a while in
this country.
As the Japanese came to the U.S., the Japanese government strictly supervised who
came in order to protect their honor sending only healthy, strong and relatively well
educated Japanese.25 Many of these Japanese who came were from the rural areas
of their country and they brought a wealth of agricultural skills. They utilized
these skills in the U.S. and were successful farmers. But, the Japanese weren’t
comfortable working other’s land. They wanted farm ownership for themselves. So,
they started pooling their money to make this happen. Even though they owned less
than 2% of all farmland in California, White landowners in the western states began
to fear Japanese competition.26 They had so much fear that they used their power to
cause Congress to pass the Alien Land Act.27
The Alien Land Act of 1913 prohibited ownership of property by “aliens ineligible
to citizenship” which due to the Naturalization Act included the Japanese.28 But, the
Japanese attempted to find a loophole in the law. They started purchasing land
in the name of their children who were American citizens.29 But, to keep the
Japanese from being successful Congress then amended the Alien Act to exclude
purchase of land by minors. This completely eliminated the Japanese from farm
ownership.
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Around the time of the Alien Land Act hatred toward the Japanese was
widespread. Not only weren’t they ineligible for citizenship and barred from
owning land, but they often experienced the same Jim Crow like hostilities that
were enforced on Blacks.30 The Japanese were routinely segregated by Whites and
refused service in barbershops, grocery stores, hotels and restaurants.
Roosevelt, president at the time, was worried that this treatment of the
Japanese in the U.S. would get back to Japan and cause international chaos.
Therefore, Roosevelt signed a Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan.31 This
agreement halted Japanese immigration and legislation was designed to reduce
the harassment of the Japanese. The agreement also allowed immigration of the
parents, wives and children of the 90% male U.S. Japanese population.32
This last immigration arrangement angered the White exclusionists (Whites
who felt access to America should be only for Europeans) as the immigration of
these men’s family were more than many thought would come. Therefore,
Congress appealing to the White male voting population passed the
Immigration Act of 1924.33 This Act prohibited foreigners ineligible for U.S.
citizenship—by definition all Asians—from coming to American shores.
With all of this turmoil the Japanese Americans were experiencing, when
the attack at Pearl Harbor occurred it just made it worse for the Japanese.
Roosevelt had signed the Executive Order 9066. This order authorized and
structured the relocation and internment of nearly 120,000 Japanese women, men
and children.34 Executive Order 9066 imparted a large dose of legitimacy to the
wartime hysteria and racism rampant in America.35
Americans bought the propaganda they were fed about how the Japanese
Americans on the West Coast were enemy aliens loyal to Japan. The U.S. public
supported the government in its assault against Japanese Americans. Newspaper
columnists commonly called Japanese Americans the following: nips, japs, and
yellow vermin.36 This just incited others into the hatred of the Japanese. However,
the thing to remember is that this was not the first exhibition of hatred toward the
Japanese. The war was seemingly a more ‘valid’ reason to incite hatred.
FILIPINO AMERICANS
While the Philippines are an Asian country, some think due to its name that it is
not. Confused because it has a Spanish name taken from Philip II, does not make
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it any less “Asian.” While Japan and China have contributed to the shaping of the
history of the Philippines, the country has also been impacted by Spain and later the
United States. Despite the Filipinos resistance to foreign domination, the U.S. went
there and enacted many of its ways of living. It setup a democratic
government and American style schools, which enforced usage of the English
language. The schools also taught American history and values instead of teaching
Philippine history. This introduction to America inspired many to immigrate to
America.
When the Filipinos arrived many were already accustomed to American
culture. Because Americans wanted the Filipinos to come to America, Filipinos
were exempt from the discriminatory legislation that virtually halted all Asian
immigration for a period of time.37 But just like the Chinese and Japanese aliens in
America, Filipinos did not have the right to vote, own land or attain U.S.
citizenship.
When the Filipinos arrived in the U.S. many were men. But, unlike their
Japanese and Chinese counterparts who either weren’t comfortable around American
women or wanted to preserve their lineage, the Filipinos had neither concern. In the
absence of Filipino women, many married White women. At the time, however, anti-
miscegenation laws only barred marriages between Whites and persons of African
or Mongolian blood.38 But, even though the marriages between Filipinos and Whites
were allowable by law many still received harassment. The Caucasian women were
often called “nigger lovers.”39 They called them this because of the brown skin tone
of the Filipinos.
While this harassment dampened the experience of the Filipino immigrants,
what really hurt them was the Great Depression. The Great Depression was a bad
time for all, but it was even worse for people of color who were already being
discriminated against. Desperate from the shortage of jobs across the country,
racists blamed their misfortunes on these immigrants of color.40 There was also
rioting against Filipinos on the Pacific Coast. In October 1929, in White River
Valley, Washington, some White farm workers fought Filipino workers because the
latter worked for less pay. By the summer of 1930 anti- Filipino activities had
spread to Idaho and Utah.41
In addition, there were many attempts to exclude Filipinos from the
mainland. Congressman Richard Welch of California introduced a bill with this aim.
He received support from the states of Oregon and Washington, from labor
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unions, and from groups concerned about the ethnic composition of the United
States population.
But despite this turmoil, the American government started making deals
with the Philippines that was presented as a win-win that is, a win for the U.S as well as the Philippines. In 1932, the Cutting-Hare Bill passed which was the
culmination of these dealings. Then in 1934, there was the Tydings-McDuffie Act.
These acts were a triumph for those who wanted to end Filipino immigration.
The act stated that the Philippine Islands would become independent after
a transition period of 15 years. The U.S was to provide assistance during those 15
years of commonwealth status, in exchange for an annual quota set at 50
immigrants to the mainland, U.S.42 This also called for separate regulations for
immigration to Hawaii. Filipinos in Hawaii were restricted from moving from
Hawaii to the U.S. and they were reclassified as aliens rather than nationals. After
successful lobbying, the Hawaiian Sugar Planter’s Association convinced Congress
to allot additional spaces for Filipino immigrants to Hawaii, where cheap labor was
needed.43
The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 still restricted immigration and it wasn’t
until The Immigration Act of 1965 which liberalized immigration from Asia did
Filipino immigration pick back up.44 While the previous immigrants were laborers,
these new immigrants were White-collar professionals. But, many still couldn’t
meet stringent U.S. certification requirements.45 For example, dentists from the
Philippines were forced to work as dental aides in the U.S., unless they underwent
more training. What was strange about this is that the U.S. set up the school
systems in the Philippines and therefore it would be assumed that their quality of
education wouldn’t be questioned. But, was the quality of education the issue or
more the issue of keeping these well-paying jobs for those American’s or
immigrants who were more favored?
Furthermore, these new Filipino immigrants brought their wives who were
educated as well. These women often worked outside the home in one of the
few fields open to women, nursing.46 Because many American women weren’t
really working outside the home this opened this opportunity to the Filipino
women and this economic opportunity helped the Filipinos preserve their heritage
in America.
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LATINO/HISPANIC MIGRATION EXPERIENCE
Who makes up the Hispanic/Latino population?
The term “Hispanic” is often used to refer to people of the Latin culture but
according to the dictionary “Hispanic” only refers to the language, people and
culture of Spain.47 The term “Hispanic” is therefore not representative of all Latin
ethnicities, such as: Africans of Cuba and Puerto Rico as well as Indians of
Central America. It is therefore necessary to extend this definition to include people
who live in the U.S. who came or whose ancestors came—not just from Spain—
but from other Spanish-speaking countries around the world. Many will refer to
this grouping of people as Latinos. Insisting that Latinos not only includes the
above groups but also those from other Latin areas like the Dominican Republic, El
Salvador, and Nicaragua. But, because the U.S. government recognizes Hispanic
rather than Latino the terms are often used interchangeably.
As we discuss Latinos/Hispanics in the United States, a group that is
estimated at 44.3 million (not including the 3.9 million residents of Puerto Rico) as of
2006 they constitute at least 15 percent of the nation's total population. They
have become the nation's largest ethnic or race minority group. We will focus
on the three largest of this ethnicity, which are: Mexican Americans, Puerto Rican
Americans and Cuban Americans.48
Like many Americans, Latinos are the product of immigration from an old
world to a new one. Yet they are unique. Through their history, Latinos bring
together three great cultures: African, Native-American and European which
explains their variation in color—from the light skin color of Jennifer Lopez (famous
entertainer) to the darker skin color of Sammy Sosa (famous baseball star) both
of whom consider themselves Latino.
The African influence of Latinos began through the first Africans who crossed
the narrow Strait of Gibralter to the Iberian Peninsula in 2000 B.C.49 These
Iberians lived in Libya, Algeria and Morocco and they built their own villages and
planted crops.50 One thousand years later, they mixed with newcomers, the Celts, to
create a new culture and about 500 B.C., a powerful city-state in northern Africa,
Carthage, began to send armies and colonists across the Mediterranean to the
Iberian Peninsula.51 There, the Carthaginians created colonies that lasted almost
300 years that i s, until the Roman Empire moved in to take control.
Then in 711 A.D., a group of African Muslims invaded this Iberian Peninsula
and forced the mixed European culture northward toward the Pyrenees. For the
next 800 or so years, these Moors, as they became known, shaped the culture of
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the Iberian Peninsula.52 Their mark can still be seen in the Mosques, gardens, and
paved streets of Spanish cities.
In the late 1400s, Spain joined Portugal in the African slave trade.53 This
type of slavery was similar to the slavery that existed in a few countries in Africa.
A person was enslaved for a time period and was required to work; however, once
this period ended the slaves assumed all rights as free citizens. Over the next few
centuries, Spain relied on the labor of Africans to build its empire in the New
World. In Spanish America, Spain’s African heritage joined with the heritage of
slaved Africans. This heritage was passed on through the years to other Hispanic
Americans.
The second cultural influence was from the Native Americans. About 7000
B.C. some ancient Native Americans turned from hunting and gathering to
farming for food. Over the next 5000 years, farming brought these groups
together and a village culture grew. By 1200 B.C., the Olmec culture had been
founded.54
Elsewhere in the Americas other Native American civilizations grew and
prospered. Among some of the most important were the Incas of Peru and the
Pueblo culture of the American Southwest.55 Others lived in South America, the
Caribbean, and the American Southeast. These cultures influenced the Spaniards
and Africans who traveled to the New World after 1492. This Native American
heritage has also been passed on through Latinos/Hispanic Americans.
Beginning in 1492, there were the Spanish conquests that again brought
together these different cultures. Christopher Columbus, born in Italy, but working
for the Spaniards, sought new routes to the rich lands of Japan and China. But in
1492, he startled onto a different continent. In this growing of the Spanish
empire—the Old World—Europeans and Africans came together and mixed with
the New World—Native Americans.56 These people of Spanish America created
many of the cultures and traditions that we now view in the U.S. among Hispanic
Americans.
The movement of Latinos to the Americas began at the start of the 20th
century that found Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Mexico in turmoil. Spain’s archaic rule
of its Caribbean possessions was challenged successfully in 1898. The U.S. went
into these countries trying to clean up what they considered to be neglect and
mismanagement of these countries’ resources.57
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Hispanic Colonial History According to the contributors of “AmericaUSA”, out of the 50 U.S. states Hispanics
explored and colonized at least 31 of the present states in the United States.58
Spanish speaking America's far-reaching influence, and contributions, continues
throughout the U.S. today. Spanish was spoken in the majority of the present
states in our country from the early 1900's to the present, during which time
English and Spanish have shared the status of dual languages in the present
USA. In 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was signed, it was a toss up
between several languages. Even though Spanish continued to be the collective
language of the majority in the "U.S." at the time of the American Revolution
it was not selected as the nation’s language.59
When new immigrants from Spanish speaking countries assimilate, they
assimilate into the USA Spanish speaking community, which has been in existence
collectively for 500 years. There are two collective (dual languages) throughout
the present USA- Spanish and English. Within the Spanish and English languages,
which are spoken collectively in the USA, there are also thousands of Indigenous
Tribes, each with their own distinct languages. As the following facts illustrate,
the Spanish language was/is not only confined to the American southwest, but is
spread throughout the present USA. When it comes to pioneers, one fact was that
these Spanish speaking people were very instrumental in spreading the Hispanic
culture and the Spanish language; from Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Arizona,
California (which is a Spanish word), Florida (a Spanish word meaning flowery) and
Georgia which were traditionally Spanish speaking from the early 1500 as they
colonized by the Hispanics.60
Also, during the 1500's, 1600's, 1700's the influence was provided to the
United States through the Hispanics: Presidios (forts), Missions were established; in
1598 they created the 1st Cattlemen's Organization; in 1776's American Revolution
the Hispanics or Spanish speaking people from New Mexico collected funds and
fought British soldiers on behalf of the United States and 500,000 Hispanics
fought in WWII.61
Mexicans in America
While Mexicans occupied a n d l i v e d i n western North America during manifest
destiny, there was a time period in history that brought immigrant Mexicans to
America. Dictator Porfiria Diaz, who had ruled for 30 years, had left lower classes
poor and much of the country’s wealth was in the hands of a few Mexicans and
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foreigners.62 In 1910, this situation in Mexico got worse. The bloody Mexican
Revolution that lasted several years made life unbearable for most. As Cuba,
Puerto Rico and Mexico continued to experience the harsh life of many dictatorial
rulers along with the remains of the war, these people began to head North in
hopes of finding a better life in the U.S.
Based on the history of Mexico and many other countries (including the
U.S.), it is easy to see how greed and the desire for wealth have caused those in
power to do undeserving acts to humans. For those who can migrate to the U.S.
they believe they will be able to escape the poor conditions of their homelands.
The railroads enabled masses of Mexicans to reach the U. S. Once in the
U.S., the railway also employed many of these immigrants. However, most
Mexicans in the U.S. worked as constructions workers, watchmen, in agriculture
or mining. Many of these occupations isolated Mexican Americans from the rest of
the American population—creating separate Spanish speaking communities.63 This
separation also did nothing to increase the “American” education of the Mexican
workers and their children. There was no access to schools in these remote
locations, and because many of the children worked alongside their parents, this
made formal “American” education and adaptation to the English language
nonexistent for them. It was also during this era, that Mexican Americans
developed the stereotype of being uneducated agricultural field hands.64 This
stereotype has existed for many decades.
This massive movement of people from Mexico to the U.S. was not
intended to be a permanent emigration. Many came to stay for a season or for a
few years to accumulate money as the wages were three to four times better than
in Mexico. But, as circumstance would have it, many did not return back to
Mexico. Like other groups of transient workers, labor contractors recruited these
non-English speaking agricultural Mexican laborers. They worked in gangs under
the contractor’s direction and total control. While these Mexicans were working,
they still were very poor and lived under such primitive conditions that it shocked
other Americans.65 This poverty that they had to accept, along with their folk
culture, race and work patterns set them apart culturally. But not all were set
apart as the lighter complexioned, acculturated and middle class portion of the
Mexican-American population was more easily accepted.66 They often could speak
English and could therefore blend into the White society (melt into the pot).
But, as more Mexicans arrived there was increased prejudice felt from
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some of the Anglo-community. The result of this prejudice impacted the Mexican
community in many ways. By the 1940s, the Mexican children, many who were
born U.S. citizens, had grown dissatisfied with the bad housing, bad schools and bad
jobs. To deal with their feelings of mistreatment, they formed gangs.67 These gangs
were largely concentrated in Los Angeles (LA) where there was a large Mexican
population.
The Pachucos, one of these gangs, emphasized the difference in their
culture and the rest of White society.68 They dressed differently, wearing zoot
suits consisting of high wasted baggy pants and long suit coats with very broad
shoulders. These young people needed a way to express their feelings of frustration
and bitterness, which is what they did through their clothing and hairstyles.
However, the LA police saw these gangs as more than just rebellious
teenagers. They believed the Pachucos were a threat to public order. Also, at this
time in LA, military men were on leave and also felt that these young men were
“Un-American” and needed to be taught a lesson.69 What began as street fights,
turned into major race riots. Many say this was the ugliest mob action since the
coolie (Chinese) race riots of the 1870s.
The race riots continued until the Mexican Ambassador in Washington asked
the U.S. State Department to help stop the violence. U.S. Government officials
stopped the riots by removing the military men.70 While many Mexican Americans
weren’t easily accepted into the Anglo communities due to their differences, Mexican
Americans still held strong to their own culture.
The family is central in Mexican American culture.71 Family breakups are
much less common among Mexican Americans than other immigrant groups. Spanish
is also the language that is still spoken in more than half of Mexican American
homes.72 Language choices of all Latinos and proficiency in English have in recent
years become ideological issues, rather than simply pragmatic questions related to
functioning in an English speaking country.
Some believe that these families should use English more. But, many
others in this debate don’t see the value in this—even non-Latino intellectuals see
this issue as an attempt to stigmatize Spanish as “inferior.” But, what makes one
language better than another? People who believe this about Spanish should
remember that Spanish as well as the 300 or so Native tongues were spoken on
this continent long before English became the “first language” of the United States.
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Columbus and the Spaniards
What do the following people/groups have in common that is related to the Latino
experience:
Puerto Rico
Christopher Columbus
Cuba
Native Americans
Blacks
The Crusades were responsible for bringing to Europe imported treasures that
were coveted.74 An alternate route was needed. Christopher Columbus devised a
plan to reach the East by traveling west. The British decided to back Columbus,
but it was too late, Spain had already signed an agreement with Columbus.75
With profit being the motivating factor of the journey, Columbus was
unsuccessful. He sailed within twenty miles of the Mayan ruins and was just hairs
from the pearl fisheries in Columbia.76 His journeys did take him to both Puerto
Rico and Cuba. Claimed by the Spanish, the islands were subsequently settled by
people obsessed by the Three G’s—Gold, Glory, and Gospel.77 Neither Cuba nor
Puerto Rico was initially as profitable as Mexico and certain parts of South
America. In order to gain the most from these possessions agriculture was to be
developed. The Spanish tradition of not sullying one’s hands led to the use of
“Indians” as laborers. To better facilitate this aim Queen Isabella issued an order
on December 20, 1503.78 In the document she compelled the governors of the
possessions to ‘compel and force’ the Indians to do the labor.79 Subsequently,
literally millions of Indians were worked to death.
"A Bartolomé de la Casas (1474-1566), a Dominican monk,
was appalled at the treatment the Spaniards bestowed on the
Indians. He crusaded for the natives, pled their case to
King Ferdinand (1515), wrote the Historia de las India, and
was appointed the ‘Protector of the Indians.’ In his role as
the latter, he suggested something he would regret for the
rest of his life. He proposed that instead of Indians, Black
slaves be used in the mines and plantations. African slaves
were then imported in 1518. There emerged in the possessions
a very rigid caste system. (Many Indians also had one.) The
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Spanish class system was triangular. At the top were the
Peninsulares, those born on the Iberian Peninsula. They were
the only ones who could hold top administrative positions. Next
were the Criollos, sons and daughters of Europeans born in the
possessions. They had status, gained wealth, but had no
administrative power. Constituting the
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lower echelons were the Mestizos, half Indian half European; the
Mulattos, half black half European; the Indians, the Negroes, and
the Sambos, half black half Indian."80
America had designs on its southern neighbors for much of the nineteenth
century. Jefferson saw them as Spanish daggers; the South saw them as potential
slave states (slavery was abolished in Spain in 1870). Nothing really came of it
until William Randolph Hearst went to New York, bought a newspaper, The
Journal, and began a circulation war with his competitor, Joseph Pulitzer. Taking
on the cause of the Cuban revolutionaries, he and his battalion of ‘literary
mercenaries,’ the Yellow Journalists, began an all-out effort to rally support for a
war. Americans were also quite concerned over their investments involving sugar.
In 1898 when the Maine was sunk, either accidentally or deliberately, the U.S.
went to war with Spain. The “Splendid Little War,” or “Hearst’s Little War” was
over quickly, cost few lives to the U.S., and reunited a nation that had not been
cohesive since the Civil War. Spain had lost its entire empire. Spanish influence
declined, relegating her to the position of a defeated mother. This marked the
beginning of U.S. intervention in the islands. Cuba was granted independence
under U.S. supervision. Puerto Rico became a possession of the U.S.
Puerto Ricans and America
Puerto Rico has had a relationship with the United States since the early 1900s
when the United States starting intervening in the island. Why would the U.S.
intervene on behalf of Puerto Rico? Some would say that it’s Puerto Rico’s prime
location. It would seem easy for enemies of the United States to take up location
there if it is not controlled by the United States.
But for whatever the reason, the United States passed several legislative
acts regarding Puerto Rico. The acts concluded with Puerto Rico being a
possession of the United States and not a state as it had once desired.81 While
Puerto Rico is a possession and not a state the acts created a provision that
provides U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans who live in Puerto Rico. But as citizens
they do not pay federal income tax. Puerto Rico is also not provided the same
services that would be offered through an income tax system. Puerto Rico was
issued a Bill of Rights and a governor who is selected through the United States
political process in Washington but this was later overturned.82
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The governance and support of Puerto Rico through the United States has
been strong and weak throughout the years. This strength of the Puerto Rican
economy versus the United States economy has contributed to the waves or
downfalls of Puerto Ricans migrating to the United States.83 Since 1930, many
Puerto Ricans in the U.S. have lived in New York City. The water access of New
York (it being a port city) and boat travel created this access to migration.84
Puerto Ricans, like the Irish and many other migrants to this country came
from environments that provided little or no access to formal education, limited
exposure to U.S. language and culture. Like many others who have Spanish as
their first language, Spanish is spoken in the homes of most Puerto Ricans. These
language and cultural issues have become a complication in the life of Puerto
Ricans living in the U.S.85
Color (for the darker skinned Puerto Ricans) is also an additional complication
in an already difficult situation.86 Individual color differences remain socially
significant in a group that extends from pure Caucasian to pure African American.
Studies show that those Puerto Ricans who have attained middle class status have
tended to be lighter in skin color and may identify themselves as white in order to
gain the unspoken privileges that many Whites in the U.S. have.87
Cuba Just like Puerto Rico, the United States has maintained some control over Cuba
since the early 1900s until the 1950s. This control extended to the United States
having power to intervene as it related to Cuba's independence.87 However, the U.S.
did not exert much influence over Fulgencio Batista's regime allowing what called
inhumane treatment to take place in this country.
Cuba has been no stranger to dictatorships, which like many countries who
operate under these conditions pass poverty unto its citizens. Some chose to stay in
their homeland and live under these conditions while others have sought a better life
elsewhere.88 This is what brought many of the well-educated upper and middle class
Cubans to America.
At the time they arrived, Miami was in decline and welcomed the Cuban
refugees with open arms. These well-educated Cubans started new businesses and
brought this once crumbling city back to life. Before long, Cuban Americans in Miami
had higher average incomes than non-Latino Whites. They had created 18,000 new
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businesses many small and family run.89 These new business
ventures brought large investments from Latin American business people who had
barely noticed Miami before.
By 1980, the next wave of refugees arrived to find Miami a bilingual
community. These refugees arrived but were considered “social problems” in
Cuba, some were even criminals.90 Many had maintained this criminal lifestyle in
order to survive the communistic dictatorial regime in Cuba. Cuba was having a
difficult time supporting its citizens due to agricultural losses. So what better way
to cut your cost than to get rid of some of your troubled citizen’s?
Exclusionists in the Anglo/white community were not happy with the new
Cubans arrival. But, Florida’s Cuban community assisted these new Cubans in
American living and finding jobs. Still, not all made successful transitions. Many of
the Cubans were discouraged due to the bitterness and despair that life in
America offered them. What we must remember, though, is that these new
refugees had never experienced personal freedom. They had been told all their
lives what to do, what they could have and how to do things. Arriving in a country
where motivation and discipline are the keys to success was a true culture shock.
However, the Cubans because of their education and wealth were able to
gain influence in the United States. They used this power to create the
Torricelli Bill which was signed by President Bush to express what many
considered an expression of the outrage of the treatment of their people in Cuba.
This bill showed the power of the Cubans in America as it banned trade with Cuba
by the United States and prohibited ships docking in U.S. ports if they had visited
Cuba.91 This bill however was not supported by the United Nations.
Other Legislation Affecting the Latino Population
Californians passed a measure designed to keep undocumented immigrants from
receiving state-funded social services, including welfare and non-emergency
treatment. It also forced undocumented schoolchildren out of California schools. A
federal court order kept this law from passing, but there was an increase
in discrimination to the Latinos in California.92
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was another piece of
legislation that has impacted the Latino population. This agreement allowed
Canada, Mexico and the to eliminate all tariffs between them till 2009. This was
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238
a step towards an American common market, but there were Northern Mexican
farmers who protested this by marches and sit-ins. They knew as small farmers it
would be difficult to compete against this new competition.
Concluding Thoughts
There is a central theme to this chapter—Asians and Latino/Hispanics migrated to
this country in search of opportunity, a better life or to assist their government.
Once here they faced racism from exclusionist whites who felt they did not belong.
The fear of “these” immigrants taking jobs forced congress to enact laws that
stifled these groups participation in American society. Just as the Native Americans
gave America “free land”, the Africans provided “free labor”, poor whites
provided “cheap labor” through indentured servitude, the Asians and Hispanic/Latino
population provided more “cheap labor” as they were exploited work groups. Yet,
despite this ill treatment it was still better in the United States for Asians and Latinos
than in their home countries due to the dictatorial governments and the
impoverished living conditions. While these groups just like many others have
contributed significant accomplishments to American society— their recognition is
just swept away. They are often not even recognized today as “full” citizens—just
immigrants. But aren’t most people in America immigrants?
End of Chapter Questions
1. Why did the Chinese, Japanese and Filipino each migrate to the United States? How were they each treated once here?
2. How did the Cable Act impact the Chinese and their migration?
3. How did the Chinese participate in the construction of the U.S. Railroad and how were they rewarded (if at all)?
4. A. What is the Alien Land Act? B. What racial group did it impact the most?
C. Why was it enacted?
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5. What is the Naturalization Act of 1790 and how did this impact non-white immigrants?
6. Why were the Filipinos encouraged to come to the U.S.?
7. Why did the Mexicans, Puerto Ricans and first group of Cubans migrate to the United States?
8. Why were the Cubans treated better than other Latino groups?
9. How has laws against Asian Americans and Latinos impacted their migration to the U.S.? Has it been fair and equitable?
10. What does cheap labor have to do with migration experiences of the Asian Americans and Latino/Hispanic groups?
Internet Exercise
Part A. Use the internet to find out about the stereotype of Asian Americans being the model minority?
Search Key Words: model minority Asian Americans
Now answer the following questions?
1. What is the Model Minority Stereotype? 2. How can this impact Asian Americans in the workplace 3. Despite being seemingly positive, how is this a harmful stereotype?
Part B.
Go to http://learn.latpro.com/hispanic-culture-at-work/ or if this link does not work go to google
and search: Hispanic/Latino culture at work.
1. Summarize what the article stated in one paragraph. 2. Provide three tips that as a manager you could utilize in the workplace
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End of Chapter Exercise
Immigration
Some companies want to hire individuals with a unique set of talents and skills that
state they can’t find in American applicants for their jobs. They look outside the
country for individuals with those skills, and help them obtain working visas.
Diversity takes on a new dimension in the workplace when it involves bringing in
people who may be unfamiliar with life in the United States. It can cause friction
among employees, and it can spur creative new ideas that improve a company.
Anger
Some Americans do not agree with bringing in immigrants to work in U.S.
companies. They feel that qualified, unemployed Americans could fill those positions
and that the immigrants work for lower wages. The lower wages offered to
immigrants could be seen to suppress wages for similar positions staffed by
Americans. Diversity in the workplace brought about through immigration can be a
difficult subject for some companies’ managements to tackle. Continued use of
diversity training and open communication with employees about companies’ reasons
for hiring immigrants may help alleviate the problem.
After reading about immigration laws and understanding how cheap labor and skills
of those who provided cheap and free labor helped to build the U.S., what is your
viewpoint on this workplace employment perspective? (Don’t just say…I agree or
don’t agree—please support your answer).
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References
1. Ping, C. (1963). Chinese Labor in California. Madison, Wisconsin: State Historical Society of Wisconsin for the Dept. of History, University of Wisconsin.
2. Chu, G. (1970, March). Chinatowns in the Delta: The Chinese in the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta, 1870-1960. California Historical Society, Quarterly 49:1, 21-37.
3. Ping, C. (1963). Chinese Labor in California. Madison, Wisconsin: State Historical Society of Wisconsin for the Dept. of History, University of Wisconsin.
4. Ibid.
5. Alien Americans: a study of race relations. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.archive.org/stream/alienamericansst00schrrich/alienamericansst00schrrich_d jvu.txt
6. Ibid.
7. Horsman, R. (1981). Race and Manifest Destiny: Origins of American Racial Anglo-
Saxonism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
8. Coolidge, M. R. (1909). Chinese Immigration. New York: Henry Holt.
9. Ibid.
10. Coolidge, M. R. (1909). Chinese Immigration. New York: Henry Holt.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Coolidge, M. R. (1909). Chinese Immigration. New York: Henry Holt.
15. Chinn, Thomas W., editor. (1969). A History of the Chinese in California. San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America.
16. Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://cprr.org/Museum/Chinese.html
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience
242
19. Katz, J. H. (2003). White Awareness: Handbook for Anti-Racism Training. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
20. Commission on Asian American Pacific Affairs. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.capaa.wa.gov/community/history.shtml
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Ichihashi, Y. (1969). Japanese in the United States: A Critical Study of the Problems of the Japanese Immigrants and their Children. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
25. Ito, K. (1973). Issei: A History of Japanese Immigrants in North America. Seattle: Executive Committee for the Publication of Issei.
26. Ibid.
27. U.S Supreme Court Oyama v. California [332 U.S. 633 (1948) ] [332 U.S. 633 , 634]. Retrieved from: http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=332&invol=633
28. Ibid.
29. Higgs, R. (1978, March). Landless by Law--Japanese Immigrants in California Agriculture to 1941. Journal of Economic History, 38(1), 205-26.
30. Ito, H. (1966). Japan's Outcastes in the United States. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 200-21.
31. Hata, D. T. (1978). 'Undesirables': Early Immigrants and the Anti-Japanese
Movement in San Francisco, 1892-1893: Prelude to Exclusion. New York: Arno Press.
32. Ibid.
33. Chuman, F. F. (1976). The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese-Americans. Del Mar, CA: Publisher's Inc.
34. Taylor, S. C. & Kitano, H. H. L. (1986). Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
35. Ibid.
36. Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II. (1993). New York: Hill and Wang.
37. Constantino, R. (1975). A History of the Philippines: from the Spanish colonization
to the Second World War. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience
243
38. Grunder, G. A., & Livezey, W. E. (1951). The Philippines and the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
39. Walker, S. (1994). Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
40. Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920. (1983). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
41. Ibid.
42. Ninkovich, F. (2001). The United States and Imperialism. Malden, Massuchesetts: Blackwell.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
47. Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hispanic
48. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/Press- Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/010327.html
49. Handlin, O. (1959). The Newcomers: Negroes and Puerto Ricans in a Changing Metropolis. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
50. Brett, M. & Fentress, E. (1996). The Berbers. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
51. Ibid.
52. Hoyt, R. S. & Chodorow, S. (1976). Europe in the Middle Ages. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Galens, J., Sheets, A., Young, Robyn V. & Vecoli, R. J. (1995). Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America. Detroit: Gale.
56. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience
244
57. Kanellos, N. & Esteva-Febregat, C. (1993). Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the United States. Houston: Arte Publico.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. Republican National Hispanic Alliance. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.rnhacentralflorida.org/information.html.
61. Hispanic Contributions State by State. (1996). Hispanic America USA. Retrieved from http://www.neta.com/~1stbooks/colony9.htm
62. Meier, M. S. (1981). Dictionary of Mexican American History. Westport:
Greenwood.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. Meier, M. & Ribera, F. (1993). Mexican Americans/American Mexicans: From Conquistadors to Chicanos. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.
66. Ibid.
67. Daniels, R. & Olin, S. C. Jr. (1972). Racism in California: A Reader in the History of Oppression. New York: Macmillian.
68. Bookrags. Pachucos. Retrieved from: http://www.bookrags.com/history/pachucos- sjpc-04/
69. Ibid.
70. Mazón, M. (1984). The Zoot Suit Riots. Austin, University of Texas Press.
71. History of the Mexican Family. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://family.jrank.org/pages/1163/Mexico-History-Mexican-Family.html
72. U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/Press- Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/010327.html
73. Simon, J. & Riley-Smith, C. (2002). The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
74. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eight: Understanding the Asian American & Latino Experience
245
75. Ibid. 76. Wagenheim, O, J. & Wagenheim, K. (2002). The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary History. Princeton, NJ : Markus Wiener Publishers.
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid.
80. Coughlin, A. (1989). The Heritage of Puerto Rico and Cuba. Connecticut: Yale New-Haven Teacher Institute. Retrieved from: http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1989/3/89.03.02.x.html
81. Ibid.
82. Ibid.
83. Sowell, T. (1997). Ethnic America: A History. Ashland, Oregon: Blackstone Audio Books.
84. Ibid
85. Ibid
86. Schaefer, R. T. (2006). Racial and Ethnic Groups. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Retrieved from http://studentoffortune.com/cgi/getfile/8574/5643/eth125_week1_reading1.pdf
87. Coughlin, A. (1989). The Heritage of Puerto Rico and Cuba. Connecticut: Yale New-Haven Teacher Institute. Retrieved from: http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1989/3/89.03.02.x.html
88. Ibid.
89. Chabran, R. & Chabran, R. (1995). The Latino Encyclopedia. New York: Marshall Cavendish.
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid.
92. Texas Conservative Coalition Research Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.txccri.org/publications/Illegal_Immigration_Task_Force_Report.pdf
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work 246
Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work
“Religion is like a pair of shoes.....Find one that fits for you, but don't make me
wear your shoes.”
George Carlin
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UNDERSTANDING RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND WORK
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
understand various beliefs of the largest U.S. religions.
know the practices of other religions that exist in the U.S.
describe religious accommodation.
identify various components of religions that may require accommodation in the workplace.
respect religious difference.
Chapter Nine
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The worlds three largest religions in order by size are: Christianity, Islam and
Buddhism. We will discuss these groups as well as a few others to get a better
understanding of the commonly practiced religions in U.S. society.
Christianity
Christians in America
Christians follow the teachings of Jesus Christ and his apostles.1 Jesus is the
Greek name for Yeshua where Yeshua has a hebrew meaning of salvation from
despair, depression, hate, feeling empty inside, and death--you will never be
alone again, but happy and fulfilled.2 Yeshua of Nazareth was the name that was
given to Jesus Christ when he was a child. The second part of his name, Christ is
Greek and it means "the Messiah" or the "anointed one."3
Yeshua was a Jewish itinerant preacher who was born circa 4 to 7 BCE
where BCE means "before the common era" (= Christian "BC" notation).4 He was
executed by the Roman occupying authorities in Palestine, perhaps on Friday, 30-
APR-7 CE (i.e. in the spring of the year 30) where CE means "of the common era" (=
Christian "AD" notation).5 Most Christians regard him as the Son of God. They
further believe that he is God, the second person in the Trinity (the Trinity
consists of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit; three separate persons, all eternal, all
omnipresent, who form a single, unified deity).
Most Christians believe that Jesus co-existed with God before the creation of
the world, was born of a virgin, was resurrected three days after his death, and later
ascended to Heaven. They believe in one God, prayer, in paying tithes and /or
giving to the poor. Some believe in fasting as a ritual or for spiritual cleansing.
They also attend services in a church (their holy place) on Saturday; Sunday and
various other days of the week depending on the Christian denomination.
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Christians have a holy book often referred to as the Bible. However, there
are many versions of the Bible (over 50 in English alone). The most common
differences is that some leave out entire verses or books, others disagree on
whether Jesus should be called God's servant or God's Son.6 Two of the more
common English versions are the King James Version and the new International
Version.
Of the common versions, the books of the Bible is divided into two parts:
the 46 Books of the Old Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some
variations), and the 27 Books of the New Testament containing books originally
written primarily in Greek.7 Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate
section for the books not considered by the publisher as canonical (of Canon law
which is an internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the
Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches).
Christian Holidays
A celebrated holiday of many Christians is Christmas. Christmas is a holiday that
celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. It has been a federal U.S. holiday since June
26, 1870 which means school systems and many workplaces in the U.S. celebrate
this day as an official holiday. According to the History of Christmas, it indicates
that:
"In the early 17th century, a wave of religious reform changed the
way Christmas was celebrated in Europe. When Oliver Cromwell
and his Puritan forces took over England in 1645, they vowed to rid
England of decadence and, as part of their effort, cancelled
Christmas. By popular demand, Charles II was restored to the
throne and, with him, came the return of the popular holiday. The
pilgrims, English separatists that came to America in 1620, were
even more orthodox in their Puritan beliefs than Cromwell. As a
result, Christmas was not a holiday in early America. From 1659 to
1681, the celebration of Christmas was actually outlawed in
Boston. Anyone exhibiting the Christmas spirit was fined five
shillings. By contrast, in the Jamestown settlement, Captain John
Smith reported that Christmas was enjoyed by all and passed
without incident."8
Christmas is celebrated in many manners in the U.S. From trees being
purchased and decorated, homes being lit with lights, big family dinners with
Turkey to gifts that can be opened on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day brought to
kids by Santa Claus.
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While many Christians celebrate Christmas in the above manner, some
Christians believe that Christians should not observe Christmas at all.9 Some object
to the commercialism of the holiday; others object to its origins. But those that
celebrate this holiday celebrate Jesus’ birth on December 25th. Some also
celebrate Jesus’ resurrection (when Jesus' comes back from the dead to save all
sinners) in April and call this Easter. Easter, however, is not a federal holiday.
Church History
'The followers of Yeshua formed the Jewish Christian movement, centered in
Jerusalem, after his death. They regarded themselves as a reform movement
within Judaism; they continued to sacrifice at the temple, circumcise their male
children, follow Jewish kosher food laws, etc. Saul of Tarsus, originally a persecutor
of the Jewish Christians, reported having a vision of the risen Christ. Adopting the
new name of Paul, he became the greatest theologian of the early Christian
movement. His writings, along with those of the author(s) of the Gospel of John,
provided much of the theological foundation for Christianity, as we know it according
to Christian history.10
This Christian religion was documented as a legitimate religion in 313 CE
and the authority of the church converged among the five bishops or patriarchs
located in Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome.11 However,
because Islam's religious power was spreading throughout the Middle East in the 7th
century the power of the Christian base changed to Constantinople and Rome.12
These two Christian centers gradually grew apart in belief, and practice. In 1054
CE, a split was formalized between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
churches; it remains in effect today.
The splitting of the Christian religion did not stop there as in the 16th
century the Protestant g roup was split within the western church which later
split into thousands of individual denominations and groups of denominations. 13
Current Status of Christianity
About 33% of the world's population regard themselves as Christian with Catholics
being the largest group with at least 1.1 billion adherents.15 This number has been
dropping very slowly in recent years, mainly due to16:
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An increase in non-theists, such as Agnostics, Atheists, Humanists, etc.
An increase in the numbers of followers of minority religions, largely
caused by immigration.
The emergence of new spiritual/religious movements like New Age,
Wicca and other Neopagan religions.
However, there are over 1,000 Christian groups in North America alone;
each has their own set of beliefs, policies and practices. Like individual politicians,
Christians can be classified as conservative, mainline and liberal. Within each faith
group there can also exists a wide range of opinions where individual members
may hold a wide range of religious beliefs.
Christian denominations include but are not limited to: Orthodox/Eastern
Christian, Conservative Protestant, Liberal Protestant, African Indigenous Sects,
Pentecostal, Anglican, Assemblies of God, Jehovah's Witness, Latter Day Saints,
New Thought--Unity, Christian Science, Friends (Quakers). Of these groups, many
within each group tend to view the Christian world in terms of "us". e.g. "there is
my denomination, and then there are all the other faith groups that consider
themselves to be Christian."17 This could cause one denomination (a conservative
Christian group) to believe they are the "true" faith and therefore denounce the
validity of another Christian group that may be more liberal in their approach to
Christianity.
Some of the differences among the three categories of Christianity are:
• Fundamentalists and other Evangelical Christians believe in order for
someone to be a "real" Christian they must be saved. You must profess
your belief in Jesus and live according to the principles of the Bible.18
• Mainline Christians are more wide-ranging in who they accept as Christian.
If you believe in the teachings of Jesus Christ whether saved or not, then
you are a Christian.19
• Liberal Christians are even more open to who is a Christian and they often
have no set doctrine or set of beliefs that must be followed. However, this
does not preclude them from having common beliefs with conservative or mainline
Christians. They are liberal in the sense that they often interpret the scripture
without any preconceived notions but use it to apply to life today.20
The most common method of arranging Christian denominations is from the
most conservative to the most liberal. Unfortunately, not everyone agrees on the
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specific order. In 1979, author D.R. Hodge created a list that sorts Christian
denominations from the most conservative to the most liberal according to the
doctrine of the denominations at the time, the list is as follows21:
• Assemblies of God (the most conservative)
• Seventh-Day Adventist
• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons)
• Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod
• Church of the Nazarene
• Southern Baptist Convention
• Churches of Christ
• Presbyterian Church in the United States
• American Baptist Churches in the USA
• Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
• Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
• United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
• United Methodist Church
• Episcopal Church
• United Church of Christ (the most liberal)
A Prime Belief: Life After Death
Christian beliefs about one's destination after death vary greatly. Many conservative
Protestant Christians believe that people are born and remain sinful; they will end
up being eternally punished in Hell unless they are “saved” by trusting Jesus as Lord
and Savior. Roman Catholics believe that salvation comes from God, and is
channeled through church sacraments to sinful, repentant persons. Most people, at
death, go to Purgatory, which is type of temporary Hell; a few go directly to Heaven;
others go permanently to Hell. Religious liberals, on the other hand, generally
interpret Hell symbolically, not as an actual place. They reject the concept of a loving
God creating a place of eternal torment.
Islam
An Introduction to Islam
The second most popular religion is Islam. It is growing and is expected to
become the dominant religion of the world during this century.22 The word “Islam”
in Arabic language means “submission” & “peace.”23 Religious followers of Islam are
referred to as Muslims. A Muslim is a person who submits to the will of Allah (which
is the name for God in Arabic language) and finds therein peace.24 The Masjid
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(Mosque) is the Muslims place of worship and found all around the world.
Islam is derived from the Arabic word “salaam” meaning peace. Islam
originated with the teachings of Muhammad in the 7th century. Muslims believe
Muhammad is the final of all religious prophets (beginning with Abraham) and
that the Qu'ran, which is the Islamic scripture, was revealed to him by God.25
Who are the Muslims?
There are two major sects of Muslims throughout the world--Sunni and Shiite
where about 92% of world's Muslims are Sunni and another 6% are Shiite leaving
a very small percentage amongst the following groups: Sufi, Wahhabi, Maliki,
Deobandi, the U.S.-based Nation of Islam (previously known as "Black Muslims"),
and Ahmadiyya.26 Shiites are found in Iran and Azerbaijan where they make
up over 70% of each country's population. Shiites are also the majority in Iraq
and are the second largest group in Lebanon. They also have a minority of
followers in Yemen, Pakistan and Turkey.
Sunnis on the other hand are the majority in all other Muslim countries
and they represent the majority of Muslims in non-Muslim countries like China and
the continent of Africa. One of the major differences between the two sects
(Sunnis and Shiites) is their definition or interpretation of the Sunnah and the
Hadith.28 The Hadith is the recorded practice and teachings of Prophet
Mohammad which were early regarded as his Sunnah, meaning ‘path’ or
‘way.’29 These traditions became powerful symbols for the Islamic religion,
models of right belief and practice.
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World's Major Branches of Islam Taken From the CIA World Fact Book on Religion27
Islam claims about 22.5% of the World's Population
Branch Number of Adherents
Sunni 1,140,000,000
Shiite 220,000,000
Ahmadiyya 10,000,000
Druze 450,000
It is estimated that there are over 1.5 billion Muslims around the world.30
There is almost no country on earth without some groups of Muslims, and in such
countries as Pakistan, Saudi Arabia or Turkey, the populations are almost wholly
Muslim. Islam is also perhaps the fastest growing religion on the North American
continent.31 Most people however equate the term Muslims with Arabs. While
many Arabs are Muslims, not all Muslims are Arabs. This confusion may come
because its scriptures or holy book, the Holy Qur'an, must be recited in original
Arabic form.
Muslims represent many races and socioeconomic classes. Due to the
popularity of the Islamic faith in the United States some cities are rethinking the
religious holidays that they offer as days off. For instance, the western Detroit
suburb of Dearborn, Michigan has been a magnet for immigrants from the Middle
East for decades and has one of the nation’s largest concentrations of Arabs as
they makeup one third of the population.32
This city also serves as a cultural and religious center for an estimated
300,000 members of the Arab-American community in southeastern Michigan.33 The
two major holidays that these cities with a large Arab-American population is
considering as celebrated city holidays are Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the
month long fast of Ramadan. The other holiday is Eid al-Adha, which marks the
annual completion of the pilgrimage to Mecca. The dates of these holidays change
every year because they are determined by a lunar calendar.
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Key Islamic Concepts*
In order to understand Islam, it is necessary to know the meaning of certain key
terms and the identity of some proper names. Most of them are in the Arabic
language, and there is often no equivalent in English or in other tongues.
*The concepts below are copied with permission from the website: Islam Answering found at http://www.islamanswering.com/subpage.php?s=cat_open&cid=4634
Allah
The true name for the creator of the Universe is called Allah.34 He is merciful, the
Beneficent, the Knowledgeable, the Protector, the Mighty, the God, the Provider,
the Exalted, the Lord, the All-Knowing, the All-Hearing, the All-Seeing, the
Magnificent, the Wise, the Loving, the First, the Last, and the Eternal. The Qur'an
(the Muslims holy book) mentions 99 beautiful names for Allah through which
Muslims do recognize Him, and His responsibilities for the whole Universe.35
Many people ask why the term "Allah" is used instead of "God" and assume
its use implies that Muslims worship a separate God. There is only ONE GOD - a
belief held by followers of each of the three main world religions: Islam,
Christianity and Judaism.
Allah is the Supreme Being, the one and only God. Allah is the same God
as is worshipped by the Jews and Christians, and Arabic-speaking Christians also
use this name when referring to God.
Ayah
The Arabic meaning of Ayah is a miracle and a sign. The Qur'an is considered to be a miracle itself. Each verse or sentence is called an Ayah or a miracle. The plural of Ayah is called Ayat, which means miracles.
Azan
The call for the daily prayers are called Azan. The person who calls the Azan is
called a Mu'azzin. A Mu'azzin calls the Azan five times a day before Muslims so as
to perform their daily Salah (Prayer).
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Birth
Muslims believe that people are born free of sin. It is only after they reach the age of
puberty and it is only after they commit sins that they are to be charged for their
mistakes. No one is responsible for or can take the responsibility for the sins of
others. However, the door of forgiveness through true repentance is always open.
Festivities
Other than the two general feasts, there are few festivities that Muslims do enjoy. These are related to different activities or functions. Some of these activities are:
Aqiqah: It is a dinner reception to be made after a child is born. Relatives, friends, and neighbors are invited for such an occasion.
Walimah: It is a dinner reception to be made after a marriage is consummated. It is
offered by the parents and/or by the married couple. Friends, relatives, and
neighbors are also invited.
Islam
Islam is an Arabic word the root of which is Silm and Salam. It means among
others: peace, greeting, salutation, obedience, loyalty, allegiance, and submission to
the will of the Creator of the Universe. It is asserted by many that Islam is the last
and final religion to all mankind and to all generations irrespective of color, race,
nationality, ethnic background, language, or social position. It is incorrect and
objectionable to call Muslims Muhammadans, as Muhammad is not worshipped in the
way Christians worship Christ.
Jihad
It is an Arabic word the root of which is Jahada, which means to strive for a better
way of life. The nouns are Juhd, Mujahid, Jihad, and Ijtihad. The other meanings
are: endeavor, strain, exertion, effort, diligence, fighting to defend one's life, land,
and religion. This word has been in frequent use in the Western press over the
past several years, explained to mean a holy war. As a matter of fact the term
"holy war" was coined in Europe during the Crusades, meaning the war against
Muslims.
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Jihad is not a war to force the faith on others, as many people think of it.
It should never be interpreted as a way of compulsion of the belief on others,
since there is an explicit verse in the Qur'an that says: “There is no compulsion in
religion" Al-Qur'an: Al-Baqarah (2:256). Jihad is not a defensive war only, but a
war against any unjust regime. If such a regime exists, a war is to be waged
against the leaders, but not against the people of that country. People should be
freed from the unjust regimes and influences so that they can freely choose to
believe in Allah. Not only in peace but also in war Islam prohibits terrorism,
kidnapping, and hijacking, when carried against civilians. Whoever commits such
violations is considered a murderer in Islam, and is to be punished by the Islamic
state. During wars, Islam prohibits Muslim soldiers from harming civilians,
women, children, elderly, and the religious men like priests and rabies. It also
prohibits cutting down trees and destroying civilian constructions. The term may
be used for/by Muslims as well as non-Muslims.
Muhammad (s.a.w.)
The last and the final prophet and messenger of Allah to all mankind is called
Muhammad (s.a.w.) and at the age of forty he received the message of Islam
from Allah through angel Gabriel (Jibril). He was the last of a line of prophets like
Nuh (Noah), Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), and Isa (Jesus).
Muslim(s)
Also spelled Moslem is based on the same Arabic root as Islam (s-l-m) and means
one who submits to God, that is, a believer in Islam. Any person who believes in
the creed and the teachings of Islam is called a Muslim. More than one billion
Muslims are found in different parts of the world. They are not to be confused
with Arabs, as Arabs may include Christians, agnostics, or other non-Muslims.
Some Commonly Asked Questions about Muslims
Question: How do Muslims view death?
Muslims like Jews and Christians believe that there is life after death, believing
that this life prepares us for this life after death. Basic articles of faith include: the
Day of Judgment, resurrection, Heaven and Hell.35 When a Muslim dies, the burial
occurs very quickly if at all possible the same day. The body is prepared by being
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washed, usually by a family member, wrapped in a clean white cloth, and buried
with a simple prayer.36
Question: Do Christianity and Islam have different origins?
“No. Together with Judaism, they go back to the patriarch Abraham, and their three
prophets are directly descended from his sons Muhammad from the eldest, Ishmael,
and Moses and Jesus from Isaac. Abraham established the settlement which today
is the city of Makkah (Mecca), and built the Ka'abah towards which all Muslims turn
when they pray. In fact, Christians and Jews are thus afforded a special,
protected place in Islamic tradition and are known as "People of the Book."37
Question: Islam is a monolithic religion that does not allow debate or discussion on
matters of faith. True or False?
False. There is more than one sect of Muslims due to different interpretations of
Islamic law and unlike Catholicism there is no final doctrinal authority or
pastor/clergy.38
What are some Muslim Customs?
SALAT (Prayer): “Performing daily prayers is an act of communication
between humans and God. Five daily prayers are considered a duty for all
Muslims, and on these occasions preparations in ritual purity are required. The
prayers must be said while facing in the direction of Mecca. The congregational
prayer of Friday afternoon is compulsory and must be said in the Mosque,
Muslim’s place of worship. There is a sermon and then the prayers are said in
uniform rows.”39
ZAKAT (Alms): Before the month of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic
calendar Muslims are required to give 2.5% of wealth and assets to those who
are less fortunate.40 This is a yearly obligation. Giving the Zakat is considered
an act of worship because it is a form of giving thanks to God for the means of
material well-being one has acquired.41
SAWM OR SIYAM (Fasting): Another form of offering thanks to God is
fasting. It is required of all Muslims to fast during the ninth month of the
Islamic calendar, Ramadan. During this month, Muslims refrain from food and
drink during daylight however this does not apply to all Muslims as exceptions
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are made to those who are elderly, ill, insane, pregnant and nursing women, and
travelers. 42 But, they are to make up for this lost time at a later date. Many
children complete the fast but is not absolutely required.43
More about Ramadan
Ramadan is a very important celebration of the Islamic faith. The Month of
Ramadan is when it is believed the Holy Qur'an "was sent down from heaven,
guidance unto men, a declaration of direction, and a means of Salvation."44
This fast is an opportunity for Muslims to focus more on their faith and
worship rather than the daily issues of life. During this month of fasting,
Muslims do not eat or drink anything from true dawn until sunset.45 Other
restraints are placed on the life of Muslims during the fast such as no smoking or
sexual relations. At the end of the day the fast is broken with prayer and a
meal called the iftar.46 Fasting is meant to teach patience, sacrifice and humility.
“Ramaḍān is a time to fast for the sake of Allah, and to offer more prayer
than usual. Muslims also believed through good actions, they get rewarded twice
than they normally can achieve. During Ramaḍān, Muslims ask forgiveness for
past sins, pray for guidance and help in refraining from everyday evils, and try to
purify themselves through self-restraint and good deeds.”47
According to the Holy Qur'an:
One may eat and drink at any time during the night "until you can plainly
distinguish a white thread from a black thread by the daylight: then keep the fast
until night."4
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The good that is acquired through the fast can be destroyed by five things49:
the telling of a lie slander denouncing someone behind his back a false oath greed or covetousness
These are considered offensive at all times, but are most offensive during
the Fast of Ramadan.
During Ramadan, in addition to the five daily prayers, there is the Taraweeh
prayer (Night Prayer) that is said—some Muslims will pray all night. it is common for
Muslims to go to the Mosque and spend many hours praying and studying the
Qur'an.50
When the fast ends (the first day of the month of Shawwal) a holiday called
Id-al-Fitr begins that lasts for three days. During this holiday some city fairs are
held, family and friends gather to pray and gifts are exchanged celebrating the
end of the Fast of Ramadan.
It is important to have a “true” understanding of the Islamic faith since
Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world. It is also important to note that
Muslims have made an impact on the evolution of American society. Historically,
Muslims have made major contributions in the humanities, the sciences, art etc.
They explored North America 300 years before the “discovery” of the New World by
Christopher Columbus. They used the Mississippi river as their access route to and
from the continent’s interior.
Muslims in America Here are a few glimpses of Muslim life in American History as told by Fareed
Numan (December 1992)51:
In 1178, a Chinese document known as the Sung Document recorded the voyages
of Muslim sailors to a land known as Mu-Lan-Pi (America).
In 1312, African Muslims from Mandinga arrive in the Gulf of Mexico and explore the
American interior via the Mississippi River.
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In 1513, Piri Reis completes his first world map, including the Americas, after
researching maps from all over the world. The map is unsurpassed in its
practicality and artistry.
In 1530, African slaves arrive in America. Many of these slaves were sent to
Mexico, Cuba, and South America. During the slave trade more than 10 million
Africans were uprooted from their homes. More than 30 percent of these were
Muslims.
In 1839, Sayyid Sa’id, ruler of Oman, orders his ship The Sultana to set sail for
America on a trade mission. The Sultana touched port in New York. Although the
voyage was not a commercial success, it marked the point of successful friendly
relations between the two countries that continue to this day.
In 1893, Muslim immigrants from the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire,
Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, etc. arrive in North America. They are mainly Turks,
Kurds, Albanians, and Arabs.
In 1915, Albanian Muslims build a Masjid in Maine and establish an Islamic
association. By, 1919, they had established another Masjid in Connecticut. Theirs
was one of the first associations for Muslims in the U.S.
In 1933, The Nation of Islam, one of the significant organizations in
American Muslim history is founded. It is responsible for converting a high
number of African Americans to Islam.
In 1952, Muslims in the Armed Services sue the federal government in order
to be allowed to identify themselves as Muslims. Until then, Islam was not
recognized as a legitimate religion.
Jews in America
Before we discuss the plight of Jews in America, we must have a clear
understanding of what it means to be Jew. Many people think of Jews as a race,
but if you look at the U.S. Census data you will not find Jewish under the same
category as Blacks, Whites, Asian or Native American because there is a Jewish
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faith not a race of Jews. A common ancestry or biological distinction is what
makes up a race of people and this does not apply to Jews. There have been Jews of
every racial group. The famous African American novelist Walter Mosley and the
famous African American entertainers Sammy Davis, Jr. and Lisa Bonet are
Jewish.52
Some also think of Jews as a nationality but, Jews are not central to
Israel as Judaism can be found all over the world. People of many different
nationalities are Jewish and part of this religious group.53
So, if anyone can be Jewish how does one join?
Many Jews become a part of this religious movement not because of
anything they have done but through birth. If your mother is Jewish then you are
Jewish and this affiliation stays with you all of your life even if you don't follow the
religious practices--you would just be considered a non-religious Jew or secular
Jew.54
Another way to become Jewish is by a conversion process. According to the
website by Rabbi Celso Cukierkorn, "The rituals of conversion will formally mark your
acceptance of your new Jewish identity and your commitment to Judaism. But the
work of creating Jewish memories for yourself, of shaping the Jewish human
being that you will become, is a much more subtle and long-term process."55
The conversion process has been a very important element of Judaism. But,
over the years the different Jewish denominations of Orthodox, Conservative and
Reform have disagreed about the content of the conversion process.56 However, one
adaptation of the various denominations of the 20th century regarding who is a Jew
is that children of Jewish fathers, as well as adopted children, don’t have to be
converted but are accepted as Jews.57
Jewish Immigrants
Now let’s address the immigrant Jews that came to the United States. According to
author Thomas Sowell, "this immigrant generation of Eastern European Jews
flooded into the lower east side of Manhattan at the same time as the massive
influx of Italian immigrants; helping to create one of the most crowded communities
known to the United States. Unlike the German Jews before them, the eastern
European immigrant Jews could not readily spread out across the nation or even
across the city. Their observance of the Saturday Sabbath often
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prevented them from access to certain types of jobs. Factories often operated on
Saturdays, the Sabbath—observed by Orthodox Jews. In addition, their language
differences also made it difficult for them to work or live among other Americans,
as did their need for kosher food and a synagogue."58
The German Jews and Europeans Jews (who arrived later) had many
differences in culture. The German Jews who were more reformed in their
interpretation of the Torah (the Jewish Holy book) allowed them to fit into
mainstream America. However, the European Jews were required to follow the
customs of their ancestors, and did not regard themselves as having the option of
what beliefs to follow.59 The differences between the German Jews culture and
mainstream America which were mainly Christians caused anti-Semitism in the
U.S. to grow at unprecedented proportions in the last quarter of the 19th century
with the mass arrival of these eastern European Jews.60 This anti-Semitism
affected all Jews in America not just the European Jews and a result the German
Jews lost their privilege of social clubs, posh hotels, and other benefits and honors
now denied them because they were Jewish.61
Soon, employment opportunities were closed to the Jews just as was
closed to the Irish, free Blacks and Native Americans.62
Religious discrimination has therefore had its place in American society, so
much so that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title VII prohibits religious
discrimination. But even with religious discrimination being illegal, there are still
many ways in which those who celebrate different holidays and customs are
forced to make a choice between their religion and their job. Still today, many U.S. companies celebrate religious holidays and days off based upon Christianity.
Synagogues, Shuls and Temples
The Jewish religious place of worship is called a synagogue (called this by many
conservative Jews) and it operates as a social center where Jewish prayer takes
place, study and education of Judaism occurs, and where social work and
charitable events happen. However, there are actually different terms utilized for
this Jewish place of worship. Yiddish term of "shul" is what Orthodox and
Chasidim Jews call it because it focuses on the synagogue's role as a place of
study. This term can however, be unfamiliar to some modern Jews.63
Reformed Jews use the word "temple or The Temple," which focuses on
the synagogue's role as a meeting place.64 But, be aware that "temple" can
offend some traditional Jews because according to this group it does not denote
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the full usage of this place of worship.65 Last, Beit k'nesset meaning house of
assembly is the Hebrew term for synagogue. According to the website, Judaism
101, the word "synagogue" is the best bet, because everyone knows what it
means.66
How are Synagogues structured?
There is a board of directors made up of members of the church that run the
synagogue who do not answer to a central authority. While there are central
organizations for the various movements of Judaism, the individual synagogues do
not report to these organizations. The board has the important role of managing the
synagogue's activities as well as hiring the rabbi, which in Hebrew means
"teacher."67
Rabbis can perform weddings but not to ordain the wedding just to make
sure the civil law is followed. A rabbi more importantly provides leadership, guidance
and education to the membership. However, a synagogue can exist without a
rabbi where necessary religious services can be performed by synagogue members.68
When it comes to “ offering” in the Christian religion, w h e r e a collection
plate or offering box takes money that members pay voluntarily in a Synagogue,
members often pay annual dues (not an offering) to finance the synagogues
operation. Members can also purchase reserved seats for services on Rosh Hashanah
and Yom Kippur (two Jewish holidays) or purchase memorial plaques or provide
voluntary donations which go towards the operation of the Synagogue.69
Worship at a Synagogue is also open to anyone. But, if you plan to worship or
study regularly there then it is expected that you should cover your share of the
synagogue's cost. The synagogue plays an important role in lives of Jews as it meets
the educational, social and emotional needs of this religious community.
Jewish Beliefs Bar or Bat Mitzvah
Bar Mitzvah is term utilized most often in Orthodox congregations and Bat Mitzvah in
non-Orthodox congregations.70 Bar and Bat Mitzvah is the coming of age where youth
now become responsible for their actions and for boys this occurs at age 13 and age
12 for girls. Since girls typically mature physically and mentally earlier than boys
their Bar and Bat Mitzvah occurs one year earlier.71
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According to Jewish tradition, puberty which is occurring at this time
means that boys and girls becoming bar and bat mitzvah, must now become
morally aware of their actions and have a better understanding of the world and
the people they want to be as participants in the world. Also, it is understood that
these young people now can channel their energy to do good for others rather
than submit to the natural desire of putting self first.72
Shabbat
The Shabbat is seventh day of the Jewish week and a day of rest in Judaism.
Shabbat is observed from sundown Friday until the appearance of three stars in
the sky on Saturday night. Depending on the time of sunset at the various
locations this exact time could change from week to week.73 Some Jews who
celebrate the Sabbath would not be allowed to work from Sunset till Sundown on
Saturday.
Jewish Calendar, Festivals and Holidays
The Jewish calendar must keep up with the civil year so festivals occur at the
"correct" time therefore the Jewish calendar has 12 months. The Jewish calendar
runs according to the Moon, rather than the Sun, as the civil calendar does. Each
Jewish month has either 29 or 30 days and every Jewish year is about 11 days
shorter than a civil year.74
Jewish festivals are celebrated on fixed dates. In order to do this, the
calendar has leap years, with an extra month of Adar in January-February. The
normal month of Adar (February-March) is then called Adar 2 and there are seven
leap years every 19 years.75 There is a celebration, Rosh Chodesh, for the
beginning of each month.
The Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashanah, is on 1 and 2 Tishrei (September-
October).76 Yom Kippur, which is a 25-hour fast and a very formal festival, is on
10 Tishrei and the first ten days of Tishrei, which includes two festivals are known
as the Ten Days of Penitence.77
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To understand the basic aspects of Jewish beliefs you would need to read the
Torah, which means teaching. The Torah (Jewish holy book) is the written word
that explains how Jews should act, think and feel about life, and it contains over 613
commandments. The Torah is divided into two parts: the Written Torah called the
Tenakh and the Oral Torah, which is the explanation of the written Torah that is
passed down verbally from generation to generation.78 After the destruction of the
Temple in Jerusalem, it was decided the Oral Torah should be written down so it
would not be forgotten. The Mishnah is the written outline of the Oral Torah.79
Whether you are Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, etc. religion is a
personal matter. At th is point, you may be wondering why do I need to
know these detai l s about the various rel ig ions ? So I ask, how do
you respect another person 's rel ig ion in the workplace i f you know
nothing about i t? Religion is often passed down through our family beliefs and
culture which means we typically only know about the religion that we practice. If
you are agnostic, a person who believes that they cannot have true knowledge
about the existence of God (but does not deny that God might exist) or an atheist,
a person who denies the existence of God, then you may know little about religion.
Lack of exposure to another's religion or the various religious beliefs that exist can
create a workplace where religious discrimination occurs simply from lack of
knowledge. Cultural knowledge as it applies to religion is key to allowing religious
freedom in the workplace.
Buddhism More than 300 Million people in the world today are practicing Buddhism. Buddhism
has spread throughout Asia from its homeland in India. It has had a significant
and lasting impact on India, China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Tibet and other Asian
nations.80 Buddhism, however, is not confined solely to Asia. In the past century, it
has won admirers and followers in Europe and the United States. Indeed, a large
majority of people in one of the states of the U.S., Hawaii, are Buddhists.82
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Definition of Buddhism
Buddhism is a path to spiritual discovery. Its founder Siddhartha Gautama, looked
at the human condition, much as a doctor does and he found disease, decay and
death.83 He fully realized that joy and pleasure existed as well, but he recognized
that those qualities did not last. All things in life were transient or temporary. So
even in joy, the awareness of impermanence and death caused suffering.84
Siddhartha Gautama left his parents, lovely wife, and a child in Kapila
Palace at the age of 29.85 He denounced the luxurious life of the kingdom and
became a monk with a homeless life. After six years of practice, he attained
Enlightenment under a Bodhi tree, and then He became the Sakyamuni Buddha;
he is the only historical Buddha, The Buddha that revealed the truth.86
Because of his Indian background, Siddhartha did not believe that death
was a final release from suffering.87 For in Indian religious tradition, the cycle of
birth, death and rebirth goes on endlessly.88 To solve and understand this problem
of suffering, Siddhartha practiced severe self-denial and meditation. Once he
gained “the answer or insight” he became known as the Buddha. This title means
“the enlightened” or “the awakened.”89
This truth is said to have both universality and adequacy. Buddhist believe
that the Buddha's teachings that were revealed 2,000 years ago still apply to
current daily life or the teachings would not be true.90 If the Buddha's teachings
that can be applied in only one location were not adequate in other locations, the
teachings would not be true, either; because the Buddha Dharma is universal and
adequate, Buddhists have respected the teachings.91
Since the truth is universal and adequate, Buddhist believe that the truth
that the Sakyamuni Buddha has revealed must have existed even before His
Enlightenment, just as gravity must have existed before Newton discovered it.92
Buddhists believe that if the truth existed for millions, billions, trillions, or an
infinite number of years ago, then many different Buddhas must have taught the
truth in the past. A scripture of the religion says there were seven past Buddhas;
Amida Buddha of the Nembutsu Sect is one of them; Dainichi Buddha of the
Shingon Sect is also one of the seven past Buddhas; Amida Buddha lives in the far
west, and Dainichi Buddha lives throughout the universe; only Sakyamuni Buddha
lives in this world, where we live.93
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In Buddhism, the eternal past and future is imagined because there is no
beginning and no end in time.94 Since the Buddha Dharma is universal and adequate,
a Buddha shall teach the same truth in the future and that Buddha is in the Tushita
Heaven now as he is only Buddha in the future so far.95 But there should be
more Buddhas because time is limitless. The future Buddha is practicing Buddha's
teachings in heaven now. He is not a Buddha yet, therefore he is called Bodhisattva
Maitreya.96 In a broad sense all that believe are Bodhisattvas because everyone
seeks Enlightenment and has the desire to try to help others. Therefore everyone is
a candidate to be a Buddha.
Like Christ and Muhammad, the founders of Christianity and Islam, the
Buddha never wrote down his teachings. His disciples memorized his words, and
their followers carried on the oral tradition. The first comprehensive written record of
the Buddha’s doctrine was not compiled until 500 years after his death.97
Buddhist Practices The practice of Buddhism does not, strictly speaking, require a temple (place of
worship) or the intercession of a monk. Anyone can follow the teachings of Buddhism
in his or her daily life. The temples provide a refuge for those who wish to devote
themselves more deeply to the teachings of the Buddha.98 Members of the Sangha
(an organized assembly of Buddhist monks), however, are frequently called on to
participate in ceremonies marking important events in people’s lives— birth,
marriage, and death.99
It should be noted though that Buddhist customs vary from country to country.
The study of Buddhism and its different forms are as follows:
East Asian Buddhism - by Country Chinese
Korean Japanese
East Asian - by Type Nichiren
Pure Land Shingon Tendai Zen
South and Southeast Asian Theravada
Vietnamese
Tibet and the Himalayas Tibetan
Buddhist Schools of Thought Madhyamaka
Yogâcâra
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Buddhist Religious Observances
Buddhists are not required to attend regular services at a temple, as Christians
attend church on various days of the week or Jews go to the synagogue on
Saturday. Nor do Buddhists have specified daily times of prayer as Muslims.
However, in Theravada Buddhism (one type of Buddhism), devout laypeople may
observe a “Sabbath” called the Uposatha. This falls on the 1st, 8th, 15th, and 23rd
days of the lunar month.100
The faithful bring offerings to the temple on these days. Some may
observe the day by remaining in seclusion to meditate, and use the temple for
this purpose. Others may listen to religious sermons. On these days, the monks at
the temple usually organize special rites that can include music, processions, and
even fireworks displays.101
During the monsoon season that comes at differing times from June to
October in Southeast Asia, Buddhists observe a time of penitence that is the
equivalent of Christian Lent (the period preceding Easter that in the Christian
Church is devoted to some type of fasting).102 During the approximately three-
month season, monks observe stricter religious duties. Lay people increase their
donations to the Sangha, an organized assembly of Buddhist monks. They
accumulate merit by meditating and listening to sutras which are scripture
containing the teachings of Buddha.
This tradition may be the oldest one of the religion. For it dates from the
time when Buddha himself, along with his disciples, wandered through
northeastern India preaching the Dharma (the ultimate law or doctrine taught by
Buddha.) The rainy season, which in the nations of Southeast Asia is severe,
required that the Buddha and his followers seek a place of refuge while it
lasted.103
The monsoon season is also the time for another important religious
observance, called the vassa, or rain-retreat. This is the time when young people
may choose to enter the Sangha, also in most Buddhist countries it is also
common for adult males to enter the Sangha temporarily at this time to
accumulate merit for themselves.104
Buddhism and God
When Buddhists use the word God, the word has nothing in common with God—
the Creator of the Christian, Jewish or Islamic faith.105 Buddhist do not
believe that gods are supernatural but instead Buddhists believe that the
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supreme law of cause and effect governs all.103 The existence of this absolute and
ultimate law is proven over and over again with every new discovery of
science. But, since everything that occurs in life cannot be explained through
science, it is these unexplainable forces that Buddhists refer to as “gods.”
Buddhist gods do not hold a controlling position like that of the monotheistic
all powering God.106 On the contrary, Buddhist gods come out of life itself. They do
not punish and they do not give deliverance. They respond to the sound of the
ultimate law of the universe, Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo.107 These “gods” are at the
service of everyone who embraces the Gohonzon and its practices. This is a
mandala, a symbolic representation of the ideal state of Buddhahood, or
enlightenment, in which all the tendencies and impulses of life--from the most
debased to the most noble--function in harmony toward happiness and creativity.
The Gohonzon is not an "idol" or "god" to be supplicated or appeased but a means
for reflection and a catalyst for inner change.108
Buddhism and Prayer "Buddhist prayer may be thought of as a focused expression of the same sentiments
of yearning, commitment and appreciation as of other religions. It is, however,
distinguished by the fact that Buddhism locates the divine within the life of the
individual practitioner. The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to awaken the innate inner capacities of strength, courage and wisdom rather than to petition external forces."109
Buddhist prayer is essentially the process by which a person’s intensely
felt desires and sufferings are transformed into compassion and wisdom. In this
sense, it inevitably involves self-reflection, including a sometimes-painful
confrontation with the person’s own deeply rooted destructive tendencies. To
quote Nichiren Daishonin, "Your practice of the Buddhist teachings will not relieve
you of the sufferings of birth and death in the least, unless you perceive the true
nature of your life." (The Major Writings of Nichiren Daishonin, "On Attaining
Buddhahood in this Lifetime," page 3.)110
Buddhism: Dharma and Reincarnation
Dharma is the principle of righteousness. It is the principle of holiness. It is also
the principle of unity whereby followers learn to be selfless by thinking of others
first, being respectful of parents and elders, following divine law, and creating
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mental, emotional and physical non-injury to all beings.
Rebirth or reincarnation as it is often called is the doctrine that indicates
when a person dies the new person could come back as identical to or totally
different from the old person. Reincarnation is one of the central tenets of Tibetan
Buddhism. Reincarnation is often misunderstood as Buddhism does not teach that
the soul is reincarnated but that the energy produced by the mental and physical
activities of a being that has died creates a new mental and physical energy.111
However, in Tibet as elsewhere, mainly of "the elite" understood the
views of the philosophers to mean the following as it relates to rebirth: "all
aggregates are impermanent; no 'ego' exists in the person, nor in anything,"
remain attached to the more simple belief in an undefined entity traveling from
world to world, assuming various forms.112
Hinduism
Hinduism is India's indigenous religious and cultural system, followed today by
nearly one billion adherents, mostly in India, but with large populations in many
other countries. Hinduism is referred to as Sanatana Dharma, "eternal religion,"
and Vaidika Dharma, "religion of the Vedas."113 Hinduism encompasses a
broad spectrum of philosophies ranging from pluralistic theism to absolute
monism. It is a family of myriad faiths with four primary denominations: Saivism,
Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism.114 These four share the same culture and
belief in karma, dharma, reincarnation, temple worship etc. even though they
each have such very different views that they could be considered their own
religion.115
This type of separatism allowed new religious traditions to form and among
these were Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. These religions while similar in
cultural values still operate under different prisms.
Just like Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, Hinduism has no central
headquarters. Hinduism is basically a 5000-year-old faith. It has had many
founders in the past and various teaching lineages headed by a pontiff (a title
given to a religious leader). Hinduism's nearly three million swamis, gurus and
sadhus work tirelessly within and upon themselves and then, when ready,
serve others, leading them from darkness into light, from death to immortality.116
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Unlike some other religions where you are born into them or accepted unto
them (by being saved or accepting the faith) that does not necessarily apply to
Hinduism. Hinduism is more than just a "religion" it is a way of life, a culture, both
religious and secular.117 Hindus don't see religion as one component or a separate
system in their life, instead it encompasses all of life. Hindus can have this view
because Hinduism in its practice accepts all forms of beliefs. There is not just one
way of practicing this religion and lifestyle. Those who choose to live according to
the basic beliefs and values are then Hindus.
Sri K. Navaratnam of Sri Lanka, devotee of Paramaguru Siva Yogaswami for
some 40 years, in his book Studies in Hinduism quotes from the book, Introduction
to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines, "Hindus are those who adhere to the Hindu
tradition, on the understanding that they are duly qualified to do so really
effectively, and not simply in an exterior and illusory way; non-Hindus, on the
contrary, are those who, for any reason whatsoever, do not participate in the
tradition in question."118 Sri K. Navaratnam enumerates a set of basic beliefs held by
Hindus119:
1. A belief in the existence of God.
2. A belief in the existence of a soul separate from the body.
3. A belief in the existence of the finitizing principle known as avidya or maya.
4. A belief in the principle of matter--prakriti or maya. A belief in the theory of
karma and reincarnation.
5. A belief in the indispensable guidance of a guru to guide the spiritual
aspirant towards God Realization.
6. A belief in moksha, or liberation, as the goal of human existence.
7. A belief in the indispensable necessity of temple worship...in religious life.
8. A belief in graded forms of religious practices, both internal and external,
until one realizes God.
9. A belief in ahimsa as the greatest dharma or virtue.
10. A belief in mental and physical purity as indispensable factors for spiritual
progress.
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Virtuous living, dharma: Living a life of duty and good conduct by being selfless
and thinking of others first. It is being also respectful of parents, elders and
swamis, following divine law, especially ahimsa, mental, emotional and physical
non-injury to all beings. Thus they resolve karmas.
Pilgrimage, tirthayatra: At least once a year worldly and secular activities are set
aside for time with God at temples or locations near or far.
Rites of passage, samskara: Observance and celebration of the rites of birth,
name-giving, head-shaving, first feeding, ear-piercing, first learning, coming of
age, marriage and death.
Wicca
Wicca is one of about 17 unrelated activities with more than 500,000 followers,
which has been called Witchcraft.121 Religious conservatives often link Witchcraft
to Satanism, which relates Satan worship and Satanic Ritual Abuse. The problem
here is that the single word "Witchcraft" has so many unrelated meanings. But, if
you have never heard of Wicca you be asking is Wicca a religion?
According to the Civil rights Act of 1964, Title VII requires employers to
accommodate only those religious beliefs that are “sincerely held.”122 If Wicca is
not considered a bona fide religion, then it has no legal protection. Some say yes
it is a bona fide religion and others say no. However, through a Michigan court
case it was determined that Wicca was indeed a religion in this States
consideration. The case was brought in 1983 in the U.S. District Court in Michigan
and it was found that three employees of a prison had restricted an inmate in the
performance of his Wiccan rituals. The court found that this "deprived him of his
First Amendment right to freely exercise his religion and his Fourteenth
Amendment right to equal protection of the laws."123
Wicca is seen as a controversial religion to some based, in part, on ancient,
northern European Pagan beliefs in a fertility Goddess and her consort, a horned
God.124 Although the religion is a modern creation, some of its sources pre-date
the Christian era by many centuries. Most Wiccans do not believe that their
religion is a direct, continuous descendent of this earlier religion. They see it as a
modern reconstruction.125
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Author Joanna Hautin-Mayer in When is a Celt not a Celt? who takes a
peek into the Neopagan views of history, has written:
"We know tragically little about the actual religious expressions of the ancient Celts.
We have a few myths and legends, but very little archeological evidence to support
our theories. We have no written records of their actual forms of worship, and the
accounts of their culture and beliefs written by their contemporaries are often
highly biased and of questionable historical worth."126
The above is part of the reason that Wicca is seen as a recently created
Neopagan religion. The various branches of Wicca can be traced back to Gardnerian
Witchcraft, which was founded in the United Kingdom during the late 1940s.127
Wicca is based on the symbols, seasonal days of celebration, beliefs and deities of
ancient Celtic society though. Added to this material were Masonic and ceremonial
magical components from recent centuries. In this respect, it is a religion whose
roots go back almost three millennia to the formation of Celtic society circa 800
BCE.128
A follower of Wicca is called a Wiccan. In the U.S., Canada and Europe and
especially among the teen population, Wicca and Neopagan types of religions are
experiencing continued growth. Since Wicca does not encourage autocracy,
paternalism, sexism, homophobia, nor is it a religion that promotes insensitivity to
the environment it is popular among the young who are more sensitive to these
issues.129 Many North Americans of European decent, who are keen to discover
their ancestral heritage, are also being attracted to this religion.
Wiccans generally consider themselves to be Witches, Neopagans, and
Pagans. However, not all Witches, Neopagans and Pagans are Wiccans. The terms
Witch, Neopagan and Pagan can also refer to followers of many other faith
traditions. Because of religious propaganda dating from the late Middle Ages,
Wicca has often been incorrectly associated with Satanism.
Among those who research religion, it appears that Wicca became a religious
movement in the 1950s in England. Wicca is currently one of the largest of the
minority religions in the United States with estimates of membership at
750,000.130 This estimate makes Wicca about the 5th largest organized religion in the
United States, behind Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism.
Because of the controversy or myths surrounding this religion many Wiccans
hide their religious beliefs and practices. Those who allow their faith to be known
publicly are often heavily persecuted in North America.131 Many physical assaults,
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arson, and economic attacks are reported yearly. There have even been
shootings, one public mass stoning and a lynching in recent years.132
Some people believe that if others knew of the connection of this religion
to Christianity that it would be better accepted. The first missionary to the Celts
may have been St. Paul as he sought converts to Christianity in the Pagan Celtic
land of Galatia (now part of Turkey) as recorded in his Epistle to the Galatians of
the Christian Scriptures (New Testament).133 Later Missionaries and the Roman
army gradually spread Christianity across Europe, easily converting the rulers and
the Druidic priesthood, but having less success in bringing the common folk to the
new religion.
A religious day celebrated by Wiccans is the day of Halloween. The
Halloween season of OCT-31 to NOV-2 each year is unique. It includes a
Neopagan Sabbat, Samhain, which is usually celebrated on or near the evening
of October 31.134 It was originally a celebration of the final harvest of the growing
season among the ancient Celts. According to research, the Celts believed that
during this time of the year friends and relatives who were deceased would come
back with souls resembling an animal--likely a black cat. This i s where the
symbol of the black cat became associated with Halloween.135
Also during the Samhain which was a fire festival where bonfires were lit
on hills in honor of the Gods, Celts would go door to door to gather food that they
would offer to their Gods.136 Thus, possibly creating the Halloween tradition of
going "trick or treating."
Once the fires were put out at the fire festival the Celts would often feel
afraid to walk in the dark due to any looming evil spirits. So instead they would
try to scare the evil spirits themselves by dressing up in costumes.137 The embers
they held at the fires would also have carvings in them to scare the evil spirits.
Children continue to dress up today in various costumes and pumpkins get carved
instead of embers. These Halloween traditions are followed by many (not just
Wiccans) who allow their children to trick or treat and participate in Halloween
festivities.
Wiccan Beliefs
According to Wicca Philosophy the Universe is created and maintained by the
balance of the Divine Feminine and Divine Masculine principles...
o Yin and Yang,
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o Sacred Dark and Divine Light,
o receptivity and activity,
o matter and energy,
o union and individuation . . . .
In other words, many Wiccans perceive the Universe in terms of a balanced duality
... qualities that move into the world, and qualities that are outside of manifestation.
These qualities are often manifested as gender -- and not only in Wicca -- but are
themselves entirely independent of physical form. It is convenient to call one of
these qualities "God/male" and one "Goddess/female."
Not because Wiccans believe they are male and female but because in society we're
designed -- and trained -- to think in terms of gender.
Despite the issue of gender, Wiccans celebrate the sexual polarity in nature, and
view the female as equal to the male. Some even view the female as superior in
some respects, but in general male/female balance is an important concept in
Wiccan belief.
Wicca represents an ancient religion of love for life and nature. Wicca is an
irrepressible religion because it stimulates the intellect, promotes a simple, practical
way of life and, most importantly, is emotionally satisfying according to its followers.
The main tenet of Wicca is the "Wiccan Rede" which states "And it harm none, do as
ye will" and the Wicca law states that:
"All good that a person does to another returns three fold in this life; harm is also
returned three fold."138
It is this main belief that prevents Wiccans from doing harm to themselves or to
others, or attempting to manipulate others, or taking harmful drugs, etc. Thus,
many activities that have been attributed to Wiccans, from the laying of curses to
conducting love spells, are strictly forbidden to them.
The following are other general beliefs of most Wiccans139:
Everyone has the divine (or goddess) within. A creative force exists in the universe, called "The One" or "The All."
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The Goddess and the God represent the female and male aspects of the
All. Divine forces or nature spirits are invoked in rituals.
The Goddess, as either a symbol or a real entity, is the focus of worship.
Nature and the earth are sacred manifestations of the Goddess.
Everyone has his or her own spiritual path to follow.
Rituals and celebrations are linked to the seasons and moon phases.
One should develop natural gifts for divination or occult magic (often
spelled 'magick' by occultists.)
Meditation, visualization, invocation (calling on forces or gods/goddesses),
chanting, burning candles and special rituals trigger a sense of the
mystical, thus reinforcing the core belief system.
Wicca is also a religion of the natural grounded in the earth where it is
believed that all living things like planets, humans, animals, plants, rocks and
even stars have a spirit.140 Sexuality is valued, and regarded as a gift of the
Goddess and God, to be engaged in with joy and responsibility, and without
manipulation.
Why learn about various religions?
After reading about all the religions in this chapter, no one would expect you to be
an expert on these different religions or all the other religions that exist. However,
what is important to know is that while there are many similarities amongst
religions there are also differences that make each religion unique. These
differences subsist of how many times the religious must pray, if at all; to the day
of worship they observe, if at all; to whether they tithe (pay a percentage of
their earnings), fast, take up an offering or pay a fee. Since the Civil Rights Act
of 1964 protects against discrimination based upon religion as well as requires
accommodation of certain religious beliefs—it is important to be familiar with
especially the largest religions in the United States. If you know very little about
the various religions, how do you, as a manager, protect a person’s rights or
provide religious accommodation as required by law?
Religious Accommodation
It is up to the employer to determine when and if a religious accommodation is
necessary as the employer cannot arbitrarily make the decision to "not"
accommodate an employee. The first step is to determine if it is a sincerely
held religious belief.
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So, what is a sincerely held religious belief?
A belief required of a recognized religious organization or
Religious practices not just of an organized or recognized religion but, is not a
political, cultural or heritage belief. It must be based upon a religious practice.
It is also not the person's preference but what is required by the religion.
How should the request be made by the employee?
The employee must clearly explain why an accommodation is needed indicating what
religious belief would be broken or not adhered to. The following are some causes for
a religious accommodation141:
An employee needs their weekly Sabbath day off for religious observance.
The Sabbath day is a holy day and there is no working on this day.
An employee may need a particular day off each year for a religious holiday. An employee may be required to attend a religious pilgrimage and they have
no vacation time.
An employee may need to wear religious dress or maintain a certain physical appearance (not cutting facial hair) as a requirement of their religion.
An employee may need to have a place to pray because a number of daily
prayers are required and this will occur during work time.
Now once the sincerely held belief has been requested and established then there
are a number of things that can be done to accommodate. For an employee who
needs time off or can't work on Saturdays due to the Sabbath they can take an
unpaid day, swap shifts or days with an employee, switch an off day or have flexible
scheduling (work Sunday instead of Saturday or work Christmas instead of their
religious holiday) and they could even be allowed to just work Monday through
Thursday for those who have to observe a Friday-night Sabbath.142
You could also allow for voluntary assignment substitutions, lateral transfers
to other departments or positions in the company, use of lunch or breaks in
exchange for early departure or prayer time.
After reading the above, you may now be thinking: do I have to provide the
accommodation to the employees' specific request?
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No. The employer can accommodate but not necessarily to the specific
"desires" of the employee. For instance in the case of the employee who can’t cut
his facial hair, the employer could indicate that according to safety standards a
beard must be a certain length and covered thereby allowing the beard but with
specific requirements. In another instance, let's say the employer has a test
scheduled for a Sabbath day but the employee would like to take it instead on the
following Monday. If the same test or training is being given at another location
on another day other than the Sabbath but not on the Monday the employee may
be required to take it elsewhere--say on the following Wednesday not Monday. In
addition, the employee may be required to use personal time to take the test or
training.143
Now, your next thought could be: how does an employer allow for such things
when there is a union mandated seniority system for job assignments etc. Do I
have to accommodate every sincerely held belief?
No. If the employer can prove that by allowing the belief to be
accommodated it creates an undue hardship then the employer does not have to
accommodate. But, what constitutes an undue hardship?
This answer is not so "cut or dry" as there is not a concrete definition of
undue hardship, but it was determined by the United States Supreme Court that a
company does not have to incur more than "minimal" costs to accommodate an
employees' religious belief.144 For example, if time off is needed to participate in a
religious holiday this does not have to be paid time off--the United States
Supreme Court indicated that a reasonable accommodation is nonpaid leave for a
religious observance unless all other leaves in the company are paid.145 This would
mean the only unpaid leave was for religious observance, then this would not be
fair. Other issues that can indicate undue hardship is seniority violation based
upon union contracts as well as paying extra or overtime pay to accommodate.
Now, what if someone makes up a religion where they indicate that this religion
does not allow them to work when it's raining outside?
The employer can deny the accommodation if it is not a sincerely held
belief.146 However, the worst mistake you can make as an employer is to assume
that i t is not a bona fide religion or sincerely held belief. Instead it is
important (when unknown) to research the religion or belief. Some religions have
beliefs unlike your own, making them seem fictitious--but just because you think
they are fictitious does not mean that they are. Always do your homework
before saying no. Talk with your company's human resource department or
lawyer to make sure you are doing everything possible to try to accommodate the
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employee--don't just say no.
Concluding Thoughts
Based upon the religious diversity in the U.S. it is critical for managers and
employees alike to understand the religious differences of others so that they can
work effectively, respect others beliefs and help to de-escalate potentially explosive
situations that can occur from lack of understanding.
There are many different religious practices of the diverse communities that
are represented in the workplace. There may be specific prayer times of
Muslims; Sikhs may be required to wear five holy items (including a small dagger);
and some Hindus cannot shake the hands of strangers, particularly members of the
opposite sex. While it is not possible to know all of the religious customs of various
groups, it is possible to be open-minded so as to respect religious difference.
End of Chapter Questions
1. What are some basic beliefs of Christians, Muslims and Jews?
2. What are three things that are common amongst Christians, Muslims and Jews?
3. What are two significant holidays of each of the following religions: a. Christianity
b. Islam
c. Judaism
4. How does the Buddhist view of God differ from some other religions?
5. What is dharma and karma as practiced by Buddhist or Hindus?
6. What practices of Wiccans and Hindus might require a religious accommodation?
7. What are ways of showing cultural sensitivity to Muslims during Ramadan and Jews during Shabbat?
8. What is an agnostic or atheist?
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9. What are four examples of religious accommodation that can be made for an employee?
Internet Exercise
So that you do not have to self-identify what religion you practice, pick a religion
other than the one discussed in the text or one that you practice (if any). Find
information on this chosen religion using the Internet or the library searching world
religions. Summarize the key beliefs about the religion and how it is similar or
dissimilar to other religions that you have read about.
The religion I am researching is
End of Chapter Exercise
Do I Accommodate?
Case One:
I am a truck driver and have been on "light duty" for the past several weeks. Last week
my supervisor told me to take one of the office girls to the bank to make a company
deposit. The other employees made crude remarks about her and me. I then refused to
take her. I explained to my supervisor that I felt it would be inappropriate for me
(being married) to take her because of my religious beliefs. After yelling and swearing
at me in front of the other employees he told me to go home without the overtime pay.
Then he told another employee (with less seniority) to take her, which he did.
Was I wrong to say no? Was he wrong to send me home?
Case Two:
Mary Tiano sued her employer Dillard Department Stores for failure to make reasonable
accommodation of her religious beliefs. Tiano was a top sales person for many years
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work 282
and a devout Roman Catholic. In late August of 1988, she learned of a pilgrimage to
Medjugorje, Yugoslavia taking place between October 17 and October 26. Several
people have claimed that visions of the Virgin Mary appeared to them in Medjugorje,
although the Catholic Church has not designated Medjugorje an official pilgrimage site
of the Church. Tiano testified that on August 22, 1988, she had a "calling from
God" to attend this pilgrimage. Tiano requested an unpaid leave of absence to attend.
Dillard's vacation policy prohibited employees from taking leave between October and
December, the store’s busy holiday season. As a result, Tiano's request was denied.
She went anyway, and when she returned to work she was informed that she had
voluntarily resigned and would not be offered reemployment. Was Dillard’s correct?
What rights did Tiano have?
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17. Ibid.
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33. Ibid.
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41. Ibid.
42. Khalifa, R. (2000). Quran, Hadith, And Islam. New York State: University Unity.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Khalifa, R. (2000). Quran, Hadith, And Islam. New York State: University Unity.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Numan, F. (1992). American Muslim History. Retrieved from: http://www.islam101.com/selections/muslim_us_hist.html
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53. Ibid.
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54. Cukierkorn, R. C. (n.d.). Conversion to Judaism. Retrieved from: http://www.convertingtojudaism.com/Choosing-Judaism.htm
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Sowell, T. (1983). Ethnic America: A History. New York, NY: Basic Books.
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60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Rich, T. R. (n.d.). Judaism 101. Retrieved from: http://www.jewfaq.org/shul.htm
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. Steinberg, Rabbi M.. (1975). Basic Judaism. Florida: HBJ Publishing.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. Smith, J. Z. (1995). The HarperCollins dictionary of religion. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.
71. Ibid.
72. Smart, N. (1999). Atlas of the World's Religions. USA: Oxford University Press.
73. Ibid.
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74. Sharma, M. S. (2001). Encyclopaedic dictionary of religion and ethics. New Delhi: Mohit Publications.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. Smart, N. (1999). Atlas of the World's Religions. USA: Oxford University Press.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid.
80. Sharma, M. S. (2001). Encyclopaedic dictionary of religion and ethics. New Delhi: Mohit Publications.
81. Ibid.
82. Fischer-Schreiber, I. (1989). The encyclopedia of Eastern philosophy and religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen / Buddhism & Taoism. Boston: Shambhala.
83. Ibid.
84. Dhammanada, K. Sri. (n.d.). What Buddhists Believe. Retrieved from: http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf
85. Ibid.
86. Fischer-Schreiber, I. (1989). The encyclopedia of Eastern philosophy and religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen / Buddhism & Taoism. Boston: Shambhala.
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid.
89. Prebish, C. S. (1999). Luminous Passage: The Practice and Study of Buddhism in America. California: University of California Press.
90. Ibid.
71. Ibid.
72. The different forms of Buddhism. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.findingdulcinea.com/guides/Religion-and-Spirituality/Buddhism.pg_00.html
73. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work 288
74. Ibid.
75. Hagen, S. (1998). Buddhism: Plain and Simple. New York: Broadway Publishing.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Gyatso, G. K. (1992). Introduction to Buddhism. New York: Tharpa Publications.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Soka Gakkai International. (2001). Retrieved from: http://www.sgi.org/prayer.html
82. Daishonin, N. (n.d.). On Attaining Buddhahood in this Lifetime. Retrieved from: http://www.sgilibrary.org/view.php?page=3
83. Rebirth (Buddhism). Retrieved from: http://www.Rebirth_(Buddhism)
84. Ibid.
85. Smart, N. (1999). Atlas of the World's Religions. USA: Oxford University Press.
86. Subramuniyaswami, S. S. (2000). How to Become a (Better)Hindu. India:
Himalayan Academy.
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid.
89. How to become a Hindu. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/pamphlets/BecomeHindu.html
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid.
92. Subramuniyaswami, S. S. (2000). How to Become a (Better)Hindu. India:
Himalayan Academy.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work 289
93. List of Jews in the African diaspora. Retrieved from: http://wiki/List_of_Jews_in_the_African_diaspora 94. Ibid.
95. Smith, J. Z. (1995). The HarperCollins dictionary of religion. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.
96. Ibid.
97. Ibid.
98. Ibid.
99. Sanders, J. A. (2005). Torah and Canon. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books.
100. Ibid.
101. Lewis, J. R. (1998). The encyclopedia of cults, sects, and new religions. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
102. EEOC Compliance Manual. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/religion.html#_ftn35
103. Robinson, B.A. (n.d.). Is Wicca a Religion. Retrieved from: http://www.religioustolerance.org/wic_rel.htm
104. Basic Wicca. (1999). Retrieved from: http://www.journey1.org/basicj2.htm
105. Ibid.
106. Joanna Hautin-Mayer, J. (n.d.). When is a Celt not a Celt. Retrieved from: http://www.cyberwitch.com/wychwood/library/WhenIsACeltNotACelt.htm
107. Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/ne/Neopaganism
108. Ibid.
109. Robinson, B.A. (n.d.). Teens and Wiccan. Retrieved from: http://www.jesus-is- savior.com/False%20Religions/Wicca%20&%20Witchcraft/teens_and_wicca.htm
110. Retrieved from: http://www.wiqued.com/Wicca.htm
111. King, E. (n.d.). Wicca/Paganism. Retrieved from: http://www.masonicinfo.com/wicca.htm
112. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Nine: Understanding Religious Freedom & Work 290
113. Lewis, J. R. (1998). The encyclopedia of cults, sects, and new religions. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
114. A & E Television Networks. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.history.com/content/halloween/real-story-of-halloween
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid.
118. Lewis, J. R. (1998). The encyclopedia of cults, sects, and new religions. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. Anti Defamation League. (n.d.). Religious Accommodation. Retrieved from: http://www.adl.org/religious_freedom/resource_kit/religion_workplace.asp
122. Ibid.
123. Ibid.
124. Ibid.
125. Ibid
126. Ibid.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 291
Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled
“I do not have a disability, I have a gift!
Others may see it as a disability, but I see it as a challenge. This challenge is a gift
because I have to become stronger to get around it, and smarter to figure out how to
use it; others should be so lucky.”
Shane E. Bryan
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 292
UNDERSTANDING THE DISABLED
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
understand what a disability is.
explain the myths regarding individuals with
disabilities.
identify what the ADA says about mental
impairment.
describe the cultural differences between
various impairments.
Learn what types of reasonable
accommodations should be provided for
individuals with disabilities.
provide tools and tips for addressing numerous disabilities including cancer and HIV.
Chapter Ten
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 293
In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that “separate” was not “equal” in the
education of African American children. However, it took twenty more years to do
the same for children with disabilities. In 1975, the Free Education for All
Handicapped Children Act was enacted. It stated that children with disabilities
must be taught in “the least restrictive environment possible.”1 Previously these
children could only be taught at home or in restrictive separate environments.
But, of course laws don’t change people’s mindsets right away. In 1990,
many children were still being regulated to special “resource rooms” rather than
being integrated into regular classrooms. Should having a disability restrict you
from the same opportunities as others?
What is a disability?
The most frequently applied framework of disability comes from Nagi (1969). Nagi
concept of disability is that it is the difficulty associated with performing socially
expected activities such as work for pay, and this definition explicitly recognizes
the interaction of the environment and pathologies/impairments to cause
disabilities.2 The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) rests upon the Nagi
framework and recognizes that improvements in the environment (access to
public transportation, workplace accommodations, etc.) can reduce disadvantages
associated with disability and thus improve the inclusion of all people.
First of all, a disability is a condition of impairment, physical or mental,
having an objective aspect that can usually be described by a physician. This
physical or mental condition limits a person’s activities or functioning.3 Although
all people with physical disabilities are not handicapped, there is a tendency for
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 294
others to think of them as being handicapped. Disabilities are really just deficiencies
but some individuals look down on people who have them.
In addition, a disability is not an interchangeable term for handicap. The
term handicapped should only be used when legally specifying life processes or
social activities ADVERSELY affect a person’s functioning.4 A handicap is the
cumulative result of obstacles, which a disability interposes between the individual
and his/her maximum function level. Also, an individual can be handicapped in
certain aspects of functioning and, at the same time, be fully functional in many
others. Therefore a person may have a handicap, but is not himself or herself
“handicapped.” Therefore, we do not use the term handicapped to refer to individuals
with disabilities.
But, even with this change in terminology, there are still common myths
associated with individuals that have disabilities as described below.
COMMON MYTHS
Myth: Workers with disabilities are not able to perform their jobs.
Fact: When a person applies for a job they should meet the requirements in
order to do the job, so if someone who has a disability is hired then they must
possess the necessary skills to accomplish the job with or without a reasonable
accommodation. A Dupont Corporation study showed that 92 percent of their
workers with disabilities were rated average or above average, compared with the 91
percent for the workers who did not have disabilities.5
While there are a number of studies that document the credibility of
employees with disabilities, none are more extensive than the longitudinal studies
done by the E.I. DuPont Company. The DuPont Company did its original study in
1973 and then followed with another in 1981. The 1981 study ("Equal to the Task")
covered 2,745 employees w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s working for the company that
year. In four categories (Safety, Performance of Job Duties, Attendance, and Job
Stability/Turnover), employees with disabilities equaled or outdid their non-impaired
co- workers.6
Furthermore, Robert B. Reich, a U.S. Secretary of Labor, has encouraged
management and labor to make the necessary adjustments to train and retrain
the most highly motivated people in our country; such adjustments Reich believes
would include hiring one of the best-educated and most highly trained minority
groups in the United States, persons with disabilities.7
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Myth: Workers with disabilities are absent from their jobs a lot due to their
problems.
Fact: Employees with disabilities are very much aware of the difficulty of finding
work and they often work hard to maintain a good record. ITT discovered that the
workers with disabilities in their Corinth plant had fewer absences than their co-
workers without disabilities, and many other employers site the same outcome.8
Myth: Companies will have to spend a fortune to accommodate disabled workers
with disabilities.
Fact: The expenditures that most companies would have to make to
accommodate workers with disabilities are minimal in comparison to their annual
profits. Many smaller companies could receive assistance through the
government.9
Myth: An on the job accident that, when added to a worker’s prior disability,
results in permanent total disability will make the company liable for permanent
total liability.
Fact: The second injury fund that all states have assumes responsibility of
compensation to people with physical disabilities that become totally disabled
through industrial accidents allocating to the employer’s expense only the single
injury sustained at their company.10
The above facts prove that employing individuals with disabilities causes
no “real” hardship to the companies that employ them. Rather these workers often become valuable employees due to their work ethics. Even still, this group
has an unemployment rate three times larger than the unemployment rate of non- institutionalized civilians aged 18-64 who do not report a work limiting health
problem or disability.11
Despite this outrageous unemployment rate, the following laws have
caused gains to be made that improve the quality of life for people with
disabilities:
In 1956, Disability Insurance became a part of the Social Security Act.
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The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 stated that no otherwise qualified individual with a
handicap shall solely by reason of his handicap be excluded from participation in
any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. It also
established the following: Interagency Committee on Handicapped Employees
which annually reviews the adequacy of federal hiring, placement and job
advancement of persons with disabilities; Architectural and Transportation
Barriers Compliance Board which monitors the construction of new federal
buildings and remodeling of old federal buildings to ensure accessibility for
those with physical disabilities; Affirmative Action Requirement (recruiting,
hiring, rates of pay, apprenticeship, etc.) for those companies doing business
with the federal government for more than $2,500.12
The 1990 American with Disabilities Act (ADA) eliminated discrimination against
individuals with disabilities. It permits reasonable accommodation to be made for
those with disabilities. It is important to note that in this act they no longer used
the term “handicapped worker” but replaced it with individuals with a disability.
Title II of this act provides public services for any qualified individual with a
disability; Title III includes public accommodations and services operated by
private entities whereas Title IV includes telecommunications. The ADA makes it
unlawful to discriminate in all employment practices such as14:
recruitment
pay
hiring
firing
promotion
job assignments
training
leave
lay-off
benefits
all other employment related activities.
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it prohibits an employer from retaliating against an applicant or employee for asserting his rights under the ADA. The Act also makes it unlawful to
discriminate against an applicant or employee, whether disabled or not,
because of the individual's family, business, social or other relationship or
association with an individual with a disability.
Reasonable Accommodation
The term reasonable accommodation is defined by Title 29 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, Part 163014:
(1) Modifications or adjustments to a job application process that enable a
qualified applicant with a disability to be considered for the position such qualified
applicant desires; or
(2) modifications or adjustments to the work environment, or to the manner or
circumstances under which the position held or desired is customarily performed,
that enable a qualified individual with a disability to perform the essential
functions of that position; or
(3) modifications or adjustments that enable an employee with a disability to
enjoy equal benefits and privileges of employment as are enjoyed by its other
similarly situated employees without disabilities.
Reasonable accommodation may include but is not limited to: (1) Making existing
facilities used by employees ready accessible; and (2) job restructuring.
Reasonable accommodation may also include but is not limited to, making
existing facilities used by employees readily accessible to and usable by persons
with disabilities, such as: job restructuring; modification of work schedules;
providing additional unpaid leaves; reassignment to a vacant position; acquiring
or modifying equipment or devices; adjusting or modifying examinations, training
materials, or policies; and providing qualified readers or interpreters.15
An employer is required to make a reasonable accommodation to a
qualified individual with a disability unless doing so would impose an undue
hardship on the operation of the employer’s business. Undue hardship means an
action that requires significant expense when considered in relation to factors
such as a business’ size, financial resources, and the nature and structure of its
operation.
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Workplace Assistance for Specific Disabilities
Mental Impairment in the Workplace
According to report written by the U.S. Surgeon General, mental impairment can
affect any worker at any time in the workplace because an impairment is just a
deviation from normal development, structure or function. The report indicated that
"one of every two Americans alive today will suffer from a mental illness at some
point in their lifetime."16 But mental illness, unlike a physical illness or ailment has a
negative connotation with it. In a USA Today article, it indicated that the age group
of 15 to 44 has the highest number of people with mental impairments, that is,
working teens and adults.17
When it comes to mental impairment in the workplace, the ADA covers
workers with a mental illness as long as their illness meets the definition of a
disability. However, there are conditions that are not within the definition of a
disability and some are as follows: kleptomania, pyromania, exhibitionism,
voyeurism, other sexual behavior disorders, and psychoactive substance use
disorders resulting from current illegal drug use; as well as common personality
traits like poor judgment, a quick temper, or irritability, so long as the traits are
not a symptom of a protected mental impairment.18
The ADA can provide what is and what is not included as mental impairment,
but there are also some general work practices that should be adhered to when
working with persons with these conditions. Just like with sexism, racism or any
other ism when dealing with persons with a mental impairment avoid
generalizations, stereotypes and degrading the individual as this can not only be
considered harassment but may prevent the employee from feeling comfortable
asking for any necessary accommodation.
Also, if you find there is workplace problems always ask “any” employee if
they are able to perform the essential duties of the job.19 If the employee cannot
perform the essential duties of the job then an accommodation may be needed.
Any impairment at this time would need to be disclosed and validated by a
medical professional, in order for the accommodation to be made. Furthermore, if
the employee seems to have a non-work related issue that they want to discuss
with management-refer them to the appropriate employee assistance program or
professional. Managers are not qualified to heal or discuss any non-work related
problems of an employee.
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Adults with learning disabilities in the Workplace
Let's start by saying that learning disabilities have nothing to do with intelligence.
Learning disabilities are instead complications that impact the brain's capacity to
accept, manage, scrutinize, or gather information. Having these types of
difficulties can affect "how" a person learns or how quickly they can process
information. Children and adults with learning disabilities often learn differently
than the mainstream.
So, what does this mean for adults with learning disabilities in the
workplace? It means that if work procedures have been created for the
mainstream someone with a learning disability may have some difficulty with the
process. But, this just means an adjustment needs to be made which is an
accommodation. It is important to remember when dealing with these issues in
the workplace that where one person has a weakness that person also has an
alternating strength. It therefore becomes just a matter of tapping into the
strengths and accommodating any resulting weakness that affects the person's
ability to earn a living.
Learning disabilities can also be diagnosed by a medical professional and
therefore must be taken seriously in the workplace. But even with a medical
diagnosis adults with learning disabilities face various issues in the workplace. One
such issue is lack of understanding and support. There are also managers or
employees who may make negative assumptions about the adults’ ability or
manner of doing tasks. Both of these issues could affect the person with a
learning disabilities capability to be promoted. Also, depending on the type of
learning disability this worker has they could be forced into low-paying jobs. All
of these instances could create low self esteem for the employee, where really all
that was needed was some type of assistive technology, equipment or change in
work procedure to support their learning impairment.20
While adults may struggle with their learning disabilities, they should be
given the opportunity to excel in the workplace just like any other person.
Management must be supportive and provide the necessary accommodation(s).
Hearing Impairment in the Workplace
A hearing impairment or hearing loss is a full or partial decrease in the ability
to detect or understand sounds which can be caused by a wide range of
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 300
biological and environmental factors, as loss of hearing can happen to any organism
that perceives sound.21 If there is an insensitivity to sound this is
often referred to as a hearing impairment but there are varying degrees of severity.
Hearing loss is therefore categorized by its severity and by the age of
onset and this simply means that hearing loss at age 2 as opposed to age 42 will be
a difference occurrence.22 There is also an opportunity for the loss to be one sided
or on both sides which affects the severity of the loss as well.
What Is the Difference Between a Deaf and a Hard of Hearing Person?
Individuals w i t h h e a r i n g i m p a i r m e n t s are often referred to as deaf or
hard of hearing. According to the National Association of the Deaf "the deaf and
hard of hearing community is very diverse, differing greatly on the cause and
degree of hearing loss, age at the onset, educational background, communication
methods, and how they feel about their hearing loss. How a person "labels"
themselves in terms of their hearing loss is personal and may reflect identification
with the deaf community or merely how their hearing loss affects their ability to
communicate. They can either be deaf (lower case “d”) which often means they
are unable to hear well enough to rely on their hearing whereas Deaf (capital
“D”), or hard of hearing refers to a particular group of people who utilize the
American Sign Language (ASL)."23
Many people who are Deaf function bilingually and are able to utilize both ASL
and the written English language as sign languages do not have written forms.24
Cross Cultural Differences
People who are Deaf often communicate in a visual way. In addition to ASL, rules of
behavior include visual strategies for attention-getting such as touching, waving,
vibration or light signaling. Eye contact, body language and facial expression are all
keys to effective communication. Communication discourse is direct and to the point,
and written English may also seem terse and abbreviated by standards of hearing
people.
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The following are examples of how a person who is D/deaf activities could
be misinterpreted by someone who is not familiar with D/deaf culture25:
Example A:
A construction worker who is D/deaf seems angry as he is putting away
his tool because he is very noisy and has a stern look on his face. But
what this may mean is that he is just not aware of his noise level and that
he is concentrating or thinking and not aware of how his facial expression
appears to others.
Example B:
You are leaving a classroom and the person in front of you slams the door
in your face as you are walking out. However, this individual who is D/deaf
did not hear your footsteps behind them and were not aware that
someone else was leaving.
Example C:
As the manager, you are giving an employee who is D/deaf work
instructions. She frowns and seems disinterested in the instructions. As
the manager, you take the nonverbal expressions to mean something
negative when merely the employee who is D/deaf is focusing on what is
being told and thinking about it intently.
"This “frown” of concentration is often misinterpreted as disagreement or
annoyance, when it is actually a common element of communication in
D/deaf culture. Hard of hearing people also commonly frown when
listening, an indicator of the enormous amount of energy required to
communicate when you have a hearing loss."
Facial expressions in someone who is D/deaf does not always mean what
we think it may mean. Also, behaving loudly does not mean the D/deaf person
is rude. That is why, when we deal with difference in the workplace--don't make
negative assumptions. If you are going to assume, assume the best scenario—
that is give the person the benefit of the doubt. You could also, in a polite
fashion, ask the "why" so that you have the facts before making the wrong
assumption.
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Managing Other Workplace Issues
On the Job with Cancer
For most people, work is a healthy part of life. Continuing to work during cancer
treatment or returning to work after time has been taken off can make a person
feel healthier and more productive. Working may give a person something to focus
on besides their illness and can help an employee feel more in control while keeping
them connected to people who care about them.26
Whether a person is returning to work after time off or continuing to work
during a cancer treatment, these employees likely face some obstacles at their
workplace. It is important that the cancer patient address these situations:
Decide who needs to know about the cancer
A cancer patient needs to decide whether they want their co-workers to know
about the cancer and, if so, how open will they want to be. There's no right or
wrong approach. They may want their supervisor to tell the co-workers about the
cancer, or the employee may choose to do it themselves. It is important that the
employee does what is comfortable for them and know their options. Actually they
may choose not to tell anyone about the cancer if they’re a private person. But,
for practical reasons, it may make sense for them to tell their supervisor or
human resources representative so they can receive reasonable accommodations as
needed.27
On the Job with HIV
During the early years of the HIV epidemic, returning to work after diagnosis just
didn't happen. Because there were no early detection HIV tests, people were
diagnosed only after they presented the gravest of opportunistic infections. People
were too sick to work and sadly died soon after diagnosis. Today, early diagnosis and
the advent of powerful HIV drugs mean people are living long, healthy and
productive lives. After diagnosis, many HIV positive men and women continue to
work.28 For those too sick to work when diagnosed, HIV medications will get them
back to health and back to work. While going back to work is a positive thing for
many people, the workplace and employee must be aware of some things in order to
make their return a positive experience.
Does the HIV employee have to inform their employer of their HIV Diagnosis?
Whether or not an employee discloses their HIV status to the employer is entirely up
to them. They are under no legal obligation to disclose their HIV status that is
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in most cases they don’t because HIV is not transmitted by casual contact.29 So
they are under no risk to their fellow employees (again in most cases).
Does casual contact with an HIV infected employee put others at risk?
Like every rule, there are some exceptions. For one, if an HIV infected employee
works in a job that could expose others to their blood or bodily fluids, there
should be some consultation with a local HIV advocacy group to help determine if
telling the employer is necessary.30 Some people that say an HIV infected
employee has a moral obligation to tell their employer. Again, because casual
contact is not a risk factor for transmitting HIV, there is no moral obligation to tell
anyone in the workplace.31 However, if being HIV infected makes it difficult to
perform some expected duties (too fatigued to restock shelves for instance), the
employee will need to notify their employer in order to receive reasonable
accommodation.
What if the employee needs special accommodations in order to work?
In an article by Registered Nurse, Mark Cichocki states that, "in September 1994,
Sidney Abbott visited the office of dentist Dr. Randon Bragdon. This routine visit
would spark a controversy that would eventually involve the United States
Supreme Court. On that day, Dr. Bragdon refused to fill Ms. Abbott's simple cavity
because Ms. Abbott admitted to being HIV positive."32 After four years of legal
debate, the Supreme Court ruled that The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
did include people living with HIV. So, she was discriminated against. The
dentist just needed to make a reasonable accommodation such as wearing
latex gloves f o r h i s p r o t e c t i o n . Since this case, providers and
employers by law have to make reasonable accommodations for their patients
and employees, including those living and working with HIV.
The reasonable accommodations that must be made for any other
disability must also be made for those with HIV or AIDS. However, the employee
must seek the accommodation and of course medical documentation must
disclose their HIV status. Once disclosure is made, this information must be kept
in strict confidence according to the law.
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Nine Facts about HIV Infection and AIDS:
1. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, a condition in which
the body's immune system is destroyed. While there are treatments that help
people survive some of the diseases they get as a result of losing their immunity,
there is no cure for AIDS.
2. AIDS is caused by infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV.
Infection with HIV is completely preventable. Prevent HIV infection and you will
prevent AIDS.
3. HIV is spread through contact with blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast
milk. This contact comes primarily through sexual relations and sharing needles
when using illegal drugs.
4. When it comes to HIV infection, it doesn't matter who you are, it matters what
you do. Make choices that are healthy.
5. HIV is not spread through casual contact. Shaking hands, hugging, sharing rest
rooms, equipment, food utensils, and drinking fountains will not transmit HIV.
6. Medical tests detect antibodies to HIV. These antibodies are in the bloodstream,
and are an attempt of the immune system to eliminate the virus. Antibodies are
generally detectable six to 12 weeks after infection with HIV. When antibodies are
present in someone's blood, that person is said to be "HIV-positive."
7. Most HIV-positive people live normal, active lives for years after infection.
While everyone who is HIV-positive will not necessarily develop AIDS, many have.
For some HIV-positive people, symptoms serious enough to constitute an AIDS
diagnosis begin to appear eight to ten years after infection.
8. While many people associate the AIDS epidemic in America with gay men, (and
while the first wave of the epidemic primarily centered in the gay community), the
epidemic continues to affect all groups. Infections among women and adolescents
are increasingly the fastest of all population groups.
9. Assessing and taking responsibility for sexual behavior and educating one’s self
about HIV and AIDS is key to protection from a HIV infection. When dealing with
exposed blood of another ALWAYS have a safety kit available which includes latex
gloves and wear them.
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HIV/AIDS and the Workplace Law
The following entire section is copied with permission from the U.S. Department of
Justice Civil Rights Division Disability Rights Section Questions and Answers
regarding THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT AND PERSONS WITH
HIV/AIDS:33
Are people with HIV or AIDS protected by the ADA?
Yes. An individual is considered to have a "disability" if he or she has a physical
or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities,
has a record of such an impairment, or is regarded as having such an
impairment. Persons with HIV disease, both symptomatic and asymptomatic,
have physical impairments that substantially limit one or more major life activities
and are, therefore, protected by the law.
Persons who are discriminated against because they are regarded as being
HIV-positive are also protected. For example, a person who was fired on the
basis of a rumor that he had AIDS, even if he did not, would be protected by the
law.
Moreover, the ADA protects persons who are discriminated against because
they have a known association or relationship with an individual who is HIV-
positive. For example, the ADA would protect an HIV-negative woman who was
denied a job because her roommate had AIDS.
Does an employer always have to provide a needed reasonable accommodation?
An employer is not required to make an accommodation if it would impose an
undue hardship on the operation of the business. An undue hardship is an action
that requires "significant difficulty or expense" in relation to the size of the
employer, the resources available, and the nature of the operation.
Determination as to whether a particular accommodation poses an undue
hardship must be made on a case-by-case basis.
Customer or co-worker attitudes are not relevant. The potential loss of
customers or co-workers because an employee has HIV/AIDS does not constitute
an undue hardship.
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An employer is not required to provide an employee’s first choice of accommodation.
The employer is, however, required to provide an effective accommodation, i.e., an
accommodation that meets the individual’s needs.
HIV/Aids Reasonable Accommodation Examples
- An HIV-positive accountant required two hours off,
bimonthly, for visits to his doctor. He was permitted to take
longer lunch breaks and to make up the time by working later on
those days.
- A supermarket check-out clerk with AIDS had difficulty
standing for long periods of time. Her employer provided her
with a stool so that she could sit down at the cash register when
necessary.
- A secretary with AIDS needed to take frequent rest
breaks during her work day. Her boss allowed her to take as many breaks as she needed throughout the day, so long as she completed her work before going home each evening.
- A machine operator required time off from work during
his hospitalization with pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. He had
already used up all his sick leave. His employer allowed him to
either take leave without pay, or to use his accrued vacation
leave.
- An HIV-positive computer programmer suffered bouts
of nausea caused by his medication. His employer allowed him to
work at home on those days that he found it too difficult to come
into the office. His employer provided him with the equipment (computer, modem, fax machine, etc.) necessary for him to work at home.
- An HIV-positive newspaper editor who tired easily from
walking began to use an electric scooter to get around. His
employer installed a ramp at the entrance to the building in
which the editor worked so that the editor could use his scooter
at the office.
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When is an employer required to make a reasonable accommodation?
An employer is only required to accommodate a "known" disability of a qualified
applicant or employee. Thus, it is the employee’s responsibility to tell the
employer that he or she needs a reasonable accommodation. If the employee
does not want to disclose that he or she has HIV or AIDS, it may be sufficient for
the employee to say that he or she has an illness or disability covered by the ADA,
that the illness or disability causes certain problems with work, and that the
employee wants a reasonable accommodation. However, an employer can require
medical documentation of the employee’s disability and the limitations resulting
from that disability.
What if an employer has concerns about an applicant’s ability to do the
job in the future?
Employers cannot choose not to hire a qualified person now because they fear the
worker will become too ill to work in the future. The hiring decision must be
based on how well the individual can perform now. In addition, employers cannot
decide “not to hire” qualified people with HIV or AIDS because they are afraid of
higher medical insurance costs, worker’s compensation costs, or absenteeism.
Can an employer consider health and safety when deciding whether to
hire an applicant or retain an employee who has HIV/AIDS?
Yes, but only under limited circumstances. The ADA permits employers to
establish qualification standards that will exclude individuals who pose a direct
threat -- i.e., a significant risk of substantial harm -- to the health or safety of the
individual or of others, if that risk cannot be eliminated or reduced below the level
of a "direct threat" by reasonable accommodation. However, an employer may
not simply assume that a threat exists; the employer must establish through
objective, medically supportable methods that there is a significant risk that
substantial harm could occur in the workplace. By requiring employers to make
individualized judgments based on reliable medical or other objective evidence --
rather than on generalizations, ignorance, fear, patronizing attitudes, or
stereotypes -- the ADA recognizes the need to balance the interests of people with
disabilities against the legitimate interests of employers in maintaining a safe
workplace.
Transmission of HIV will rarely be a legitimate "direct threat" issue. It is
medically established that HIV can only be transmitted by sexual contact with an
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 308
infected individual, exposure to infected blood or blood products, or perinatal from
an infected mother to infant during pregnancy, birth, or breast feeding. HIV cannot
be transmitted by casual contact. Thus, there is little possibility that HIV could ever
be transmitted in the workplace.
For example:
- A superintendent may believe that there is a risk of employing an individual
with HIV disease as a schoolteacher. However, there is little or no likelihood of a
direct exchange of body fluids between the teacher and her students, and thus,
employing this person would not pose a direct threat.
- A restaurant owner may believe that there is a risk of employing an
individual with HIV disease as a cook, waiter or waitress, or dishwasher, because the
employee might transmit the disease through the handling of food. However, HIV
and AIDS are specifically not included on the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention ("CDC") list of infectious and communicable diseases that are transmitted
through the handling of food; thus, there is little or no likelihood that employing
persons with HIV/AIDS in food handling positions would pose a risk of transmitting
HIV.
- A fire chief may believe that an HIV-infected firefighter may pose a risk to
others when performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. However, current medical
evidence indicates that HIV cannot be transmitted by the exchange of saliva. Thus,
there is little or no likelihood that an HIV-infected firefighter would pose a risk to
others.
Having HIV or AIDS, however, might impair an individual’s ability to perform
certain functions of a job, thus causing the individual to pose a direct threat to the
health or safety of the individual or others.
For example:
- A worker who operates heavy machinery and who has been suffering from
dizzy spells caused by the medication he is taking might pose a direct threat to his
or someone else’s safety. If no reasonable accommodation is available (e.g., an
open position to which the employee could be reassigned), the employer would
not violate the ADA by laying the worker off.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 309
- An airline pilot who is experiencing bouts of dementia would pose a direct threat
to herself and her passenger’s safety. It would not violate the ADA if the airline
prohibited her from flying.
As noted above, the direct threat assessment must be an individualized
assessment. Any blanket exclusion -- for example, refusing to hire persons with
HIV/AIDS because of the attendant health risks -- would probably violate the ADA
as a matter of law.
When can an employer inquire into an applicant’s or employee’s HIV
status?
An employer may not ask or require a job applicant to take a medical examination
before making a job offer. It cannot make any pre-offer inquiry about a disability
or the nature or severity of a disability. An employer may, however, ask
questions about the ability to perform specific job functions. Thus, for example,
the owner of an outdoor cafe could not ask an individual with KS lesions who was
applying for the position of a waiter whether the applicant had AIDS. The owner
could, however, ask the applicant whether he can be in the sun for extended
periods of time.
An employer may condition a job offer on the satisfactory result of a post-
offer medical examination or medical inquiry if this is required of all entering
employees in the same job category. However, if an individual is not hired
because a post-offer medical examination or inquiry reveals a disability, the
reason(s) for not hiring must be job-related and consistent with business
necessity. HIV-positive status alone, without some accompanying complication
(e.g., dementia, loss of vision, etc.) can almost never be the basis for a refusal to
hire after a post-offer medical examination.
After a person starts work, a medical examination or inquiry of an
employee must be job-related and consistent with business necessity. Employers
may conduct employee medical examinations where there is evidence of a job
performance or safety problem, when examinations are required by other Federal
laws, when examinations are necessary to determine current "fitness" to perform
a particular job, and/or where voluntary examinations are part of employee health
programs. For example, an employer could not ask an employee who had lesions
on his face or who had recently lost a significant amount of weight, but whose job
performance had not changed in any way, whether the employee had AIDS. An
employer could, however, require an employee who was experiencing frequent
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 310
dizzy spells, and whose work was suffering as a result, to undergo a medical
examination.
What obligations does an employer/supervisor have if an employee
discloses his or her HIV status?
The ADA requires that medical information be kept confidential. This information
must be kept apart from general personnel files as a separate, confidential medical
record available only under limited conditions.
What obligations does an employer have to provide health insurance to
employees with HIV/AIDS?
The ADA prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of disability in the
provision of health insurance to their employees and/or from entering into contracts
with health insurance companies that discriminate on the basis of disability.
Insurance distinctions that are not based on disability, however, and that are applied
equally to all insured employees, do not discriminate on the basis of disability and
do not violate the ADA.
Thus, for example, blanket pre-existing condition clauses that exclude from
the coverage of a health insurance plan the treatment of all physical conditions
that predate an individual’s eligibility for benefits are not distinctions based on
disability and do not violate the ADA. A pre-existing condition clause that excluded
only the treatment of HIV-related conditions, however, is a disability- based
distinction and would likely violate the ADA.
Similarly, a health insurance plan that capped benefits for the treatment of all
physical conditions at $50,000 per year does not make disability-based distinctions
and does not violate the ADA. A plan that capped benefits for the treatment of
all physical conditions, except AIDS, at $50,000 per year, and capped the treatment
for AIDS-related conditions at $10,000 per year does distinguish on the basis of
disability and probably violates the ADA.
Concluding Thoughts According to recent studies, the number of employees with disabilities will increase.
The current generation of Americans with disabilities is well prepared to be tapped for the job market and able to provide an added solution for the labor shortages that can face American business.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 311
People with disabilities are the nation's largest minority crossing all racial,
gender, educational, socioeconomic, and organizational lines. They are also one of
few minority groups that any person can join at any time. If you do not currently
have a disability, according to researchers in the field you have about a 20%
chance of becoming disabled at some point during your work life.
Companies that include people with disabilities in their diversity programs
increase their competitive advantage. People with disabilities add to the variety of
viewpoints needed to be successful and bring effective solutions to today's
business challenges. The American economy is made stronger when all segments
of the population are included in the workforce and in the customer base.
End of Chapter Questions
1. What is considered a disability? Is this the same definition for handicapped?
2. What are three myths and the facts that counter the myths surrounding people with
disabilities?
3. When is an employer required to make an accommodation?
4. What are four examples of reasonable accommodations that can be made for persons
with disabilities?
5. Learning disabilities is a form of mental impairment, what are forms of learning
disabilities and why should these individuals be given equal employment
opportunities?
6. What are some tips that could be utilized to interview a hard of hearing applicant?
7. Why is it beneficial for an employee with a terminal illness to work and what benefit
is this for the workplace?
8. Does an HIV employee have to disclose their status? How does a company handle the
confidentiality of a person who has disclosed they have HIV?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 312
9. Does casual contact with an HIV infected employee put others at risk?
10. Can you fire an employee who has HIV or AIDS because your customers
have a negative attitude toward their employment, why or why not?
Internet Exercise
Part A: Using the Internet go to www.eeoc.gov then find information on disability
discrimination. Go to the “Questions and Answers Series” and chose a topic.
Summarize the information you found and how it relates to the chapter information.
End of Chapter Exercise
Complete Parts A, B & C.
Part A: Famous Persons with Disabilities
Directions: Go to www.google.com and type in the five famous person’s name below and
the word “disability” or type “famous disabled persons” or go to
http://www.tampagov.net/dept_Mayor/Mayors_Alliance/famous_persons/ AND in the
space following each name indicate the disability of the following “important”
people in society.
1. CRUISE TOM, 1962-present has
.
2. BELL Alexander Graham, 1847-1922 was
.
3. TUBMAN Harriet, 1820-1913 was
.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 313
4. ROOSEVELT Franklin Delano, 1882-1945 had .
5. WALTERS Barbara, 1931-present has .
Part B: Famous Persons with Disabilities
Now answer the following questions:
(1) How did the above famous person’s disability affect their success? (2) What does this say about the disabled in the workplace?
Part C: Famous Persons with Disabilities
Directions: Read the following scenario and answer the questions that follow.
Scenario
Let’s assume as the manager you know that a worker has missed some days due to his
HIV infection. Now he is asking you for a promotion (he has made you aware of his
condition/illness). The days he missed occurred over a year ago and since that time he
has doubled his production. His disease is not debilitating but the job he is applying
for is a high stress position. Please answer the following questions regarding this
scenario:
1. Do you recommend him for promotion, why or why not? 2. You know that in this new position he will be working on a team, if you
recommend him should you or can you tell the other teammates of his
condition?
3. If you decided that this critical issue of contagious disease was worth educating your workplace through training, would you include all contagious
diseases or just focus on HIV training?
4. What type of reasonable accommodations would be allowable if ever needed
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 314
References
1. Rabasca, L. (November 1999). Knocking down societal barriers for people with disabilities. APA Monitor, 1, 29.
2. Cornell University. (n.d.). Disability Statistics. Retrieved from: http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/DisabilityStatistics/issues.cfm
3. Pope, A. M. & Tarlov, A. R. (1991). Disability in America: Toward a National Agenda for Prevention. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine.
4. Academic American Encyclopedia. (1994). Handicapped Persons.
5. Disbility Mentoring Day. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.dmd- aapd.org/toolkit/downloads/AppendixA_2006.doc
6. Ibid.
7. The Reemployment and Training Act of 1994: hearing of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Third Congress, second session. (1994, March 16). Retrieved from: http://www.archive.org/stream/reemploymenttrai00unit/reemploymenttrai00unit_djvu.t xt
8. Chima, F. O. (2001). Employee Assistance and Human Resource Collaboration for Improving Employment and Disabilities Status. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 17(3), 79-94.
9. Pope, A. M. & Tarlov, A. R. (1991). Disability in America: Toward a National Agenda for Prevention. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine.
10. State of New Jersey. (n.d.). Worker's Compensation Law. Retrieved from: lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/forms_pdfs/wc/MSWord/wc_law.doc
11. Cornell University. (n.d.). Disability Statistics. Retrieved from: http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/DisabilityStatistics/issues.cfm
12. Jette, A. M., & Badley, E. (2000). Conceptual issues in the measurement of work disability. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
13. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/ada17.html
14. U.S. Department of Treasury. (n.d.). Reasonable Accommodation. Retrieved from:
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Ten: Understanding the Disabled 315
http://www.ttb.gov/eeo/reasonable_accomodation.shtml
15. Ibid.
16. Sonnenberg, S. P. (2000, June). Mental Disabilities in the Workplace. Workforce.
17. Armour, S. (2006, August). Mental Illness on the Job. USA TODAY.
18. Sonnenberg, S. P. (2000, June). Mental Disabilities in the Workplace. Workforce.
19. Ibid.
20. Logsdon, A. (n.d.). Learning Disabled Adults-Learning Disabled Adults in the Workplace. Retrieved from: http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/careerissues/p/LDAdultsatwork.htm
21. Hearing Impairment. Retrieved from: http://www.wiki/Deafness
22. Ibid.
23. National Association of the Deaf. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.nad.org/site/pp.asp?c=foINKQMBF&b=180410
24. The Canadian Hearing Society. (2003). Retrieved from: https://www.canadianhearingsociety.com/info/es/deaf.html
25. Ibid.
26. Roberts, E. (1995). Prophet of Independence. Berkeley: Center for Independent Living.
27. Young, J. (1997). Equality of Opportunity: The Making of the Americans With Disabilities Act. Washington D.C.: National Council on Disability.
28. Annan, K. A. (n.d.). Living in a World with HIV and Aids. United Nations Paper.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Cichocki, M. (2007). Is HIV a Disability? Retrieved from: http://aids.about.com/od/legalissues/a/disability.htm
33. U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.). Questions and Answers: The Americans with Disabilities Act
and Persons with HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from: http://www.ada.gov/pubs/hivqanda.txt
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 316
Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action
Smooth seas do not make skillful sailors.
From an old African proverb
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 317
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
define Affirmative Action.
explain the common myths surrounding Affirmative Action.
rationalize why it is necessary to right the wrongs of the
past rather than just ignore them.
describe ways to implement Affirmative Action initiatives that opens the door for those who have been or are excluded.
understand how unconscious bias can impact workplace hiring,
training and promotion opportunities.
determine why preferences are not just associated
with Affirmative Action.
comprehend the difference between competition/hiring choices and reverse discrimination.
Chapter Eleven
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 318
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Affirmative Action is a set of public policies and initiatives designed to help eliminate
past and present discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national
origin.1 Affirmative action seeks to include those who have been formerly excluded
and it covers recruitment, hiring, promotion and training policies. Much of what
many people know about affirmative action is based on emotions, myths and not the
real definition of affirmative action.2
Myths, the stories that often guide our lives, can be so deeply ingrained
that we seldom consciously think of them. They are unconsciously inherited from our
ancestors, our culture, and our society. Unfiltered, unproved, and unexamined,
these collective beliefs are accepted without question and many times are used to
justify unsound attitudes and practices. The media, in all formats, often presents
biased information on Affirmative Action which helps to make this policy one of the
most misunderstood of all times.3 But despite all the controversy, affirmative action
would not be in existence if civil rights were a reality for all people of the U.S.
It strikes me as strange that in the U.S. where there has been over
hundreds of years of slavery, Willie Lynch values, Jim Crow Laws and stereotypes,
laws against migration and equal treatment, that people would think that after only
several decades of affirmative action and enforcement of civil rights laws that the
U.S. workplace would be an equal playing ground. As historian Roger Wilkins has
pointed out, Blacks have a 375-year history on this continent: 245 involving slavery,
100 involving legalized discrimination, and only 30 o r m o r e involving
anything else.4 Change takes time and does not happen on its own.
Originally, civil rights programs were enacted to help African Americans
become full citizens of the United States (remember slaves were not considered
human--just property). The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution made
slavery illegal; the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees equal protection under the
law; the Fifteenth Amendment forbids racial discrimination in access to voting.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 319
The 1866 Civil Rights Act guarantees every citizen "the same right to make and
enforce contracts ... as is enjoyed by White citizens ..."5
The first time the actual term "affirmative action" was first used was in the
1965 Executive Order 11246 that was issued by President Lyndon Johnson. This
executive order required federal contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure
that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment,
without regard to their race, creed (beliefs that are not religious), color, or
national origin." and in 1967 President Johnson included women in this order.6
Affirmative Action requires measures that are in align with cultural
competence. Just “valuing diversity” without regard to action is not enough.
Companies have to decide where they will fall on the continuum of competence.
Continuum of Competence
Individuals and organizations can measure their competence on a continuum
developed by James Mason (1993). There are five progressive steps in his
continuum.
S T E P O N E : C U L T U R A L D E S T R U C T I V E N E S S
Cultural destructiveness is the first step and is the least effective toward
addressing cultural competence. Cultural destructiveness occurs when an
organization and its employees are exhibiting attitudes, policies and practices
that don't value diversity purposefully.7
STEP TWO: INCAPACITY
After cultural destructiveness there is incapacity. Incapacity occurs when an
organization and its employees are not intentionally devaluing diversity but
instead has a system that does not promote, respect or reflect the diversity
of its organization.8 This seems easier to fix than cultural destructiveness because
it requires fixing the organizational system rather than fixing individuals or
organizations with prejudiced disposition.
STEP THREE: BLINDNESS
the third level in the continuum of competence is blindness. Often times people
believe that if I "don't see color" or "don't see difference" then I am not being
biased.9 But, how do you ignore a component of a person that makes them
who they are? How do you ignore systems that have not been created equally?
Ignoring what is broke won't get it fixed. Ignoring someone who is abusive does
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 320
not make them less abusive, just like ignoring race won’t make racism go away
it just means you are ignoring the problem. Blindness or turning a blind eye to
something just perpetuates the status quo whatever that is.
STEP FOUR: PROACTIVE
The next level of pre-competence is more about individuals and organizations being
more proactive as it relates to cultural competence. They a re n o t reac t i ng t o
d i s c r im ina t i on i n t he workp l a ce bu t i n s t ead these organizations are
recognizing that cultural differences exist and efforts must be made to improve
equality in the workplace.10
STEP FIVE: COMPETENCE
The last stage and most effective stage is competence. This is not just the
acceptance and respect of cultural differences but there is an exhibition of
attitudes, policies and programs that actively work toward managing a diverse
workforce.
Affirmative action can assist with cultural competency. However, before
implementation of Affirmative Action initiatives occur the myths regarding this
program of workplace goals must be addressed.
MYTHS AND FACTS
In recent years, affirmative action has been debated more intensely than at any
other time in its 40+ year history.11 Yet many people and corporations support
affirmative action and what it attempts to accomplish despite any imperfections
that its interpretation as a policy may have. Whatever opinion you have or don’t
have, it is important that you base your view of Affirmative Action on facts not
myths or propaganda. Here are some of the most popular myths about affirmative
action, along with a brief commentary on each one.
Myth 1: Affirmative action mainly benefits Blacks.
Affirmative Action benefits many groups such as Blacks, Asian-Americans, Latinos,
Veterans and Women of all races. Actually, the largest beneficiary of Affirmative
action is not Blacks but Caucasian women. Breaking the glass ceiling in many male
dominated professions, has been one of the highest priorities of the workplace as it
relates to affirmative action initiatives.12 When people assume that Affirmative
Action only affects Blacks, they often provide conscious or unconscious support to
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 321
initiatives that seek to shut down affirmative action efforts. "Affirmative action
program initiatives have included everything from English as a Second
Language Programs, breast cancer screenings for women, mentoring systems for
nontraditional jobs, after school programs for magnet schools, and programs that
provide incentives of support to Asian-owned businesses ran by veterans.
In short, there are countless initiatives across the country that use race and
gender to address the unwarranted obstacles confronted by the beneficiaries of
affirmative action."13
Myth 2: A large percentage of White workers will lose out if affirmative
action is continued.
This myth is often based in fear. If the argument utilized against Affirmative
Action is fear of loss-how easy is it to produce anger toward a program that seeks
to redress the wrongs of workplace inequality. Fear is an emotion and emotions
are not always correct. So, let's address the facts. Understanding that amongst
racial discrimination Blacks have suffered the longest and continue an upward fight
toward equality, so according to the U.S. Commerce Department a few years
ago, there were 1.3 million unemployed Black civilians and 112 million employed
White civilians. Even if every unemployed Black worker in the United States were
to oust a White employee this would only affect 1% of Whites.14
If managers tell employees that they were displaced because they had to
hire a person of color or hire a woman then this could incite anger--when it is
never that simple. First of all, remember anyone that a company hires must be
qualified. Affirmative Action does not support the hiring of nonqualified workers.
Yet, oftentimes someone will say the woman or person of color weren't the best
qualified. But in someone's mind they have a definition of the "best qualified"
which could be someone they feel more comfortable with.
But, what is best qualified? It is subjective at best. If someone meets the
job description or job advertisement then they are qualified. If a qualified women
or person of color is chosen over a qualified white male, to say that someone of
color "had to be hired" is inappropriate unless there is a sense of entitlement.
Instead let's just say that competition was in effect and a qualified person was
hired.
This losing out to someone of color or women is not according to the
research the major reasons for job loss among White men. Job loss among Whites
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 322
and in particular white males has a lot more to do with factory relocations,
computerization and automation, downsizing, and outsourcing (sending jobs
overseas).15 It is unfortunate that some managers attribute job loss to Affirmative
Action—using affirmative action as a scapegoat in this manner is a cop out.
Myth 3: Reverse discrimination is the result of Affirmative Action.
Studies of reverse discrimination lawsuits show that there are more gender- related
complaints (men saying they were discriminated against because of their gender)
than race-related complaints.16 In a third study (as cited in Reskin, 1998), less than
1% of the reverse discrimination EEOC complaints filed in 1994 were deemed
credible.17 Has this statistic changed much in the last 20 years? Surprisingly “No.”
These studies suggest that relatively few reverse discrimination court cases and
EEOC complaints have legal merit.
The belief that the majority of white males are said to be victims of
reverse discrimination is in itself a misuse of the word reverse discrimination. The
concept when used in its broadest meaning suggests widespread victimization.
Some writers and authors still use the language reverse discrimination and
affirmative action interchangeably. In a thoughtful retrospective on affirmative
action, Charles Fried, former Solicitor General in the second Reagan administration,
uses the concepts of 'affirmative action' or 'preferential treatment' throughout the
article and as he makes the argument that there should be time limits on
affirmative action at the end of the article, he slips in another phrase: "But if 'all
deliberate speed' was fast enough for desegregation, then surely nothing speedier is
required for phasing out reverse discrimination."18 Using these terms interchangeably
infers that they are one in the same—when they are not.
Reverse discrimination only occurs when someone who does not meet the
job requirements/job description is hired over someone who does. If the job says we
prefer three years of work experience and a person of color is hired who has two
years over a white male who has ten--this is not reverse discrimination. Maybe that
person with two years had some much needed work qualities than the person with
ten. The number of years of work experience was a preference not a requirement.
Having the most experience, highest score etc. does not equate to being the best
person for the job.
But, if the job ad said requires three years of work experience and they hire
a person of color who has two years over a white male that has ten years—this
would be reverse discrimination because the person they hired did not meet the
basic required qualifications.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 323
Why Affirmative Action?
There have been various equal protection laws passed to make discrimination
illegal. Laws are great but they only work when enforced.
How do you get a workforce that may be accustomed to employees of the same
sex, race and work ethics to integrate their workforce with people who are
different? These maybe people who they don’t know individually but as a
group they don’t value, trust or just don’t associate with.
In addition, think about all of the subliminal messages that have been fed into
individual minds regarding stereotypes—this alone can create unconscious bias
which results in a homogenous workplace. It is unfortunate that policies have to
be written that say “let’s level the playing field,” let’s get rid of the hidden and
written policies and beliefs that keep the workforce (especially higher paying
careers and management positions) still segregated. But, to let change happen on
its own is like telling an alcoholic to just stop drinking—doesn’t work in most
cases.
Commonly held assumptions about Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action lower standards
The only way Affirmative Action can lower standards is when the company doing
the hiring does not require the new employees to meet the standards. Why?
Because they themselves are trying to take a shortcut. This is not Affirmative
Action causing them to do this but the company blaming Affirmative Action and
not putting forth the “right” effort. This often happens when companies need to
diversify or hire a “token” but are less concerned about hiring the right
multicultural person with the appropriate skills for the job, focusing instead on
hiring a person of the right color or sex with no regard to qualifications.
This is not what Affirmative Action stands for. Affirmative Action seeks to
include classes of people who have historically been excluded. These hiring
standards need not be lowered to accomplish this goal. For instance, assume
there is a position available and the job required an Associate’s Degree, and a
score of at least 70 out of 100, lowering the standards would mean hiring
someone without an Associate’s Degree. However, it would not be lowering the
standards by hiring someone with a score of 75 over someone with a score of
90, as they both meet the standard. Most qualified has nothing to do with
discrimination—as “most qualified” is a very subjective standard as stated earlier.
What is most qualified to me may be different for you. Either you are qualified
according to the standards set forth or you are not.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 324
Quotas and Affirmative Action go hand in hand
No, a quota implies a fixed number and sometimes does not indicate qualified in the
legal definition. For this reason, quota has a negative connotation. But, Affirmative
Action focuses on goals instead of quotas for two reasons: (1) goals imply
something to strive for and are based on the needs of the organization and the
marketplace we serve, (2) quotas once reached can then be abandoned,
whereas goals can often be exceeded and continued.19
An Affirmative Action Analogy
At this point, before we get into any further discussion about affirmative action, let
me tell you a story I read in a fiction book, Always, authored by Timmothy B.
McCann. In it he illustrates what affirmative action is really about. This story can
explain it better than any definition I can give you. The character in the book is
describing his views as he debates a political opponent on issues, he gives the
following response when asked about affirmative action:
I am sure you would agree that historically people of color in this country have been
disadvantaged in many ways. Let’s look at sports since the World Series just ended.
In baseball you have one player from one team facing nine from the opposition on
the field. Now, the batter must earn his way on base. If he hits the ball and does
not make it to first, he’s out. Point-blank, end of discussion. But if by chance there
is a tie . . .” And then I paused and looked at my opponent. If there is a tie,
Representative Edwards, since it was nine players on the field against one in
baseball, the batter is viewed as being disadvantaged and the tie goes to the
runner. The affirmative action laws as they are written will not—and I repeat this
because this is often overlooked—will not give anything to anyone who has not
earned it. But if there is a tie between two applicants in terms of qualifications,
what it does give is an opportunity for women and people of color to simply stay in
the game.”20
A tie in the case of affirmative action in the workplace means they both met
the qualifications. Maybe you still aren’t convinced of the worth of affirmative action
or that affirmative action is only about leveling the playing field for qualified
candidates. So, let me say this—affirmative action does work. It has produced
opportunities for jobs, education, and training for tens of thousands of people of
color, white women, poor and working class White men along with others who have
been excluded or not represented in the workplace. Although not often enforced
strongly, affirmative action programs have broken down long-standing barriers
based on the persistent and ongoing discrimination that people in our society faces.21
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 325
Other forms of Affirmative Action
According to author Paul Kivel, head of the organization “White Guys for
Affirmative Action”, Affirmative Action for White males is an old tradition in
American society. Kivel indicates that veteran preferences, alumni preferences,
homeowner preferences in the form of home mortgage deductions, student
deferments during the Vietnam war, and hundreds of millions of dollars of
subsidies for manufacturers, farmers, mining and logging companies, including a
$300 billion bailout of the Savings & Loan industry are all forms of affirmative
action for White men.22 These are preferences—so why aren’t they challenged or
questioned?
Affirmative Action & Self-fulfilling Prophecies
The other issue that we must consider is that Affirmative Action is and has
been necessary because there are still many elements in the workplace that
create opportunities based on bias. People and organizations alike still have myths
and stereotypes that they associate with groups of people. They believe these
myths and create bias through self-fulfilling prophecies.
Now, let me explain how a self-fulfilling prophecy works. We belief
something to be true, so we treat the person this way, then they respond the way
we thought they would and then our belief is confirmed. For example, let’s
assume (only for the sake of this example) that I believe anyone reading this
book is stupid since they don’t already know this information. So, when I use this
text to teach a class, I won’t waste my time trying to teach stupid people.
Instead, I discuss my travels and other issues that are not related to this text.
Again, remember I am treating the students like they are stupid and can’t
learn. So then, I give a 30-page essay exam based upon all the collected theories
that went into the development of this book. After all, if you were smart you
would know this material. How many students would pass the test? That’s right,
very few. Why wouldn’t they pass? Well it wouldn’t be because they were stupid
it would be because I treated them like they were and did not give them a chance
to learn. I biased the process.
But guess what; since they did not pass the test what am I going to think?
You guessed it, that they were stupid just as I thought. Mind you, my thinking has
nothing to do with truth or knowledge but the fact that I thought something and
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acted on it and then got my belief confirmed. Therefore, when you create a self-
fulfilling prophecy you create your own reality. Can this be dangerous in the minds of
people with power? Yes.
Furthermore, bias is created by unfair systems. You may think that most
aspects of today’s society are fair. But, what you have to understand is that many
systems are still very biased.23/24 If you have never experienced discrimination or
unfair work policies then you really might not understand. But, just common
systems, such as college entrance exams are not fair. Would you think it
unreasonable if I told you that the SAT/ACT Test is one of these?25 SAT testing
and getting high SAT scores has been an issue coming into this century especially
where those students who get the high SAT scores get passed over. They then feel
they are being discriminated against.26 So, many people argue, sue and fight these
types of issues that they have so little information about.
What if you knew that the author of the SAT developed this instrument to
confirm his suspicions that people of color were intellectually inferior? Therefore, this
author developed questions based on this racist premise. Then students of color
take these tests and don’t do well because the questions are not based on
intelligence but are based on privilege and lifestyle. For instance, if they ask a
simple question like: dressing is to ranch as flower is to ? Just in my own
culture I would think the answer was something that had nothing to do with a
flower since dressing (something I eat at Thanksgiving that others call stuffing has
nothing to do with the flavor Ranch). Now you may be of a different culture and
understand dressing to mean a type of sauce you put on a salad so ranch is a type—
this totally changes the answer that you chose. Who gets this right—the one
whose culture it reflects? Does this mean I am stupid—no it just means that
according to my culture we utilize terminology differently.
According to an article written by DiversityInc, students of color generally
score higher on the harder questions of the SAT/ACT and poorer on the easier
questions.27 Why? One rationale is because the harder questions are not as easy to
bias as is the simple questions. Now when these students don’t pass because the
test was not created for them to pass, it has confirmed this author’s suspicions. So
then is this really a test that should determine who gets admitted to college, when it
creates a self-fulfilling prophecy based upon the authors’ bias?
Now, let’s take this a step further—let’s say this racist author states to the
proper people that he wrote a bogus test. He realizes that what he did was wrong
and then wants people to know his intentions. But, the people who now author
this test for whatever reason still choose not to change the test. Now how would you
feel about the SAT if this were true?
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If they changed the test, would you then think they were changing it
(making it easier) in favor people of color to lessen the standards or to right a
wrong?
Do you think the authors of the SAT would come out and tell you this truth
or lead you to believe that the victim (students of color) are the ones at fault?
Would you believe that the students were “too stupid” too pass?
Do you think that if this were true the SAT administrators would come out
and say “No, you are wrong, this really was a test based on racist misconceptions
and we are now realizing that we were wrong to use this test”?
Can you imagine the lawsuits? So, when something like this happens it is
often the victims that get blamed and no one in the general public gets the truth.
Well, let me tell you that all of this is a true story regarding the SAT and its
author. The author, Carl Campbell Brigham, based the test on racial superiority.
He later recanted the test as bogus and his comments were presented in an
article in the New York Times.28 But, still this test is utilized in its created format
even though many understand the background of this test. Do you think there are
more instances like this that you don’t even know about? My point is—are there a
lot of instruments in society that create disadvantage and advantage?
When you begin to think that life is simple and unbiased and equal,
remember that in the history of the U.S., nothing has ever been that simple and
has not been in the favor of a lot of people for a long time.
Because of the isms, prejudices, and superiority issues that have prefaced
our society since the arrival of the Pilgrims—we should know that systems in
society are not going to be as fair as they seem. If you work in an area that is not
multicultural, don’t accept the excuse that there are no people of color or women
who can do the job; don’t accept the excuse that they don’t test well; when your
job makes the effort to change the test, don’t be angry thinking that they have
lowered the standards--understand that we have a long way to go until we have
systems free of bias. There are so many hidden biases that unless you have done
a substantial amount of research these biases just would not be obvious to the
common person.
But even though hidden bias is not obvious there is one way to tell if a
system or company is free of bias or to tell where they are on the competence
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 328
continuum: look at the people that make-up your employee and
management base.29
Are all or majority of your employees of color in janitorial/housekeeping or low-level staff positions?
Are all or majority of the women in management positions located in the
human resource department?
Are all or majority of the women in the organization support staff
administrative assistants/secretaries—no managers.
Are all or majority of the teachers or bank workers female and all or
majority of the principals or loan officers male?
This is not to say that janitorial, human resource, secretarial positions, etc. are
bad jobs, but they are positions that have been traditional areas for certain
groups of people. If the diversity of an organization is represented in this manner
this may not equate to equal opportunity. The doors are not being opened, at
least not to all positions. So how do you open the door?
Confronting a Decision
With this model in mind, what are some of the key questions we might bring to
framing and addressing questions of diversity?
How does this model have an impact on our decision-making?
How does it address the sub-optimal patterns of thinking described earlier in this
note? [See Exhibit 2 for a checklist of questions that reveals when we are falling
victim to the reasoning "traps" described earlier, and that suggests alternate
responses to the same decision, based on the model above.]
Let's take a look at an example of the different ways we can approach the same
issue, depending upon what types of reasoning frameworks we are using. We will
take up an example that is frequently raised as a diversity dilemma and pose it in
the words we are likely to hear:
If you have two candidates for a job—a member of the majority identity group in
your organization (let's say a white man) and a member of a group "under
represented" in your organization (let's say a white woman)—and the man is
seemingly “more” qualified, whom do you hire?
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Some of the responses to this question we are likely to hear or offer ourselves
include:
You always have to hire the "more qualified candidate." If you don't,
you are putting the effectiveness, perhaps even the survival, of the
organization in jeopardy.
This confident assertion of "who is best qualified" serves to disguise any number
of prior choices and unconscious assumptions. It asserts as unambiguous an
evaluation that is often sublimely subjective. It assumes clarity about what
constitutes qualification for this job, when that conclusion itself is also often based
upon tradition rather than science. And it begs the question of whether decision
makers are able to perceive the relative qualifications of the candidates
objectively, denying the impacts of stereotyping, historical oppression, and the
documented perceptual effects when individuals make judgments about members
of a group other than their own.
This argument also illustrates the tendency to analyze and argue only one
side of an oversimplified dichotomy. Has the respondent asked him or
herself, "in this case, what are the potential positive impacts of hiring the
woman, and what are the potential negative impacts of hiring the man?"
If you don't hire the man, you are trying to right past injustices with
current ones. You are trying to counteract discrimination with
another form of discrimination, for the only thing working against the
man is his gender.
Aside from continuing to repeat the assumptions about qualification noted
above, this argument illustrates concerns about our tendency to
oversimplify events into either/or choices and to ignore unstated data. For
example, the argument takes as an assumption that in any other situation, the
only data considered in making a hiring or promotion decision is this unexplained
criteria of "qualification." It ignores the fact that such decisions always involve
weighing a number of considerations, such as seniority against targeted
experience, depth of expertise against breadth, familiarity with the project against
outside experience, and a candidate who brings significant experience in areas
that are already represented in the project team against a candidate who brings
less experience but in an unrepresented area. Might gender be just another set of
criteria in this mix?
This argument also reflects a version of Shelby Steele's "seeing for innocence,"
way of thinking where somehow "being qualified" is equated with having a right
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 330
to a particular job and not getting that job is seen as a form of undeserved
punishment. Thus, the male candidate's "innocence" is implied, while the female
candidate is therefore "guilty" of obtaining a job unfairly. As noted above, this
formulation contains all sorts of blurred distinctions and unconscious assumptions,
but nevertheless carries an emotional weight that feeds a divisive "us against them"
perspective on this dilemma.
Finally this argument (reminiscent of pareto optimality) blurs individual perspectives,
experience and accountability with group perspectives, experience and
accountability. It asserts that accumulated injustices toward and by groups in the
past are being paid for with an individual injustice in the present, ignoring the fact
that discrimination was and is always an individual and a group experience. We can address discrimination effectively only if we address it at both levels. This
realization does not necessarily suggest that either candidate should be hired in this
case; it merely suggests that the fact that both individuals and groups are affected
by any actions taken is unavoidable.
If you hire the man, you are passing up the opportunity to begin to
make a change in the demographic mix of the department/organization—
a change that will be necessary in order to attract and best support other
women and minority members in the firm.
This argument, like the first one we examined, illustrates the tendency to analyze
and argue only one side of an oversimplified dichotomy...only it is a different side. It
ignores the importance of trying to make a decision that will
result in a successful hire, regardless of gender, not only for the firm's benefit but
also for the benefit of the other women and minorities in the firm now and to come.
Additionally this argument, and the dilemma itself, beg the question of why we are
concerned with "representation" in the first place. There are legal arguments, moral
arguments and "business" arguments that may underlie this concern [See Managerial
Effectiveness and Diversity: Organizational Choices, HBS No. 395-020, for a
discussion of these arguments, or "motivations."] However, if
organizational decision makers do not adequately think through this question, their
judgments risk superficiality, cynicism and self-contradiction -- or at least
accusations of the same.
If you hire the man, you will demonstrate that the organization is not
really interested in "diversity."
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 331
Once again, this argument raises only one side of an oversimplified
dichotomy; it ignores other data about the company's policies and actions around
diversity. The more sophisticated argument might be that "if you hire the man,
the organization will appear to not really be interested in 'diversity.'" This
argument suggests something about the kind of consistency and trust the
organization needs to build in order to be free to make difficult decisions as it sees
fit.
If you hire the woman, you are not doing her any service for she will
experience negative reinforcement around her performance.
This argument illustrates our readiness to interpret evidence about an employee's
performance in ways that support prior conclusions, what researcher Gilovich refers
to as our "talent for ad hoc explanation." This tendency can result in self-
fulfilling prophecies.
If you hire the "less qualified candidate," you are not doing other
women any service for you are reinforcing the perception that their
successes may be based on identity rather than merit.
The problem with this argument is that it ignores the fact that this
perception can be caused by decisions to hire a woman or "minority" candidate,
regardless of their qualifications. It also embodies an unstated and unexamined
assumption that other hiring decisions are always based purely on objective
qualifications, that this is the desired state of affairs, and that we can and do
know what these objective qualifications are. "Merit" in this statement is an
instance of using terminology to defend your position.
However, this argument does surface the importance of thinking through
and communicating decision criteria clearly. Differing perceptions ought to be
respected, considered and addressed, but they ought not be a source of tyranny
for they always cut both ways.
The point of these observations is not to suggest that any or all of these
responses are necessarily wrong, but rather to suggest that each of them is
incomplete. The original dilemma, as posed, asks for an either/or choice, when
the real take-away from such a decision is the learning, the relationship and the
process created by communicating about it. Ultimately there will be times
when the hiring decision will go one way and times when it will go the other, for
good reasons, but the test of the decision-making process is whether all parties
can keep talking and working together afterward toward shared goals of which
diversity should be one of them.
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Implementing Affirmative Action
Even organizations with the best intentions may not accurately implement
affirmative action without a plan. In an affirmative plan, there should be an
assessment of the workplace, recruitment goals, and training opportunities that
are free of bias. This ensures that those groups formerly excluded will have an
open door through which to enter. This often requires different tactics to reach
diverse groups.
See the sample affirmative action plan below:
*taken from with permission from: http://www.jobs.bpa.gov/How_To_Apply/disabledaction.cfm
INTRODUCTION
In accordance with Title 5, of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 720, subpart C – Disabled Veterans Affirmative
Action Program (DVAAP), Bonneville Power Administration is required to develop an annual DVAAP Action Plan.
COMPONENTS OF THE PLAN
1. Statement of agency policy regarding the employment and advancement of disabled veterans
2. The name and title of the official assigned overall responsibility for the development and implementation of the plan
3. An assessment of the current status of disabled veteran employment within the agency (with emphasis on those veterans who are 30 percent or more disabled). (Note: see attachment 1 “FY04 Veteran's Employment Status Report”
for details).
4. A description of recruitment methods which will be used to seek out disabled veteran applicants, including special steps to be taken to recruit veterans who are 30 percent or more disabled
5. FY Goals:
Continue to build partnerships. We will continue to pursue partnerships within BPA, with other organizations,
and in the local community to support Disabled Veterans programs and the hiring of veterans in the Federal
Service. We will seek new ways to communicate employment information, and to provide resources to support
Veterans in BPA's workforce.
Table 1: SAMPLE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PLAN (for disabled veterans)*
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 333
Continue to maintain the “Applicant Supply File” for 30% or more disabled Veterans and
refer applications for consideration on open vacancies as appropriate.
We will also be distributing appropriate vacancies to the following military Transitional
Assistance Program (TAP) contacts.
6. A description of how the agency will provide or improve internal advancement opportunities for disabled veterans:
Career Services Workshops and training for: “Understanding the Application Process”,
“Resume Writing”, “and Development of KSA's”, and “How to prepare for an interview.”
BPA encourages all employees, including disabled veterans, to complete an individual development plan
with their manager, which is used to identify training needs necessary to be successful in their current
position, and in possible future advancement opportunities.
Individual Career counseling and application coaching.
Attend workshops focusing on: Career Transition, Active Retirement, or Entrepreneurship in addition to
receiving one-on-one career counseling.
In addition to having a plan, there are additional efforts that are required if an
organization wants to have a diverse workforce. This effort starts first with
recruiting.
Recruitment (Opening the door for all applicants)
Using word of mouth to spread information about employment opportunities while
it may be cheap to the organization is not recommended in securing equal
opportunity. Why? People will talk to who they know and if the organization using
word of mouth is not diverse then assuming that birds of a feather flock together
then what may result is a homogeneous workforce--not diversity. Advertising is
the more likely vehicle that should be utilized to inform the public of a job opening
or opportunity because it can spread across communities. But, even advertising
through traditional channels like the Internet and large-scale job boards may
not target everyone in the community.30
To attract a diverse grouping of recruits you must do more. Advertise in
ethnic/culture specific publications or organizations whose readership/members
represent diverse groups or whose readership/members attracts a multicultural
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 334
population. Diversity Recruitment advertising also serves two purposes: it attracts a
diverse pool of applicants and it sends a message that the organization cares about
diversity.31
Additional Suggestions & Tips
1. Create internship and co-op opportunities for members of diverse groups.
Recruit from schools that have diverse student bodies such as women
colleges and HBCUs (historically black colleges and universities) and Native
American Colleges).
2. Emphasize competency-based credentials rather than past experience
because some groups have not had the access to comply with the
experience requirements.32
3. Require qualifications that are necessary and not just historical, such as
stating that you need to lift 40 pounds when that really is not a
requirement—it is just what has been mandated historically.33
4. Review your own beliefs and attitudes about the positions that you are filling
and the populations that you are targeting so that your own bias is not
found in the job description or interviewing process.
5. Nurture relationships with groups and organizations that accommodate the
needs of people of color, women, various religious groups and the disabled.
6. Interview utilizing a group made up of diverse individuals (have a hiring
committee) if possible so that there are a range of opinions in the interview
process even if you have to bring in outsiders from an ethnic or female
specific community organization.
7. Make sure your company has a workplace climate that is welcoming to all
people regardless of background. If not, then those you work so hard to hire
won't stay if they find a non-supportive environment.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 335
8. Make sure employees and managers alike have gone through diversity
training so they are aware of the benefits as well as challenges of
managing a diverse workforce.
9. Make sure everyone has equal access to training opportunities and that
the same training materials and standards are being distributed to all
employees.
After reading the above, you may be wondering: Despite what has been said this
sounds like preferential treatment and it seems unfair in some cases?
What about preferences?
Preferences to those formerly excluded: people of color, women, veterans, etc. is
sometimes a part of providing inclusion to an opportunity that was formerly
closed. Colleges give preferences (other than racial) to all kinds of students—
children of alumni, veterans, athletes, musicians, etc., so race/ethnicity
preferences are just one more consideration in the effort to craft a diverse, well-
rounded workforce and in the case of schools a well-rounded class. So, what's the
problem-legally, morally, politically, or otherwise when it comes especially to
preferences?
It seems that when it comes to anything but racial preferences there isn’t a
problem. Where is the outcry against legacy preferences? Many private schools
have a huge affirmative action program for the daughters and sons (and other
relatives) of their alumni known as “legacy preference.”34 Even though it has been
argued that this type of preference builds institutional loyalty for many private
schools (not just colleges but even private high schools) does this make it okay?
If you were part of a group who were never permitted to attend in the
past then this disadvantage continues as these people will never be in a position
to receive the alumni/legacy preference. The problem with this is that you can
read about individuals speaking out against affirmative action (as was such the
situation with The University of Michigan case in 2003) when they felt it benefitted
students/people of color but very rarely do you hear groups or individuals argue
against legacy preference. It would seem that the complaint (no matter who it is
from) should be against all preferences—not just the ones that deal with race.
What do you think?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 336
Concluding Thoughts Affirmative action programs are just one method to right the wrongs of the past. It
allows those doors that were formerly closed to now be open. Will this method
rectify all past discrimination—of course not. The problem is just not that simple.
But, it is a program that sets goals, recognizes that some in America have had
advantages over others and recognizes that laws alone won’t change mindsets or
biased systems. Most Fortune 500 companies support Affirmative Action initiatives.
Many managers will be responsible for implementation of the program objectives—
therefore it makes sense to know what it is, what it does and who it really
benefits. If we can get past scarcity thinking (believing that if someone gains
someone else loses) and know that there is enough for all—then maybe we
can get closer to a workplace that is inviting to the qualified who want to participate.
End of Chapter Questions
1. What is Affirmative Action?
2. Who has been Affirmative Action’s largest beneficiary? Why do think this group over others has benefitted more by affirmative action?
3. What does quotas have to do with Affirmative Action?
4. What is the difference between competition and reverse discrimination?
5. What are two myths and corresponding facts that address commonly held beliefs about affirmative action?
6. What is the worst stage in the continuum of competence, why? What is the best stage, why?
7. Explain how the baseball analogy presented in the chapter by Timmothy McCann relates to affirmative action.
8. Why does Affirmative Action expand recruiting and training techniques? What are some of these recruiting techniques?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 337
9. Why do you think Fortune 500 companies support and implement Affirmative Action policies?
Internet Exercise
In this exercise, you will be required to take the project implicit association test. Project Implicit is a non-profit organization and international collaborative
network of researchers investigating implicit social cognition - thoughts and
feelings outside of conscious awareness and control. Project Implicit is the
product of a team of scientists whose research produced new ways of
understanding attitudes, stereotypes and other hidden biases that influence
perception, judgment, and action.
Project Implicit translates that academic research into practical applications for
addressing diversity, improving decision-making, and increasing the likelihood
that practices are aligned with personal and organizational values.
Project Implicit was founded in 1998 by three scientists - Tony Greenwald
(University of Washington), Mahzarin Banaji (Harvard University), and Brian Nosek
(University of Virginia).
Go to https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/selectatest.html or go to google and type: project
implicit select a test. Now take the race, age and any sex implicit test by clicking on the test.
Print or copy and paste your results.
Now share your test results. Explain how having unknown biases can perpetuate
discrimination in the workplace and why this is an argument in support of affirmative action.
End of Chapter Exercise
Creating an Affirmative Action Plan
Using Table 1: Sample Affirmative Action Plan create an affirmative action for the following
objective: To hire more women of all races for your engineering firm that is currently 97%
males. Include the following in your plan:
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 338
Four specific goals
Recruitment plan using tips from the chapter
Plan for providing internal advancement opportunities
Plan for creating an inclusive work environment
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Eleven: Affirmative Action 339
References
1. Kahlenberg, R. D. (1996). The remedy: class, race, and affirmative action. New York: BasicBooks.
2. Goldberg, D. T. (1991). Anatomy of Racism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
3. SFSU Public Affairs Press Release. (n.d.). The Affirmative Action Debate- Is the Media Getting it Right? Retrieved from: http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/prsrelea/fy98/092.htm
4. Wilkins, R. (May 1995). Racism has its privileges: The case for affirmative action. The Nation, pp. 409-410, 412, 414-416.
5. Sykes, M. (August 1995). The Origins of Affirmative Action. Retrieved from: http://www.now.org/nnt/08-95/affirmhs.html
6. Goldberg, D. T. (1991). Anatomy of Racism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
7. Mason, J. L. (1993). Cultural competence self-assessment questionnaire. Portland, Oregon: Portland State University, Multi-cultural Initiative Project.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Pious, S. (2003). Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 25-31
12. Bacchi, C. L. (1996). The Politics of Affirmative Action: 'Women', Equality and Category Politics. London: Sage.
13. African American Policy Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://aapf.org/tool_to_speak_out/focus/myth-5-affirmative-action-is-an-african-american- entitlement-program/
14. Ibid.
15. Pious, S. (2003). Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 25-31
16. Pincus, F. L. (2003). Reverse discrimination. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
17. Burstein, P. (1991). "Reverse discrimination" cases in federal courts: Legal mobilization by a countermovement. Sociological Quarterly, 32, 511-528.
18. Fried, C. (September/October 1999). Uneasy preferences: Affirmative action, in retrospect. The American Prospect, pp. 50-56.
19. Hill, T. E., Jr. (1995). The message of affirmative action. New York: Routledge.
20. McCann, T. B. (2000). Always. New York: Harper Perennial.
21. Curry, G. (1996). The affirmative action debate. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
22. Kivel, P. (1998, November 15). Affirmative Action, Immigration & Welfare: Confronting Racism in 1998. In Motion Magazine.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies 340
23. Black, H. (1963). The truth about college entrance exams and other standardized tests. New York: Hart Pub. Co.
24. Barker, P & Pelavin, S. H. (1976). Issues of reliability and directional bias in standardized achievement tests: the case of MAT 70. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation.
25. Brigham, C. C. (1923). A Study of American Intelligence. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
26. Black, H. (1963). The truth about college entrance exams and other standardized tests. New York: Hart Pub. Co.
27. Cole, Y. (April 2007). Why the SATS are Failing America. DiversityInc, 37-42.
28. Selecting College Material. (1976, April 4). New York Times, E7.
29. Williams, P. (1991). The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP.
30. Recruiting News. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.recruitersnetwork.com/news/2006/3.22.htm
31. Ibid.
32. Resource Handbook for Diversity Recruitment in the Fields of Engineering and Architecture. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.sandiego.gov/eoc/pdf/recruithandbook.pdf
33. Ibid.
34. Danneberg, M. (2008, August 20). Opposing view: Ban legacy preferences. USA Today, 3.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies 341
Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies
It's no measure of health to be well adjusted to a
profoundly sick society.
Krishnamarti
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies 342
MANAGING DIVERSITY STRATEGIES
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
understand what managing diversity means to the workplace.
clarify managing diversity strategies.
describe mentoring programs.
determine how to handle diversity training.
understand cultural audits and diversity councils.
learn appropriate workplace terminology.
Chapter Twelve
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies 343
While, Affirmative Action focuses on opening the doors to organizations that
formerly had their doors closed (either purposely or otherwise) does this mean
the job of handling diversity is done? Oftentimes no. It is not enough to just get
people in the door. The work atmosphere needs to be inclusive and offer support
and opportunities for advancement. To really realize equal opportunity, we have
to have an environment that manages diversity. Managing Diversity promotes fair
and just work practices and policies that create equal opportunity in the
workplace.1
Managing Diversity involves making sure there is an equal chance to
progress through the company based on the systems in place. R. Roosevelt
Thomas, Jr. the author and educator who created the concept of "managing
diversity" indicated in Beyond Race and Gender that companies need to go
beyond simple recognition of cultural diversity to active diversity management:
"Managing diversity is a comprehensive managerial process for developing an
environment that works for all employees."2 Thomas indicated that diversity
management must not be viewed as "an us/them kind of problem to be solved but
as a resource to be managed."3
Managing Diversity can involve changing the system of promotion and
recognition to making sure the workplace culture is inclusive. Completing these
types of objectives would require some if not all of the following actions:
Leaders and managers who lead by example. Managers who show through
attitude, policies and practice that they value diversity establishing this
basis for the rest of the organization.
Designing a corporate environment that is inclusive. Old values based upon
the good ole boy network may not take into account the diversity of the
workforce where issues of access, work and family, and creativity become
essential components of the environment.
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Creation of nondiscrimination, non-retaliation and anti-harassment
policies that strictly forbid discrimination and harassment in all forms.
These policies need to have specific instructions defining what is not
tolerated and what occurs when the policy is violated in accordance
with any union or company contracts.4
Formation of company policies that are written and carefully explained
to employees so that they understand the policy and ramifications
involved. This type of information can be included in employee
manuals, mission statements, and other written communications.5
Requiring diversity training for the various levels in the organizations
(management and employees alike).
Building company goals and strategic plans that are aligned with
diversity initiatives and tied to rewards and promotion.
Providing systematic and careful evaluations where expectations were
known by the employee in advance. Making sure that evaluations carry
with them the opportunity to reward those who have met their
goals, including any diversity initiatives. Those who have not been
successful in meeting previously stated goals and objectives would
be provided any necessary training.
Making sure managers handle conflicts in a timely fashion by using
the following model:
One: Listen with respect and openness.
Two: Look at the situation from the other
person’s perspective.
Three: Let the other person hear an explanation
of your perspective.
Four: Recognize similarities and differences.
Five: Acknowledge any cultural differences.
Six: Look for common ground.
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Seven: Recommend action and be creative.
Eight: Determine what adaptations each person in the
conflict is willing to make to find a satisfactory
alternative.
Nine: Negotiate an agreement.
Managing Diversity Strategies
In order to manage diversity it becomes important that workplace programs not
only address the above suggestions but also concentrate on specific retention
efforts.
Retention Suggestions & Tips
1. Change often won't occur from the bottom up. Therefore, to make sure
diversity initiatives through recruiting, promoting, training and retaining
employees from various backgrounds occur it is absolutely essential that
senior management demonstrate a commitment to these objectives.
Senior management should set strategic and long-term goals that
promote diversity.5 These goals should translate to company policies and
initiatives.
2. Create "formal" mentoring programs.6
3. Make sure all employees have access to career development and training
opportunities. Access what your management and "power" positions look
like? Is there diversity? Don't overlook people of color and women when
training and promotion opportunities are made available.6 When there are
"known career paths" necessary to moving into upper management make
sure there is a diverse group walking this path.
4. Evaluations must be objective not subjective. Document employees’
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contributions, strengths and weaknesses with written standards. Utilize this
information for evaluation, creating a formal process for performance and
promotion decisions. Allow an evaluating group/team to make performance and
promotion recommendations so bias errors are reduced.7
5. Conduct cultural audits and exit interviews so the organization is constantly
aware of the cultural climate of the organization. This will assist management with
determining what they are doing right and wrong as it relates to diversity. Always
provide cultural audit feedback and communicate to employees/managers any
changes that need to be made as a result of the various analysis of the
organization.8 Provide a timeline for change.
6. Allow employees to make lateral moves.9 This provides management exposure to
employees and employees get access to the various corporate decision-makers. This
also assists with dismissing stereotypical positions.10
7. Create support groups and other sponsored employee networks that will
eliminate the isolation that many non-majority employees feel by being part of a
minority group.11
8. Create diversity councils that will continuously address issues of diversity and
report to senior management.12 These types of groups made up of employees
and managers with everyone holding equal status can get to the root of issues
that may not make it through the communication channels. The council can also be
utilized to find ways to highlight all the progress the organization is making in terms
of diversity as this may get missed as well.
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TOOLS FOR MANAGING DIVERSITY
The following section will address and explain some of the various tools that can
be utilized to "manage diversity", these include:
Mentoring Diversity Training
Cultural Audits
Diversity Councils
Appropriate Workplace Terminology
Mentoring: A Model that Works
Formal Mentoring
Mentoring is typically a relationship between two individuals in which a wiser,
more experienced person teaches a less knowledgeable individual. Formal
mentoring is mentoring that has been initiated and supported by a third party;
someone other than the mentor and protégé or mentee, such as the organization
for which the mentor and protégé work.13 Typically organizations that formalize
mentoring do the following:
set program goals
select mentors and protégés/mentees
extensively train mentors and protégés/mentees for program effectiveness.
Why formal mentoring? A formal mentoring program can help ease turnover
troubles by providing workers from varied backgrounds with information on the
company's climate, unwritten values, norms, and career opportunities.14
Informal Mentoring
This type of mentoring is the development of relationships between individuals
without organizational structure and interventions. Informal mentoring is the
natural coming together of a mentor or protégé/mentee to meet each other’s
needs. This works easier when people have a common base--culture, beliefs,
hobbies etc. that makes it effortless to make that type of natural connection.15
However, natural connections won't work for everyone in the organization. If
you are part of the non-majority people may not take the time to get to know the
person to determine if they have hobbies, beliefs, etc. in common. Furthermore, if
they don’t have these things in common the ease at which an informal mentoring
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relationship would have won’t exist and therefore typically won’t get established.
Informal mentoring relationships that exist between people who have things in
common tend to work against diversity. To tell someone who already does not see
their culture at work or does not feel a part of the workplace environment to find a
mentor is putting the responsibility on the wrong person. Therefore, formal
mentoring is recommended over informal mentoring.
Coaching
Often confused with mentoring, coaching is a process that occurs when a person
views and critiques another at work and offers ways to improve his or her practice.
Although a mentor does some coaching, it is just one role of the relationship,
whereas, coaching can be done by peers or even by a manager of an employee.
Of the three programs, the most effective has proven to be formal mentoring.
While these programs can be designed for anyone, it is an important ingredient in
the success of people of color, the disabled and women in the workplace.16 Entrance
into a new job or position can bring about unique challenges in itself, but when you
add being a “minority” in a culturally different workplace you add a whole
different set of issues. Having a structured mentorship program can address these
issues and help the employee make the transition easier.
Mentoring can be a dynamic, reciprocal relationship in a work environment between
an advanced career incumbent (mentor) and a beginner (protégé) aimed at
promoting the career development of both. For the protégé, the object of
mentoring is the achievement of an identity transformation, a movement from the
status of understudy to that of self-directing colleague. For the mentor, the
relationship is a vehicle for being able to give back as well as enhance your
relationship building skills.
What are the stages to mentoring?
Phillips (1977) studied mentoring in the world of business surveying and interviewed
women managers.16 Phillips’ research described six phases of mentoring: invitation,
sparkle, development, disillusionment, parting and transformation:17
Invitation stage occurs when the mentor invites the protégé to participate in
a mentoring relationship. Sparkle stage, the mentor and protégé try to please each other.
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Development stage, the mentor shares the most information with the protégé.
Disillusionment phase involves the beginning of the end of the relationship—the protégé begins to see mentoring as unnecessary.
Parting stage is literally the breakup of the relationship. Transformation, the final stage involves a redefinition of the
relationship, where the protégé is seen as an equal.
How do you ensure a successful mentoring program?
Train, Train and Train
It is important that both mentors and protégés train in order to understand the
relationship dynamics, responsibilities and goals of the program.18 Each person
needs to make a solid commitment with clear expectations of each other. They
must understand that any long lasting relationship is built upon trust and this
should be the backbone of the relationship. This can all be conveyed at the
training session so the relationship is able to get off to a good start. If there are
going to be cultural or gender differences within any of the pairs this needs to be
addressed in some type of “sensitivity” training. It is important to understand
differences so that we can start where we are and build upon that, to get to some
common goals.
What can be learned from mentoring?
Bova and Phillips (1984) conducted surveys and interviews to determine what
kinds of things protégés learned from their mentors and how they learned them.19
These results illustrate why mentoring is critically important in developing
individuals. The following is a summary of what the protégés learned20:
risk-taking behaviors,
communication skills,
survival in the organization,
skills in their profession,
respect for people,
ways to set high standards and not compromise them,
how to be good listeners,
how to get along with all kinds of people,
leadership qualities and what it means to be a professional.
In summary, formal mentorship programs result in several benefits for
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both the mentor and protégé, but more importantly it greatly benefits the
organization in making sure they get the best out of each employee. Through
mentoring, protégés acquire skills and knowledge that enable them to cope with
various unwritten responsibilities in the organization that often revolve around the
corporate culture. Mentors themselves, having learned the systems and culture, can
be rejuvenated as they teach newcomers the tricks of the trade.
Diversity Training
Today, there is no question that diversity training can be of vital importance to
the business strategy of corporations and organizations. Diversity training if
conducted correctly can improve customer satisfaction, workplace productivity and
reduce legal exposure. When an organization improves how they handle
diversity it improves how employees relate to customers and each other, it also can
help management understand the legal implications of the 1964 Civil Rights Acts.
Organizations that don't make diversity a focus can be out performed by
diversity-focused organizations and experience higher levels of employee
dissatisfaction, higher turnover rates and lower productivity.
Organizations without wide-ranging diversity training and anti- discrimination and
harassment policies are in a more risky state when faced with a harassment or
discrimination lawsuit.
Conducting Diversity Training
Although diversity training can provide some substantial benefits, anyone who
has ever attempted to conduct diversity training in organizations of any size
know they will encounter a "review." No matter how good the material, how
engaging the exercises, how skilled the group process techniques, there is one
obstacle even the most experienced and skilled facilitator cannot overcome... the
unexamined negative reactions to the message.21
All an organization requires to become jittery about diversity intervention is to see a
few bad evaluations or reviews, or listen to a few apocryphal stories, and diversity
training can become the nucleus of all things negative with a half- life lasting
sometimes several years. Often, the resolution is to avoid confronting anything,
which smacks of diversity, or at least to insure the next facilitator does nothing to
disturb the fragile dispositions of future trainees.22
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When it comes to training, society issues and one's own experiences can
work against attempts to teach value and respect for people's differences. The
co-conspirators include23:
1. Inherited Social Systems which unfairly advantage some, and limit others;
2. Individuals who are reluctant to explore diversity issues;
3. Organizations who are unclear about diversity goals, and
4. Diversity professionals who have not prepared clients to engage in a
process capable of achieving significant and abiding outcomes.
Below, are a few thoughts about the above in hopes of expanding access to
diversity issues:
For one, there are many inequitable systems that have advantaged some
and disadvantaged others. However, those in training while not the perpetrators
of these societal ills they must understand that this does not preclude them from
being part of the solution to solve these ills. The challenge is to get people to
choose responsibility over guilt, to seek healing over shame, and to engage in a
process capable of producing cooperation instead of conflict.
When individuals are confronted with their own involvement in refusing to
challenge blatant systemic inequities, some may feel that those who claim to be
victims just need to get over it and get on with today. However, perpetuating the
status quo won't bring about change and this must be stressed with diversity
training participants.
Secondly, when individuals refuse to explore diversity goals they rarely
realize that successful diversity initiatives affect the company's bottom-line.
Therefore when diversity training addresses the "business case" and the
profitability of successfully managing a diverse workforce, it refutes the belief that
diversity should just be ignored.
Also, on an ethical level the question which should be asked is: What does
it say about individuals who, when exposed to ideas which propose fairness ...
inclusion ... and the creation of new systems to replace biased and unfair ones ...
can only manage the response that "it was a waste of time?" Further, what does it
say about the character of an organization that would allow such responses to
derail further exploration of these critical issues?
When top management makes it clear that they are committed to diversity
by the creation of policies, programs and strategic goals it sends the message that
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diversity must not be ignored. Therefore, potential clients and diversity specialists
must assess the strategies they will employ within the limitations of time, budget,
and like considerations. One area that should never be compromised, however, is
the integrity of either party to commit to the pursuit of clear diversity values and
goals.24 Working from a common understanding ensures the best chance for success.
Successful programs rooted in integrity, compassion, and confidences are more than
possible, but they come about by design, not by accident.
When designing diversity training, there are two commonly utilized diversity training
techniques; they are role-playing and experiential learning. In these types of
training, you can for example have participants take on the roles of someone
different and provide them with a set of scenarios where they must respond and
act as their new identity. For example , you can have someone spend the day
with an artificial disability. These types of training can provide invaluable insight that
provides real-life situations, challenges and solutions while reviewing Human
Resource policies, looking at career development issues, promotion procedures,
leadership development opportunities, and other business practices.
Managing Diversity strategies like diversity training is a good step in the right direction when it comes to workplace difference.25 The following programs work to make sure individuals easily adapt to the organization and its system. These programs can be implemented either through very structured programming or
informal structures.
Cultural Audits
How do you recognize if a human relations problem is present in your department or
area? What are the perceived barriers to enhanced working relationships? What
are people in your department/area proud of, and why? These questions are
addressed by conducting an internal cultural audit, with information provided by
surveys and individual and focus group interviews.
A cultural audit is an assessment of the work climate of an organization or
department, providing a current "snapshot" of the area. The purpose of the audit
is to describe the overall working environment, identify the unwritten "norms" and
rules governing employee interactions and workplace practices, determine possible
barriers to effective work practices and communication, and make
recommendations to address identified problems.26 Race, gender, and class issues
are also often examined.
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The objectives of an audit are to:
Determine an organization's "climate,"
Establish how the current status of each department aligns with the
company's vision, Provide a baseline for future comparisons.
Individual interviews with persons representing a "vertical slice" of the
total organization population can be conducted. These individual assessments,
along with the survey used to get a snapshot of the organization as well as group
interview data help to provide a corroborative balance of the organizations
cultural climate.
Data from the survey, along with group and individual interviews, are
compiled and analyzed. The results are then presented to Senior Staff, and
Organizational Development and/or Training representatives. They must then
determine how to communicate the results and corresponding actions to all
employees, as well as to determine if any training is necessary. The appropriate
staff must then ensure the proper customization of any training program. After
delivering the training, the findings are documented and recommendations to the
organization in a formal, written report are developed.
The Cultural Audit is an ideal tool to measure program effectiveness. The
Cultural Audit is the key to answering the frustrating question, "Where do we go
from here?"27 Since audit data clearly pinpoints and quantifies general population
and group-specific issues, the process of developing a viable strategic plan for
diversity and other types of training is made much easier.
People need to be both empowered and motivated in order for real change
to take place. That is, you need to achieve a situation where all of management
and staff are both able and willing to change. "A Cultural Audit will in itself
facilitate change - 'if you measure it, you change it'. A very powerful form of
measurement is to obtain customer feedback on the service provided - this
provides a significant motivation for change across all levels of management and
staff."28
Diversity Councils
An employee diversity council is a group of people joined by a common interest
and a vision in which employee differences are accepted and valued. A diversity
council usually consists of 10 to 24 employees from various organizational levels
and groups. White men--especially senior white men--need to be included.30
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The effectiveness of diversity councils varies considerably from organization
to organization, and there is no consistent approach to making them work. The
effective use and application of a diversity council strategy is one of the critical
challenges and opportunities facing organizations. However, with careful planning
and implementation process diversity councils can be a welcoming unit to the
diversity process.29
Diversity Councils Work as a team to:
1. review data from cultural audits, 2. create a diversity plan, 3. offer ideas and recommendations, 4. implement agreed upon changes, and recognize and track progress. Activities
may include:
orientation and training programs,
career development systems, mentor programs, and internal job
fairs,
policy development,
lunch discussion or feedback sessions,
recruitment and retention programs.
A diversity council can provide a way to reinforce justice and reverence
for diversity by "walking the talk." Diversity councils also provide an opportunity for
continuous learning about diversity that should contribute to the cultural competence
of the organization by enhancing attitudes and behavior, team and workforce
development, and strategic planning as it impacts diversity.
Strategies, policies and work groups like diversity councils are important
tools in aiding to manage diversity. But these are without value if people in the
workplace aren’t able to communicate with each other effectively. Sometimes we
can offend others without even meaning to, simply because we utilize inappropriate
terminology.
Politically Correct and Incorrect Workplace Terminology
It is very important to incorporate understanding and respect of differences in the
workplace—as tolerance is not a concept that is always learned early on. But,
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there are very simple ways to acquire this skill. One such way is by being aware
of the language we accept as part of our corporate culture. Making sure we use
the most politically correct terminology in addressing individuals in the workplace
shows respect to others. In having an understanding of cultural knowledge you
can begin to understand why some terminology is offensive due to the history
associated with the word.
The following terms should therefore be examined as either politically
correct and appropriate to use or not politically correct and inappropriate to use in the workplace:
African (politically correct term)
These are the people who currently migrate from the continent of Africa. Africa is
often mislabeled as a country when it is a continent full of various countries.
Africa, the second largest continent in the world in both physical size and
population, has for the most part been "under" taught, marginalized and often
grossly misrepresented in our classrooms as well as in our media and popular
culture. There is no such language as “African.” Africa is the home to many
languages and dialects.
African American (politically correct term)
These are Americans of primarily African descent. Sometimes used
interchangeably with “black” (a preferred term of some because not every brown
person is of African descent.) Both of these terms, like other racial descriptors,
are adjectives as in “a black person,” not nouns as in “a black.” Objectionable
terms are “colored,” “Negro,” “Negroes,” “nigger—in any form is not acceptable by
use by anybody,” “pickaninny,” “spade,” “giggaboo.”
American Indian (politically correct term)
These are the native people of America. Sometimes called “Native American”—the
more appropriate term. Some object to the universal classification of “Indian” in
favor of tribal designations, such as Cherokee, Cheyenne, Hopi, etc. Others
consider “Indian” a misnomer dating back to when Columbus landed in America,
mistook his location to be India, and designated the natives “Indian.”
Anglo (politically correct term)
These are people of Anglican descent. Sometimes used interchangeably with
“white.”
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Articulate (NOT a politically correct term)
Sometimes this expression is used to describe people of color and is often seen as a
compliment when really it is derogatory. It means the person had the unanticipated
ability to express oneself verbally. Why assume certain people would not be
articulate and then get surprised when they are.
Asian American (politically correct term)
It is the preferred term for describing Americans of Asian descent. Not
interchangeable with “Asian.” Objectionable terms are “chink,” “coolies,” “gook,”
“nip,” “slant,” “slant-eye,” “chinaman,” “china doll,” “dragon lady.”
Banana (NOT a politically correct term)
It is an offensive term referring to Asian Americans who are considered to have
abandoned their culture. Other similar terms: “Oreo” for Black Americans, “coconut”
for Mexican Americans.
Bisexual (politically correct term)
This is a person who is attracted to members of both sexes. Objectionable term is
“bi.”
Boy (NOT a politically correct term for males age 18 and over)
An offensive term used to refer to Black men, those over the age of 18. This is a
reference to times of slavery when black men were not addressed in terms of
respect.
Buck (NOT a politically correct term)
This is an offensive term used to describe an American Indian or African American
male.
Caucasian (politically correct term)
It is the classification of a race of people. Used interchangeably with “white” this
applies to some light skinned Hispanics as well.
Chief (NOT a politically correct term)
This is offensive when used to describe an American Indian.
Cracker (NOT a politically correct term)
A term of offense used to refer to low-income white people.
Flip (NOT a politically correct term)
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It is a racial slur referring to Filipinos and Filipino Americans.
F.O.B. (NOT a politically correct term)
This is an acronym for “fresh off the boat,” a derogatory term for immigrants.
Hispanic (politically correct term)
This is people of Latin American or Spanish descent. This does not include
everyone who speaks Spanish. A term that is more inclusive and interchangeable
with Hispanic is Latino.
Homosexual (politically correct term)
This is a person who is sexually attracted to members of his/her own sex.
Objectionable terms are “Faggot,” “Fruit,” “homo.”
JAP (NOT a politically correct term)
This is an objectionable term applied to Jewish women, stands for Jewish
American Princess.
Jew Down (NOT a politically correct term)
An offensive term used to suggest bartering for a lower price.
Oriental (NOT a politically correct term when used to describe people)
This should be used to refer only to objects such as art and rugs. Most activists
consider this term to be outdated and dislike it because it was imposed on them
for easy classification by whites. Instead, use the terms Asian American, Chinese
American, etc.
Person with Disability (politically correct term)
This is a preferred term along with mentally or physically challenged.
Objectionable terms are cripple, handicapped.
Raghead/Towelhead (NOT a politically correct term)
This is a derogatory term used to describe Sikhs, referring to the custom of
wearing turbans.
Speech/Hearing Impaired has been replaced by Hard of Hearing
(politically correct term)
This is the preferred term as opposed to using the objectionable term “deaf and
dumb.”
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Uncle (NOT a politically correct term)
This is offensive when used as a substitute for Mr. in addressing a black man. This is
a reference to times of slavery when black men were not addressed in terms of
respect.
Senior Citizen (politically correct term)
This refers to people over the age of 65 or an elderly person who is retired.
Objectionable terms are codger, geezer, old fart, old fogy.
Whigger (NOT a politically correct term)
This is a derogatory term that refers to white people who act black in other words a
“white nigger.”
White Trash (NOT a politically correct term)
This is a derogatory term for whites, usually used to refer to those in low-income
brackets.
Woman (politically correct term)
This is the term that should be used to refer to an adult female (over the age of
17). Objectionable terms are babe, bimbo, broad, chick, girl, gal, sweetie, dear,
honey, wench.
Remember the saying: Sticks and stones will break my bones but words will never
hurt me? Well, words do hurt and often are used to demean another. The
derogatory terms described above should not be of use in the workplace. If you
are not sure what to call a person, the easiest thing to do is ask them. Using
appropriate terminology can help to effectively address workplace diversity.
Concluding Thoughts
Organizational culture can be defined as "a system of informal rules about how
people should behave most of the time." These rules--or values--can involve "the
way we do things," "how people dress and interact," "taken-for-granted points of
view," "workplace humor," and "what happens at lunchtime." A commitment to
strengthen cultural diversity can grow out of a vision of equality, a sense of social
responsibility, valuing the role of diversity in nature and in life, or legal mandates.
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In summary, we want to make sure that the corporate or organizational
culture values differences, creates open doors for all to participate in the
workplace, embraces practices and procedures like diversity training, cultural
audits, mentoring and diversity councils to make sure policies and procedures
work for everyone. This helps to eliminate a revolving door, low employee morale
or lawsuits that can occur when a workplace is not providing equality and access.
End of Chapter Questions
1. How does Managing Diversity as a tool to help with workplace equality differ
from Affirmative Action?
2. Should companies have a zero tolerance policy when it comes to offensive workplace terminology and symbol usage like nooses (reference to slavery) and
swastikas (infamous Nazi symbol)?
3. Under what corporate conditions would a Mentorship Program benefit the organization?
4. Why is formal mentoring better than informal mentoring?
5. What are five of the nine suggestions for handling conflict that you would find useful? (please state why you chose these)
6. What are the benefits to providing diversity training in the workplace (according to the text)?
7. Why would a company conduct a cultural audit and have a diversity council?
8. Under the section, “Politically Correct & Incorrect Workplace Terminology” choose five words that you have heard used or used yourself but that you now
know are politically incorrect.
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Internet Exercise
Go to www.google.com and type in “mentoring tips” and choose an article on workplace
mentoring. Summarize this article along with answering why and how mentoring can work in
organizations. Provide the Internet address for your article as proof of your search.
End of Chapter Exercise
Part A: What is your opinion?
We have talked about cultural competency in the workplace as the goal for workplace
diversity. As a reminder cultural competence is defined as a set of congruent behaviors,
attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and
enables that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural
situations.
Read or listen to the following article below and explain whether or not you feel what is
being done lends itself to cultural competency in that state, if you agree state why and if
you don’t agree state why: a. http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/07/09/south-carolina-house-
confederate-flag/29901255/
b. or go to: www.google.com and type south caroling takes down the confederate flag
Part B: Take the Posttest
Directions: Answer questions 1-13 utilizing your “best” guess. Now compare your
answers to the Pretest you took in chapter one. State what answers changed and why.
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Directions: Each question is True/False, please answer accordingly.
1. Thanksgiving is a celebration that everyone enjoys. Native-Americans especially enjoy this holiday because of the peace it represented to their community.
2. Gay and lesbian people are a threat to the workplace and have few leaders who have contributed to our society.
3. African-Americans even though they started as slaves in this country now have equal opportunity.
4. Disabled employees can be a liability to a company due to missed work time.
5. Caucasian men are accepted in Corporate America because being white and male are the only requirements needed to belong to the “old boys network.”
6. For every job that a man can do, there is a woman able to do the same job.
7. Most people on welfare (a government transfer system where tax payer dollars are given to the poor for housing etc.) are Black and Hispanic women who live off the
system forever.
8. Arabs come to this country and are given government subsidies (free money that is not to be paid back) this is why they are able to buy their own companies.
9. Asian-Americans have always been privileged minorities because of their higher intelligence and because they do not suffer from discrimination or illiteracy in
any capacity.
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10. Hispanics are the poorest minority because they are lazy immigrants.
11. Cultural knowledge of various groups is not necessary to preventing discrimination in the workplace.
12. I believe that most people are treated fairly in the workplace and history plays no factor in how people treat each other.
13. It is not necessary to have diversity training in the workplace as most people understand diversity and its implications.
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References
1. Thomas, R. R. (1996). Redefining Diversity. New York: Amacom.
2. Thomas, R. R. (1991). Beyond Race and Gender: Unleashing the Power of Your Total Workforce by Managing Diversity. Atlanta, GA: American Institute for Managing Diversity.
3. Ibid.
4. Curtice, J. (2005). Want to motivate your employees? Keep your company safe and you will. Handbook of Business Strategy, 6(1), 205-208.
5. Loden, M. & Rosener, J. B. (1991). Workforce America!: Managing Employee Diversity as a Vital Resource. Columbus, OH: Irwin Professional Publishing.
6. Larkins, D. (2000). Issues of recruitment and retention. Lincoln: University of Nebraska: People of Color in Predominantly White Institutions-Fifth Annual National Conference.
7. Ibid.
8. Loden, M. (1995). Implementing Diversity. Columbus, OH: Irwin.
9. Larkins, D. (2000). Issues of recruitment and retention. Lincoln: University of Nebraska: People of Color in Predominantly White Institutions-Fifth Annual National Conference.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibd.
12. Gardenswartz, L. & Rowe, A. (1995). Diverse Teams at Work: Capitalizing on the Power of Diversity. Columbus, OH: Irwin Professional Publishing.
13. Burke, R. J. & McKeen, C. A. (1990). Mentoring in Organizations: Implications for Women. Journal of Business Ethics, 9.
14. Ibid.
15. Foster, J., & Cross, J. (1988, April). Workforce Diversity and Business. Training and Development Journal.
16. Lee, J. H. & Nolan, R. E. (1998, December). The relationship between mentoring and the career advancement of women administrators in cooperative extension. Journal of Career Development, 25(1), 3-13.
17. Portner, H. (2005). Teacher mentoring and induction: the state of the art and beyond. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Chapter Twelve: Managing Diversity Strategies 364
18. USDA Career Intern Mentoring Handbook. Retrieved from: http://www.da.usda.gov/employ/MentorProtegeHandbook.pdf
19. Bova, B. M. & Phillips, R. R. (1984). Mentoring as a Learning Experience for Adults. Journal of Teacher Education, 35(3), 16-20.
20. Ibid.
21. Delatte, A.P., & Baytos, L. (1993). Eight Guidelines for Successful Diversity Training. Training, 30, 55-60.
22. Karp, H.B., & Sutton, N. (1993). Where the Diversity Training Goes Wrong. Training, 30, 30-34.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ghiselin, B. W. (1995). Work Teams and Diversity. Center for Creative Leadership.
26. Gallos, J. (1994, January/February). Competitive advantage through managing diversity.
Franchising World, 26(1).
27. Wagner, C. & Madsen-Copas, P. (2002, Summer). An audit of the culture starts with two handy tools. Journal of Staff Development, 42-53.
28. Ibid.
29. Etsy, K., Griffin, R. & Hirsch, M. S. (1995). Workplace Diversity. Holbrook, MA: Adams Media Corporation.
30. Tuohy, J. (2002, December). Setting the Bar….Diversity Leadership Practices. VPA Diversity Council Handbook.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Journal 365
Journal
Evaluation - the only reliable road to knowledge.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
Managing Workplace Diversity | Journal 366
Diversity Journal
This Diversity Journal is a place to express all your inner thoughts and feelings
concerning the deep and somewhat controversial subject matter that relates to
diversity in the workplace. The goal of this writing assignment is for you to begin to
understand yourself through writing. You can then move closer to knowing who you
are and what adjustments you may need to make in order to better value diversity.
Your feelings, your breakthroughs, your desires — record them all here. Discover
yourself.
Journaling as you complete this course can help you with:
1. Understanding your own feelings about the issues discussed and connect you to why you feel as you do. 2. Provide you with an opportunity to release the stress you might feel as we discuss the various topics. Putting your thoughts on paper, can take them off your heart and mind.
3. Journaling can help you address issues that you may feel angry about and help you get to a place of forgiveness and healing. 4. Connecting with your inner thoughts, no matter what they are as we address these controversial topics, can provide you with insight and peace. Also, providing you an opportunity to see how your own perspectives may change as we move through the topics presented in the text.
General Directions are to write out your response to the statements that correlate with each chapter. The amount of detail will vary depending upon your writing style and views. Please utilize complete sentences to translate your thoughts.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Journal 367
Chapter One Thinking Journal Topic:
Think about two positive messages you have been told through-out your life or
when you were a kid or two positive things you believe about yourself. Now
indicate below how these messages have manifest themselves in your life.
How does thinking negative instead of positive impact you when you encounter
someone different than yourself?
Chapter Two Thinking Journal Topic:
How do you change your own ways of thinking to positively impact dealing with
diversity.
Chapter Three Thinking Journal Topic:
You were born an Intersexed person. This is the state of a person whose sex
chromosomes, genitalia and/or secondary sex characteristics are determined to be
neither exclusively male nor female. A person with intersex may have biological
characteristics of both the male and female sexes. At the age of five your parents
changed your biological sex to what you have determined as an adult to be the
wrong gender. What do you do?
Chapter Four Thinking Journal Topic:
Patriotism, Loyalty To Country, And Political Involvement: We believe that we are
to be good citizens. This means we are loyal to our nation: we are to support our
Armed Forces, law enforcement officials, and we should participate in the political
process. We live in a free country but we must all be loyal and not question
authority in order to be patriotic. What is your viewpoint on these statements?
Managing Workplace Diversity | Journal 368
Chapter Five Thinking Journal Topic:
What is your viewpoint regarding the issues women in the workplace often face.
Chapter Six Thinking Journal Topic:
What is your thoughts regarding organizations and school systems that feel they
have the right to utilize stereotypical mascots.
Chapter Seven Thinking Journal Topic: What are your thoughts on Blacks & Whites uniting during slavery?
Chapter Eight Thinking Journal Topic:
What is your viewpoint on the issues of immigration that caused the creation of
laws that banned equal opportunity to nonwhite immigrants and h o w d o e s
t h i s r e l a t e t o the issues of immigration today?
Chapter Nine Thinking Journal Topic: Religious Freedom and what does this mean in the United States workplace.
Chapter Ten Thinking Journal Topic:
You have just learned that you have HIV. Now indicate how you would want to be treated at work/school by your supervisor/colleagues/peers.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Journal 369
Chapter Eleven Thinking Journal Topic:
Is racism a disorder: Can extreme bias be an illness? Can extreme forms
of racism, homophobia and other prejudices be addressed by a
psychiatrist in the course of therapy because some patients are disabled
by these beliefs?
State why you believe this way and if you do not believe this way
indicate what your belief is regarding the issue.
Chapter Twelve Thinking Journal Topic:
After reading this chapter, indicate what tool you would utilize in the
workplace or indicate what topic(s) in the text touched you most.
Managing Workplace Diversity | Index 370
Index 1
1918 Codification of Alien Enemy Act of 1798 .............................................................. 118
1924 Citizenship Acts .................................................... 179
A
abolitionist ............................................. 210, 214, 216, 218
ADA 47, 48, 57, 339, 340, 345, 346, 347, 354, 357, 359, 361, 362, 364
ADEA 32, 44, 45, 46, 47, 57, 66
Affirmative Action1, 17, 18, 86, 88, 91, 114, 127, 143, 164, 233, 345, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377,
378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 389, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 400, 418
affirmative action plan .................................................. 389 African Americans ............................................................ 8 African- American .............................................. 10, 15, 198 Age Discrimination .......................................................... 44 Age Discrimination in Employment Act
of 1967 ................................................. 31, 32, 44 AGEISM 65 Alien Land Act of 1913 .............................................. 253 American Revolution100, 196, 205, 208, 209, 210, 258, 259 Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 ......................... 32 Anthony Carnevale ......................................................... 18 Anti-fat bias .................................................................... 62 Arabs 24, 34, 103, 105, 287, 292,
298, 420 Asian 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 24,
30, 57, 109, 110, 138, 144, 164, 245, 246, 248, 250, 254, 267, 271, 298, 305, 307, 308, 377, 415, 416, 421
assimilation .............................................. 13, 109, 111, 179 attitude 2, 6, 7, 8, 11, 20, 173, 182,
212, 366, 400
B
Baby Boomers ...................................................... 67, 68, 69, 99 Bar or Bat Mitzvah ..................................................................... 302 BENAZIR BHUTTO OF PAKISTAN ................................................ 157 Buddhism 248, 280, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308,
309, 310, 311, 332, 333, 334
Buddhists 9, 305, 306, 308, 309, 332
C
Cable Act 250, 266 Canadian-Americans ................................................................... 99 Carl Campbell Brigham ............................................................. 384 chattel slavery 196, 208, 234 Chinese Exclusion Act ................................................................ 250 Christianity 112, 173, 175, 280, 282, 283, 289,
294, 300, 306, 311, 315, 323, 326, 328 Christians 9, 11, 88, 103, 173, 199, 216, 280,
281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 300, 308, 323, 326 Christmas 281, 282, 320, 326 Christopher Columbus........ 102, 169, 170, 173, 258, 261, 262, 296 Civil Rights Movement ............................................................. 203 Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 ................................................. 54 CLASSISM 84
Coca-Cola 13, 14, 22 color discrimination ........................................................ 32, 34, 56 Communism 90 Concrete Ceiling 144, 165 Continuum of Competence ....................................................... 375 CORAZON AQUINO OF THE PHILIPPINES ................................... 160 Cuba 90, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263,
264, 265, 277, 298
cultural audits .............................................. 399, 404, 412, 418 Cultural Awareness ..................................................................... 19 Cultural Competence ................................................................... 20 cultural knowledge.............................. 19, 20, 21, 22, 56, 235, 414
Managing Workplace Diversity | Index 371
Cultural Sensitivity ...................................................................... 20 Cutting-Hare Bill 255
D
Deaf 350, 371 Dharma 305, 306, 309, 310, 311 Dianah Worman 3 Discrimination 31, 32, 30, 34, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47,
54, 55, 58, 63, 66, 76, 82, 112, 149, 150, 396 diversity councils. ...................................................................... 399
diversity training .. 25, 268, 392, 399, 402, 408, 409, 410, 418, 421 Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc ............................................. 14, 22 Dutch-Americans 100
E
Easter 282, 308 economic pyramid ...................................................................... 87 EEO Laws 32, 59 EEOC 11, 29, 30, 32, 34, 37, 38, 41, 46, 149,
151, 335, 378 ELLEN JOHNSON-SIRLEAF OF LIBERIA........................................ 155 Employment Non-Discrimination Act ......................................... 55 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission .... 21, 30, 32, 37, 41, 50, 59, 369 Equal Pay Act 31, 32, 48, 49, 50, 146, 147, 150 Equal Pay Act of 1963 .............................................. 31, 32, 48, 146 Europeans Jews 300 Executive Order 11478 ............................................................... 54
F
Filipinos 248, 254, 255, 256, 267, 416 Frank Outlaw 6 French-Americans ....................................................................... 99
G
Gabriel 205, 206, 292 gay 16, 12, 16, 38, 56, 72, 76, 77, 81, 83,
93, 94, 89, 108, 111, 355 gays 12, 54, 74, 76, 83
Gender identity 37 Generation X 67, 68, 69 Generation Y 67, 68, 69 Generational Characteristics ....................................................... 68 German Jews 300 German-Americans ..................................................... 99, 100, 123 glass ceiling 143, 144, 145, 160, 377 GOLDA MEIR OF ISRAEL............................................................. 158
H
Hall v. Leus Construction Company ............................................. 39 Halloween 316 handicap 342, 345 Hard of Hearing Person .............................................................. 350 Hearing Impairment .......................................................... 349, 371 Hinduism 248, 311, 315, 332
Hindus 9, 311, 322, 323 Hispanic 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 21, 24, 30, 109,
110, 140, 141, 144, 256, 257, 258, 259, 266, 267, 268, 273, 275, 416,
420
HIV 339, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 364, 366, 367, 368, 371, 427
Holly Sklar 85 Hostile Environment .............................................................. 39, 40
I
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 ............................. 36
impairment 47, 339, 340, 347, 348, 349, 350, 357, 365
Indentured servitude ................................................................ 105
Indian Mascots..................................................... 180, 181, 194 indigenous 169, 172, 178, 180, 186, 191, 311 INDIRA GANDHI OF INDIA ......................................................... 155 Individual with a Disability .......................................................... 47 infidels 173, 176 Irish 95, 99, 102, 114, 116, 118, 123, 264,
300 Islam 280, 282, 285, 287, 289, 291, 292,
294, 296, 298, 306, 311, 315, 323, 328, 329, 330
Italian-Americans .............................................................. 102, 123
Managing Workplace Diversity | Index 372
J
Japanese 9, 118, 119, 182, 231, 246, 248, 252, 253, 254,
266, 271, 272, 307 Jewish American Princess ................................................. 136, 416
Jews 9, 11, 108, 182, 289, 293, 294, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 308, 323, 335
Jihad 291, 292
Jim Crow Laws ...................................... 196, 220, 221, 231, 374 Juan Garrido 199 Judaism 282, 289, 294, 299, 301, 302, 303,
315, 323, 331
K
Karen Messing 134 karma 311, 313, 323
L
learning disabilities ............................................................ 349, 365 lesbian 16, 23, 38, 56, 72, 73, 76, 77, 83, 93,
94, 111, 420 lesbians 12, 54, 72, 74, 76, 81, 83 Lewis Maltby 63 LGBTQ 61, 72, 77, 94
M
managing change ................................................................... 2, 4, 6 Manifest Destiny 177, 249, 269 MARGARET THATCHER OF BRITAIN .......................................... 158 Maya Angelou 21, 27 MELTING POT 12 Mental Impairment................................................................... 347 mentoring 146, 377, 399, 403, 405, 406, 407,
408, 418, 419, 422, 423 Mexicans 246, 249, 259, 260, 267, 275 Middle-Eastern 103 monolithic 294 Morgan Stanley 19 Muslim Customs 294
Muslims 9, 88, 96, 199, 257, 285, 286, 287, 289, 291, 292,
293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 308, 322, 323, 330
N
Nat Turner 205, 206, 207, 240 Native American Contributions ................................................. 184 Native American houses .......................................................... 170 Native American Myths ............................................................. 178 Native American tribes .............................................................. 170 Native-Americans ............................................................ 8, 23, 420 Net Worth 87, 95 North American Free Trade Agreement .................................... 266
O
Obesity 6 Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 ........................... 46 Oliver Hill 114
P
Pachucos 260, 261, 275
Paul Kivel 86, 115, 381 Pay equity 153 Paycheck Fairness Act .......................................................... 52, 54 Penal Laws 114, 116 Pilgrims 97, 174, 175, 177, 193, 384 Polish-Americans 102 Preferences 392 Pregnancy Discrimination ........................................................... 41 prejudice 11, 13, 14, 22, 27, 62, 63, 251, 260 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins ...................................................... 37 protected class 37, 39, 40, 55, 56, 63 Puerto Ricans 246, 263, 264, 267, 273, 277 Puritans 97, 98, 174, 175, 193
Q
Quakers 100, 114, 215, 216, 218, 283 Qualified Individual with a Disability ........................................... 47 QUEEN HATSHEPSUT OF EGYPT ................................................ 157 Queer & Questioning............................................................. 72, 77 Quid Pro Quo 39 Qur'an 287, 289, 292, 295, 296
Managing Workplace Diversity | Index 373
R
Race & Color 30 Ramadan 287, 295, 296, 323 Reasonable Accommodation ............................... 48, 346, 358, 369 Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ........................................................ 345 reincarnation 310, 311, 313
Religion 9, 278, 304, 326, 328, 331, 333, 335 Religious Accommodation ................................................. 319, 337 Religious Discrimination ............................................................. 43 reverse discrimination ....................................................... 378, 379 Rosh Hashanah 302, 303
S
Same Sex Marriage ..................................................................... 75
savages 169, 173, 174, 176, 204 self-awareness 20, 21 Self-esteem 9 self-worth 7, 8 Sex discrimination .................................................................. 36, 58 sexual harassment ..................................... 38, 39, 41, 56, 141, 150 Sexual Harassment ................................................................ 38, 41
sexual orientation4, 11, 30, 37, 54, 55, 56, 61, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 83, 94 Sexual Orientation ..................................................... 54, 73, 76, 89
Shabbat 303, 323 Shiite 285, 287 Siddhartha Gautama ................................................................. 305 slave institution 202, 203 slave revolutions 196, 203 Socialism 90 stereotypes 11, 16, 19, 22, 30, 38, 56, 62, 66, 71,
73, 82, 85, 88, 130, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 144, 145, 160, 178, 180, 234, 237, 347, 359, 374, 379, 382, 394
Stereotypes 11, 76, 136, 137, 164 Sunnis 286 Susan Carol Stone ....................................................................... 18
synagogue 300, 301, 302, 308
T
Texaco 13, 14, 22
Thanksgiving 23, 136, 177, 187, 190, 193, 383, 420 The Dawes Act 178 The Indian Reorganization Act .................................................. 179 Thomas Roosevelt ....................................................................... 17 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ..... 29, 30, 31, 32, 30, 37, 42, 52, 56, 150
Torah 300, 304, 335 TOSSED SALAD 12 Traditionalists 67, 69 transgendered 11, 78, 81, 83, 93 TRANSGENDERISM ...................................................................... 78 Transitioning 79 transsexuals 78, 79, 82, 95 Tydings-McDuffie Act ....................................................... 255, 256
U
Underground Railroad ....................................................... 208, 214 Undue Hardship 48 Unwelcome Conduct ................................................................... 38
V
Valuing Differences ............................................................... 17, 18
valuing diversity ......... 3, 4, 13, 17, 2, 16, 18, 22, 181, 233, 375 Valuing diversity 4, 13, 17, 18 Veretto v. U.S. Postal Service ...................................................... 37 VIOLETA CHAMORRO OF NICARAGUA ...................................... 158
W
Wal-Mart 14 Wartime Violation of Italian American Civil Liberties
Act ................................................................. 119 Weight bias 62 White exclusionists ................................................................... 253 Wicca 283, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318,
335, 336 Wiccans 314, 315, 316, 317, 323 Willie Lynch 196, 210, 211, 214, 220, 234, 242,
374 Willie Lynch Speech ................................................................... 196 WILMA MANKILLER OF THE CHEROKEE NATION ....................... 157 workplace terminology ..................................................... 399, 418
