Marketing Case study

77

Understand core American cultural values.

Summarize changes in self, environment, and other-oriented values.

Discuss values as they relate to green marketing.

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Discuss values as they relate to cause-related marketing.

Discuss values as they relate to marketing to gay and lesbian consumers.

Discuss values as they relate to gender-based marketing.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Gender roles continue to evolve in the United States with more women taking on traditionally male-oriented tasks and more men taking on traditionally female-oriented tasks.1 One area that has recently gotten the attention of mar- keters is grocery shopping. A recent Yahoo! study finds that 51 percent of adult men in the United States report being the primary grocery shopper for their home. And, while men may be inflating their participation, other research supports the fact that men, indeed, are involved in the grocery shopping task more than ever before. You might wonder what has caused this shift. Many factors are likely to be involved, a few of which are discussed next. First, generational shifts are occurring, where younger women are now more educated than their male counterparts. This is changing career and family dynamics and causing cou- ples to revisit how household duties should be divided up. Second is economic. Nearly three out of every four jobs lost in the most recent recession were those of men, another dynamic that has led couples to revisit house- hold duties. A third aspect is the masculine/ feminine value itself. This value appears to be shifting in the United States away from the tra- ditional masculine- dominated value to a more balanced masculine/feminine value. As this

shift has occurred, role differentiation between men and women has reduced. Consider the following excerpt:

In masculine cultures, household work is less

shared between husband and wife than in

feminine cultures. Men also do more household

shopping in the feminine cultures. Data from

Eurostat . . . show that low masculinity explains

52% of variance of the proportion of men who

spend time on shopping activities.

Given the increased participation by men in the grocery shopping task, several marketing factors become critical. First is to understand differences in how men and women shop. A recent RIVET survey indicates the following differences:

MEN are (a) more likely to stick to brand names they recognize, (b) less likely to shop with a list, and (c) less likely to look for in-store bargains. WOMEN are (a) more likely to change brands for the sake of variety, (b) more likely to make unplanned purchases, and (c) more likely to shop every aisle.

Such differences have implications for retailers ranging from the role of coupons (probably less pronounced for men) to the appeal of store brands (probably more

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Part Two External Influences78

pronounced for women). Understanding such dif- ferences for grocery retailers is critical. A second critical marketing factor is adjusting numerous aspects of grocery retailing toward men. This may include a range of issues including store layout, in-store promotions, and advertising for grocery products. For example, “themed events” catering to men’s interests such as beer-tasting nights may

help make the grocery shopping task more engag- ing. Providing free samples may also be effective because it is a major factor cited by men in terms of influencing them to switch brands. Finally, appropri- ate inclusion of male-oriented themes in advertising is critical. Only a quarter of men currently feel that ads in the grocery category are designed to speak to them.

Chapter 2 discussed how variations in values influence consumption patterns across cultures. Here, we describe how changes in values within culture over time influence consumption patterns, with a specific focus on the United States. The changing role of men and women in American society, highlighted in the chapter opener, reflects changes in the “masculine/feminine” value described in Chapter 2. As this example makes clear, cultural values are not constant. Rather, they evolve over time.2 We begin by examining the evolution of American values in general. Next, we examine four marketing trends that have evolved in response to changing values: green marketing, cause-related marketing, marketing to gay and lesbian consumers, and gender-based marketing.

CHANGES IN AMERICAN CULTURAL VALUES Observable shifts in behavior, including consumption behavior, often reflect shifts in cultural values, widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable. Therefore, it is neces- sary to understand the underlying value shifts to understand current and future consumer behavior. Although we discuss American values as though every American has the same values, in fact there is substantial variance in values across individuals and groups. In addi- tion, changes in values tend to occur slowly and unevenly across individuals and groups. While traumatic events such as the 9/11 attacks and the recent major recession can produce value shifts, a slow evolution is more common. Caution should be used in assuming that short-term behavioral or attitudinal changes in response to such events represent long- lasting value shifts.

Figure 3–1 presents our estimate of how American values are changing. These are the same values used to describe different cultures in Chapter 2. It must be emphasized that Figure 3–1 is based on the authors’ subjective interpretation of the American society. You should feel free, indeed compelled, to challenge these judgments.

Self-Oriented Values Traditionally, Americans have been active, materialistic, hardworking, religious people inclined toward abstinence and postponed gratification. Beginning after the end of World War II and accelerating rapidly during the 1970s and early 1980s, Americans placed increased emphasis on leisure, immediate gratification, and sensual gratification. While these changes have remained relatively intact, we discuss what role, if any, the most recent recession (dubbed by some as the Great Recession) has had on specific values such as materialism and immediate gratification.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 79

Religious/Secular America is basically a secular society. A religious group does not control the educational system, government, or political process, and most people’s daily behaviors are not guided by strict religious guidelines. Nonetheless, roughly 82 percent of American adults claim a religious affiliation, 30 percent claim to attend a religious service at least once a week, and 54 percent state that religion is very important in their lives.3

While Americans often profess to be more religious than their behaviors would sug- gest, religious-based beliefs do influence decisions.4 Many Americans for whom religion is especially important are conservative in their beliefs. They are quite active politically and as consumers. Their political activism involves attempts to regulate various market- ing activities, including products (particularly “sin” products such as liquor, gambling, and pornography) and advertising.5 Their consumption patterns include both positive con- sumption (purchasing religious objects and books) and negative consumption (avoiding or boycotting products and companies).

Although conservative religious groups generate substantial publicity and have consid- erable political power, the culture remains relatively secular. Indeed, increasing secularism is cited as one reason for the increase in interfaith marriages.6 However, it is estimated that the devoutly religious make up 25 percent of the U.S. population.7 And advertising to this group requires a nuanced approach—advertisers can’t simply put a religious symbol on all products and think that it will have a positive effect. Only when there is a product- religion match (e.g., a counseling center) does the inclusion of a religious symbol such as a

Sensual gratification Postponed gratification Material Hard work Active

Abstinence Immediate gratification Nonmaterial Leisure Passive

Minimum cleanliness Change Security Fatalistic Overcome nature Status

Collective Uniformity Extended family Age Cooperation Feminine

Maximum cleanliness Tradition Risk taking Problem solving Admire nature Performance

Individual Diversity Limited family Youth Competition Masculine

Self-Oriented

Environment-Oriented

Other-Oriented

*T = Traditional, E = Emerging, and C = Current.

E T T

EC T

CET E CT

E CT

T

TEC T

EC T C

E

E ECT*

TC

CE

E C T

C T C E

T C E

T C E T C E

E C

Religious SecularECT

3-1Traditional, Current and Emerging American Values FIGURE

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Part Two External Influences80

cross have a positive influence on purchas- ing. When there is a perceived lack of fit (e.g., alcohol), the inclusion of a religious symbol has a negative effect. In addition, the more religious a person is, the more pronounced these effects are.8 We treat religion and its impact on our society in considerable depth in Chapter 5 when we discuss subcultures.

Sensual Gratification/Abstinence Closely tied to America’s traditional reli- gious orientation was a belief in the virtue of abstinence. As American society became more secular, sensual gratification became more acceptable. This trend appears to remain strong, even as consumer and gov- ernment agencies have tried to push back and curb violence, indecency, and nudity in such venues as ads, movies, and video games.9 For example, Axe body spray is the number one brand in its category and

relies heavily on sex appeals targeting young men. And while the United States is not the highest in its use of nudity in ads, it outranked Brazil, China, South Korea, and Thailand in a recent study. However, the effectiveness of sexual appeals in ads depends on viewer gender. Men tend to react more positively than women to sex appeals involving female nudity. However, women with more liberal attitudes toward sex view sexually explicit ads just as positively as men.10

Other evidence of the greater value placed on sensual gratification comes from a recent study showing that one of the biggest value shifts in the United States is in the greater impor- tance placed on fun and excitement. That is, people today, more than ever, want to lead a “pleasurable, happy life; to experience stimulation and thrills.”11 The food industry certainly relies on consumer desires for sensual gratification by selling the pleasure, happiness, and thrills that various foods can deliver. According to one Pepperidge Farm executive, their premium cookies offer a “small indulgence anytime, anywhere.”12

Illustration 3–1 shows an ad for TBP4Men, that appeals to sensual gratification. How do you feel this ad would be received by men? By women?

Postponed/Immediate Gratification In line with the value they generally place on sensual gratification, Americans seem unwilling to delay pleasures, even in the face of discomfort over spending levels and debt. For a time, there was hope that the Great Recession would usher in a new frugality among consumers and a willingness to postpone gratification by delaying or eliminating purchases. And, to some degree, it has. Americans are now saving more and paying down debt. However, recently these trends have begun to recede as once again U.S. consumers get back to “spending as usual.” Consider the following quote:

The truth is that spending may be hard to contain. Entire generations of consumers have grown up with the idea of instant gratification and the credit culture that comes with it.13

American culture

values sensual grati-

fication. Products

and ads based on

this appeal such as

TBD4Men are gener-

ally well received but

can cause problems

when they go too far.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 81

It is really quite difficult, therefore, to say whether U.S. consumer values relating to instant gratification have truly been affected (it does appear that they have somewhat, as represented in Figure 3–1), or whether the behavioral changes related to spending and saving had more to do with the economic constraints imposed by the recession. As a con- sequence, we show an emerging trend back toward instant gratification more in line with pre-recession levels moving forward.

Material/Nonmaterial Americans have maintained a strong material orientation. An outcome of America’s focus on materialism is a consumption-driven society. As we will see, Americans are working longer hours, in part, to afford material posses- sions. That is, Americans are trading time and energy for things and services such as cars and travel. One factor found to influence materialism is television. As one group of researchers note:

Television is a powerful medium .  .  . consumers often use information from television to con- struct perceptions of social reality including the prevalence of affluence. Heavier viewers tend to believe luxury products and services to be more commonplace than they actually are.14

As we have seen, the recent recession has curtailed spending to some degree. However, at least some of that frugality appears to have been more economically than value-related. Indeed, one expert notes that consumers are going through “frugality fatigue,” which sug- gests that consumers are acting due to an external constraint more than an internal value change. And, consider the following quote from a young woman who simply got fed up with trying to save and began spending again, which led to her eviction and caused her to have to move back in with her parents:

After awhile, I just decided, “Screw it. I need some new clothes. I’m going to get them.” My mamma’s not happy, but I don’t care. You stop spending and you stop living.15

While materialism appears to be the norm, a movement away from materialism in the United States is occurring among a select group of consumers. Role overload, burnout, and emotional exhaustion are causing some to rethink priorities and simplify their lives. Consider the following:

I had all the stuff that was supposed to make me successful—my car and my clothes, the house in the right neighborhood and belonging to the right health club. All the external framework was excellent and inside I kind of had this pit eating away at me.16

Consumers’ efforts to reduce their reliance on consumption and material possessions have been termed voluntary simplicity. Voluntary simplicity can span a continuum from minor life adjustments and reduced spending to drastic lifestyle adjustments, including downsized jobs, incomes, houses, and spending. The key is that it is a conscious and vol- untary decision, not one brought on by economic necessity. Major factors in the deci- sion to simplify appear to be reduced stress and increased life satisfaction, although other motivations, including environmentalism, can be involved. While the voluntary simplicity movement appears to represent a relatively small proportion of the U.S. population, its growth certainly holds economic and marketing consequences, including the market for secondhand products and green products.17

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Part Two External Influences82

Hard Work/Leisure Americans continue their strong tradition of hard work, leading much of the industrialized world in hours worked. Average weekly hours worked is around 40 for full-time workers, with 24 percent of workers clocking more than 40 hours per week. The percentage of married women who work outside the home for wages has increased almost 50 percent since 1970, from 41 to 61 percent of all married women.18 Americans work long hours for many reasons. One is clearly their material orientation. Americans work to have such things as a large home, two cars, and a nice vacation. Others work long hours because they lack the skills or job opportunities to provide even a moderate lifestyle without doing so. However, Americans also work long and hard because work is meaningful and valuable to them, in part because of the self-esteem and respect they gain from the work they do.19

Partly in response to the increase in work hours, the value placed on work relative to leisure has dropped over the past several decades. Clearly work is still important, and higher unemployment during the recent recession has put this into even greater perspec- tive. However, a recent study finds that for working women with children, the percentage who indicated that full-time work was ideal for them has decreased by 11 percent since 1997, while the percentage who indicated part-time work was ideal for them has increased by 12 percent.20 And yet, over two-thirds of married women with children work outside the home for wages. Together, these statistics suggest such factors as time pressures and role conflict associated with the fact that work competes with other important aspects of one’s life. This opens up opportunities for marketers who can deliver convenience. Still, we can’t seem to get away from work. One study finds that between 51 and 65 percent of U.S. workers with work e-mail check it during off hours including nights, weekends, and while on vacation.21 Thus, we have a situation in which hard work and leisure are both valued (often by the same people) and commingled in people’s lives.

Active/Passive Americans continue to value an active approach to life. Although less than half of all American adults exercise regularly, most Americans take an active approach to both leisure and problem-solving activities. Television viewing as a primary form of entertainment has dropped sharply from its peak in the mid-1980s (young men [18 to 24 years of age] seem to be moving away from TV faster than any other group).22 Alternative activities, including surfing the net, sports, cooking, and gardening, are popu- lar. And the amount of time children spend in scheduled activities continues to increase.23 The following quote illustrates that Americans differ on this value, but most would agree more with the second speaker than the first.

My idea of a vacation is a nice oceanfront resort, a beach chair, and a piña colada.

Mine too. For a day or two. Then I’d go bug spit. I’d feel like I was in prison. I’d do something.24

Illustration 3–2 describes how Club Med has 71 worldwide resorts designed for active leisure.

Environment-Oriented Values Environment-oriented values prescribe a society’s relationship with its economic, techni- cal, and physical environments. Americans have traditionally admired cleanliness, change, performance, risk taking, problem solving, and the conquest of nature. While this cluster of values remains basically intact, there are some important shifts occurring.

Cleanliness Americans have long valued cleanliness. This strong focus seems to be declining somewhat, particularly in terms of our homes. Likely due to increased time

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 83

demands caused by work, messier homes are more acceptable.25 However, such shifts don’t appear to suggest major changes. The popularity of TV shows like Mission: Orga- nization on HGTV suggests that while Americans may accept messier homes, they are not happy about them. This obviously presents marketing opportunities.26 For example, the development of robotic vacuum cleaners such as iRobot’s Roomba taps the desire for cleanliness while offering much-needed convenience and time savings.

Personal hygiene, another aspect of cleanliness, remains very important to most Ameri- cans. One study shows that antibacterial hand sanitizers such as Purell are an important part of the arsenal of products carried around by mothers.27 Illustration 3–3 demonstrates how Clorox emphasizes cleanliness which is in line with the importance that Americans place on personal hygiene.

Tradition/Change Americans have always been very receptive to change. New has traditionally been taken to mean improved. While still very appreciative of change, Ameri- cans are now less receptive to change for its own sake. New-product recalls, the expense and the failure of various government programs, and the energy required to keep pace with rapid technological changes are some of the reasons for this shift. Another reason is the aging of the American population. As we will see in the next chapter, the average age of the population is increasing, and people generally become somewhat less accepting of change as they age. Still, much of America continues to embrace change, as evidenced by a grow- ing segment of workers that one expert calls the creative class. The creative class includes those who work in such professions as architecture, science, engineering, and health care as well as business and who generate new ideas and technologies for a living or engage in

This Club Med ad

is consistent with

American values for

leisure, activeness,

sensual gratification,

and risk taking.

ILLUSTRATION 3-2

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Part Two External Influences84

complex problem solving. This group now constitutes about 33 percent of the workforce, compared with just 10 percent in 1900. Fiat, in re-launching its brand in the United States, indicated that they were targeting the creative class with a campaign heavy on digital, viral, and event-marketing approaches they felt would work best with this segment.28

Risk Taking/Security Americans’ risk-taking orientation seems to have changed somewhat over time. There was an increased emphasis on security during the period from 1930 through the mid-1980s. This attitude was a response to the tremendous upheavals and uncertainties caused by the Depression, World War II, and the cold war. However, risk tak- ing remains highly valued and is gaining appreciation as Americans look to entrepreneurs for economic growth and to smaller firms and self-employment to obtain desired lifestyles. Figure 3–1 indicates that there seems to currently be a greater emphasis on security, driven at least in part by the recent economic recession. However, a long-term study of the impor- tance that Americans place on security shows that the desire for security has seen one of the largest declines over the last several decades. This suggests that the short-term focus on security may give way once again to risk taking as the economy recovers.29

Problem Solving/Fatalistic Americans take great pride in being problem solvers, and as we saw earlier, as a percentage of the workforce, problem solvers and creative types are on the increase. By and large, Americans believe that virtually anything can be fixed given sufficient time and effort. For example, even in the midst of the recent recession, nearly two-thirds of Americans agreed that “[a]s Americans, we can always find ways to solve problems.”30 Marketers introduce thousands of new products each year with the theme that they will solve a problem better than existing products will. We will examine the results of this value later in this chapter in the sections on green marketing and cause marketing.

Admire/Overcome Nature Traditionally, nature was viewed as an obstacle. Ameri- cans attempted to bend nature to fit their desires without realizing the negative conse- quences this could have for both nature and humanity. However, this attitude has shifted dramatically over the past 30 years.

Americans continue

to place a high

value on cleanliness,

as this Clorox ad

demonstrates.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 85

Experts have been concerned that environmentalism is dead. Some cite the fact that the percentage of Americans who call themselves environmentalists dropped from 73 to 47 percent between 1990 and 2000. Part of the decline may be real, but part of the decline may simply be in how people define environmentalism. For example, a recent Gallop Poll shows that 80 percent of Americans are active or sympathetic to environmentalism (21 percent “active”; 49 percent “sympathetic” but not active). This puts active participa- tion up by five percentage points since 2000. Here are other indications that concern for the environment among Americans remains strong and may be on the rise:

Eighty-three percent report changing their lifestyle to protect the environment. Recycling (89 percent), energy reduction (85 percent), and environmentally friendly purchases (70 percent) remain strong. Sixty-seven percent say that “even in rough economic times, it is important to purchase products with social and environmental benefits.” Fifty-one percent report being willing to pay more for products with environmental benefits.31

Table 3–1 shows eight segments, identified by IRI/TNS, based on consumer attitudes and behaviors toward the environment.32

Firms that convince environmentally concerned consumers that their products are environmentally sound can reap huge rewards. Such an approach has been termed enviropreneurial marketing. Enviropreneurial marketing is environmentally friendly marketing practices, strategies, and tactics initiated by a firm to achieve a competitive differentiation. Research shows that such a marketing approach can lead to increased new- product success and increased market share.33

We describe the marketing response to this value in the section of this chapter on green marketing.

Performance/Status Americans are shifting back to a focus on performance rather than status. Although consumers are still willing to purchase “status” brands, these

Eco-Centrists (16 percent): Highly committed to and concerned about environment. Beliefs reflected in their consumption behaviors across a wide range of products will pay more for eco-friendly products. Cynical about corporate green efforts—viewed as merely marketing tactics. High education and income; Urban South and West.

Respectful Stewards (7 percent): Most highly concerned about environment. Beliefs reflected in their consumption behaviors. Will pay more for eco-friendly products. Not cynical about corporate green marketing efforts. Focused on community and culture. Lower education and income; Hispanic; Urban.

Proud Traditionalists (14 percent): Environmental efforts focused on keeping home running efficiently and effectively (insulation and water- efficient products). Focused on family and hard work. Rural Midwest.

Frugal Earth Mothers (18 percent): Environmental efforts focused on running a more efficient home to save money (buy used, wash in cold water, air-dry clothes). Focused on practicality and lowering day-to-day costs. Lower income; Rural; Female.

Skeptical Individuals (13 percent): Believe in environmental issues like global warming and carbon emission concerns. Skeptical of corporate green efforts. Very high income and education; Urban coasts; Male.

Eco-Chic (14 percent): Environmentally concerned, but actions don’t match beliefs. More interested in appearing to be green to “ride the wave of environmental consciousness.” May try eco-friendly products but tend to return to their favorite nongreen brands. Young adults.

Green Naives (11 percent): Environmental issues have not registered with this group in terms of beliefs or actions. Sedentary; Lower income.

Eco-Villians (7 percent): Highly dismissive of environmental concerns. Don’t believe global warming exists. Highly negative of corporate green efforts—seen as marketing ploys. Middle income; Male, Smaller metro areas.

3-1Shades of Green Segmentation™ Scheme by IRI/TNS TABLE

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Part Two External Influences86

brands must provide style and functionality in addition to the prestige of the name. This has led to substantial increases in sales at stores that combine price, service, and quality, such as Walmart and Target stores, and for quality retailer private-label brands such as those offered by Albertson’s, Target, and Walmart. In contrast, outlets with inappropri- ate cost structures or images, such as The Gap, Kmart, and Montgomery Ward, have struggled or failed.34

Other-Oriented Values Other-oriented values reflect a society’s view of the appropriate relationships between individuals and groups within that society. Historically, American society has been ori- ented toward individualism, competitiveness, masculinity, youth, limited families, and uniformity. However, several aspects of this orientation are undergoing change.

Individual/Collective A strong emphasis on individualism is one of the defining char- acteristics of American society. Watch any American hit movie. The leading character will virtually always behave as an individual, often despite pressures to conform to the group. Americans believe in “doing your own thing.” Even the “uniforms” that each generation of teenagers invents for itself allow ample room for individual expression. This value affects incentive systems for salespeople, advertising themes, product design, and customer com- plaining behavior.35 For example, consumers higher in individualism are more likely to complain, switch, or engage in negative word-of-mouth when faced with poor service per- formance.36 Individualism is also evident in the customization craze for cars, trucks, and motorcycles, a market worth over $2 billion a year. Discovery Channel and CMT have tapped into this trend with shows such as American Chopper and Trick My Truck, which attract the highly elusive younger male audience.37

Diversity/Uniformity While American culture has always valued individualism, it has also valued a degree of uniformity, particularly with respect to groups. America was founded in part by people seeking religious freedom or fleeing from various forms of persecution. The Constitution and many laws seek to protect diverse religions, political beliefs, and so forth. Nonetheless, Americans historically insisted that immigrants quickly adopt the language, dress, values, and many other aspects of the majority. Those who did not were often subject to various forms of discrimination. This was particularly true for racial and some religious minorities.

Since World War II, Americans have increasingly valued diversity. Consider the following:

Hallmark markets a collection of greeting cards called “Common Threads,” whose mes- sages reflect a variety of world cultures, emphasizing global community and diverse cultural expression.38

Researchers speculate that the market for products such as “Common Threads” is “cul- tural creatives,” the “26% of adult Americans who are concerned with self-actualization, spirituality, and self-expression and who like things that are foreign and exotic.”39 Cultural creatives, regardless of ethnicity, are more likely to cross traditional ethnic boundaries in seeking out products.

Although far from being free of racial, religious, ethnic, or class prejudice, American cul- ture is evolving toward valuing diversity more than uniformity, as reflected in Illustration 3–4. And a recent study shows that 61 percent of Americans think that the increased racial and

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 87

ethnic diversity “has been a change for the better.” This percentage is higher for younger generations.40 We examine one aspect of America’s increasing acceptance of diversity— marketing to gay and lesbian consumers—later in this chapter.

Limited/Extended Family America was settled by immigrants, people who left their extended families behind. As the nation grew, the western movement produced a similar phenomenon. Even today, frequent geographic moves as well as differential rates of social mobility mean that few children grow up in close interaction with aunts, uncles, cousins, nieces, or nephews.41 It is also common for children to leave their hometowns and parents once they begin their own careers. The physical separation of traditional family members often reduces the sense of family among those members. This, in turn, reduces the impact that the family has on the individual.

This is not to say that Americans do not love their family members or that how an American is raised does not influence the person for life. Rather, it means that a 35-year- old American is unlikely to have a cousin who would feel obligated to respond positively to a loan request (this is not the case in many other cultures). Likewise, this 35-year-old would be unlikely to have one or more cousins, aunts, or nephews live with him or her for an extended time period. The role of families in the American culture is covered in depth in Chapter 6.

Youth/Age Traditionally, older people were considered wiser than young people and were, therefore, looked to as models and leaders in almost all cultures. This has never been as true in American culture, probably because transforming a wilderness into a new type of producing nation required characteristics such as physical strength, stamina, youthful vigor, and imagination. The value on youth continued as America became an industrial nation.

Americans increas-

ingly value diversity.

As a result, a diversity

approach is used in

many ads.

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Part Two External Influences88

Since World War II, it has increased to such an extent that products such as cars, clothing, cosmetics, and hairstyles seem designed for and sold only to the young. For example, youth appeals in American advertising still appear to outstrip appeals to age and tradition.42

But a slow reversal of this value on youth seems to be occurring. Because of their increasing numbers and disposable income, older citizens have developed political and economic clout and are beginning to use it. Cosmetics, medicines, and hair care products are being marketed specifically to older consumers, and ads for these products increas- ingly feature older models, such as Julianne Moore, who are closer in age to the target audience. However, most of these products still have either a direct or indirect appeal of creating a younger appearance.

Age portrayal in advertising is a difficult issue. Since people often feel younger than their actual age, ads using younger models might generate a more positive reaction. In addition, for youth-oriented or conspicuously consumed products, using older models in ads may alienate younger consumers. These two factors help explain the overrepresenta- tion of younger models in ads.43 There is the worry, however, that at some point older consumers may feel ignored by ads that portray overly young users. Clearly, marketers have a lot to learn in this area.

Competition/Cooperation America has long been a competitive society, and this value remains firmly entrenched. It is reflected in our social, political, and economic sys- tems. We reward particularly successful competitors in business, entertainment, and sports with staggering levels of financial compensation. Although the focus on cooperation and teamwork in schools and businesses has increased, teamwork is generally instituted so that the team or group can outperform some other team or group. It is no wonder that America was one of the first countries to allow comparative advertising.

Masculine/Feminine American society, like most others, has reflected a masculine orientation for a long time. But as indicated by this chapter’s opening vignette, this orien- tation is changing, as are gender roles. Although American society is becoming less mas- culine oriented, it still leans clearly in that direction. For example, 37 percent of parents indicate that they would prefer a boy if they could have only one child, compared with 28 percent who would opt for a girl.44 And textbooks aimed at children still depict physical activity more often for boys (65 percent) than for girls (35 percent).45 Still, there is a shift taking place in this value. For example, preference for male bosses continues to decline while preference for female bosses continues to increase.46 The marketing implications resulting from evolving gender roles are discussed later in this chapter.

MARKETING STRATEGY AND VALUES We have examined a number of marketing implications of American values and changes in these values. It is critical that all aspects of the firm’s marketing mix be consistent with the value system of its target market. We will now examine marketing responses to four evolving American values: green marketing, cause-related marketing, marketing to gay and lesbian consumers, and gender-based marketing.

Green Marketing Marketers have responded to Americans’ increasing concern for the environment with an approach called green marketing.47 Green marketing generally involves (1) developing products whose production, use, or disposal is less harmful to the environment than the tra- ditional versions of the product; (2) developing products that have a positive impact on the

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 89

environment; or (3) tying the purchase of a product to an environmental organization or event. For example:48

Levi’s launched its Levi’s Eco line of 100 percent organic cotton jeans. CBS created the “EcoAd” program whereby 10 percent of a company’s ad buy goes to local environmental causes. Participation is signaled with a “green- leaf” eco-ad logo. Office Depot offers Recycled Enviro- Copy printer and copier paper, which contains 35 percent postconsumer, recy- cled fibers, with green-colored packag- ing and the name “Office Depot Green” to emphasize the environment.

Environmental concerns don’t guarantee purchase of green products. Even among those who are environmentally concerned, negative perceptions are on the rise includ- ing beliefs that green products are too expensive, of lower quality, and not better for the environment, and that green claims can’t be trusted.49 Overcoming these obstacles is critical to the success of green marketing (see the Audi TDI Clean Diesel ad in Illustration 3–5). For example, Honda discontinued its Accord hybrid in 2007. Poor sales were likely due to the fact that highway mileage for the hybrid was only 1 mpg higher than the gas-only Accord, but it cost nearly $15,000 more!50

The FTC shares consumer skepticism about green claims. Amid substantial increases in green marketing and green claims by companies, the FTC has made the first modifica- tions in over a decade to its voluntary guidelines called the “Green Guides.” The Green Guides provide guidance on acceptable and unacceptable practices relating to environ- mental claims. Several issues motivated the FTC to make the modifications:51

First, terms such as eco-friendly appear to be misleading to consumers who believe that such products have “far-reaching benefits in almost all environmental areas without having any substantial drawbacks.” According to the FTC, few products can live up to the perceptions that consumers have of them. Second is a practice termed greenwashing whereby a firm promotes environmental benefits that are unsubstantiated and on which they don’t deliver.

Prominent among the modifications to the Green Guides are (a) a focus on qualifying claims so that it is clear in what way the product is environmentally friendly and (b) a crack- down on third-party certifications and seals. This crackdown reflects the fact that some com- panies have created their own seals or utilize third-party vendors that don’t do anything to substantiate the claims being made (to learn more about Green Guides, visit www.ftc.gov).52

Cause-Related Marketing The term cause marketing is sometimes used interchangeably with social marketing. How- ever, the two are different. As noted in Chapter 1, social marketing is marketing done to enhance the welfare of individuals or society without direct benefit to a firm. In contrast,

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Environmentally

friendly products

such as the Audi

TDI diesel must also

provide consumer

benefits to be

successful.

ILLUSTRATION 3-5

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cause marketing, or cause-related marketing (CRM), is marketing that ties a company and its products to an issue or cause with the goal of improving sales or corporate image while providing benefits to the cause.53 Companies associate with causes to create long-term rela- tionships with their customers, building corporate and brand equity that should eventually lead to increased sales. A good example of CRM is Secret’s “Mean Stinks” anti-bullying campaign.

Examine the two ads in Illustration 3–6. The ad on the left in Illustration 3–6 is an example of social marketing; it promotes a benefit to the world community without advancing the profits or image of a commercial firm. The ad on the right in Illustration 3–6 is an example of cause-related marketing; it attempts to benefit a cause and to enhance the image and sales of a commercial firm.

The foundation of CRM is marketing to consumers’ values, and it can be very effec- tive. Cause-related marketing is often effective because it is consistent with strongly held American values.54 For example, a common theme in most CRM programs taps America’s problem-solving orientation by presenting a problem, such as breast cancer, AIDS, or pol- lution, and an action that individuals can take to help solve the problem. Thus, consumer expectations, acceptance of CRM, and response to CRM have increased dramatically over the past decade.

Research shows that many consumers will travel out of their way to find stores and brands that support the causes they care about and also pay more for those products. In addition:

Seventy-one percent have purchased a cause-related brand. Eighty-eight percent think companies should try to accomplish their business goals while simultaneously working to improve society.

The Take the Walk ad

on the left promotes

a benefit to the world

community without

advancing the profits

or image of a com-

mercial firm. That

ad is an example of

social marketing. The

Secret Mean Stinks

ad on the right repre-

sents cause-related

marketing. It not only

benefits a cause but

also enhances the

image and sales of a

commercial firm.

ILLUSTRATION 3-6

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 91

Seventy-four percent claim that a company’s commitment to a social issue is important when deciding which products and services to recommend to other people. Eighty-six percent are likely to switch brands based on CRM when price and quality are equal.55

Given consumer receptivity to CRM, it is not surprising that corporate spending on it is on the rise. One area of spending, cause-related sponsorship, has grown from $120 million in 1990 to $1.5 billion, which represents the third-largest area of corpo- rate sponsorship!56 Consumer skepticism and apathy remain a challenge. When consum- ers feel that the company is engaged in CRM due to positive values (they feel morally obligated), corporate trust is enhanced, which increases word-of-mouth and purchases. Alternatively, when consumers feel the company is engaged in CRM simply to enhance their own image or because stockholders expect it, corporate trust is reduced, which decreases positive word-of-mouth and purchases.57 CRM skepticism and apathy are demonstrated in the following descriptions and quotes of four consumer types based on their responses to CRM:58

Skeptic (doubts sincerity or effectiveness of CRM): “I think those are fake, most of them. Because what they give is so little it doesn’t amount to anything.”

Balancer (believes in CRM but generally doesn’t act accordingly): “I hate to say this, but, as far as grocery stores, I go to the one that is closest to me. It makes me feel bet- ter . . . about Food Lion that they were willing to do this (participate in CRM) . . . but, sometimes I don’t put out that extra effort, but I guess I really should.”

Attribution-oriented (concerned about motives behind CRM): “I always approach them with a skeptical eye, but I try and use good judgment and common sense based on who they are, what they’re doing and try to see the end result.”

Socially concerned (driven by desire to help): “I mean, as long as they’re doing it, the motives can be questionable as far as I’m concerned. . . . Even if there’s questionable motives, it’s that much more important to support companies who do those things. Just to reinforce that good behavior.”

An emerging consensus is that a “fit” between the company and the cause can improve results.59 For example, ConAgra (a food marketing company) launched Feeding Children Better to combat child hunger while Crest and the Boys and Girls Club of America part- nered to form Healthy Smiles 2010 to teach kids about oral hygiene. In both cases there is a business–cause fit.60

Beyond fit, a unique approach to cause-related marketing is being used with success by Toms Shoes, as discussed in Consumer Insight 3–1. Do you think their approach over- comes some of the challenges faced by cause-related marketing?

Marketing to Gay and Lesbian Consumers As Americans in general are shifting to valuing diversity, they are increasingly embrac- ing ethnic, religious, and racial diversity. Another group gaining increased public accep- tance is the gay and lesbian community (we follow business press convention and refer to gay and lesbian consumers as the gay market). Overall, 52 percent of Americans feel that gay and lesbian relations are morally acceptable, up from 40 percent in 2001. The strongest support comes from younger men (62 percent) and women (59 percent), support- ing our earlier observation that shifts on the diversity value appear to be strongest among

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92

younger generations.66 Interestingly, the value that Americans place on individual rights and protection appears to transcend personal opinions about lifestyle. For example, over 70 percent support hate-crime protection laws and same-sex couple rights such as hospital visitation, and 60 percent favor allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military. These numbers are even stronger among younger consumers.67 The emergence and popu- larity of TV shows with openly gay or lesbian characters, such as Modern Family and The L Word, are additional evidence of increased public acceptance.

CONSUMER INSIGHT 3-1 Cause Marketing “Baked into the Brand” at Toms Shoes

A Target store popped up on Times Square in New York City, one of the most expensive pieces of real estate in the country. The store interior was blanketed in a sea of pink products—pink bicycles, sweaters, flip-flops, tee shirts. Outside a coffee cart served pink donuts. All proceeds during the store’s short one-month existence went to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation.61 For every home Habitat for Humanity builds for the home- less in North America, Whirlpool donates a range and a refrigerator.62 Hand in hand with the Red Cross, P&G Tide’s “Loads of Hope” provides mobile laundromats to victims of natural disasters (e.g., New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina).63

These cause-marketing campaigns establish a part- nership between a corporation and a nonprofit and often result in “doing well by doing good.” Marketers increase their bottom line amid a halo of goodwill, while nonprofits receive needed contributions and public attention, and consumers purchase goods for themselves and thus contribute to a worthy cause. Despite the benefits of a win-win-win, critics have pointed out the downside of cause marketing. Corporations may come to lose con- sumer trust if consumers perceive the corporate–cause relationship as exploitation of the charity. Rather than contribute directly to nonprofits, cause marketing may be teaching consumers to contribute only when they receive something in return and at no cost to themselves. Unlike the unfettered contributions received directly from the pub- lic, the contributions charities receive in partnership with corporations may come with strings and obligations.64

However, the success of Toms Shoes puts a new twist to cause marketing. Toms Shoes does not partner with a nonprofit or charity. Rather, Toms Shoes is a “for profit” company with the cause “one for one” baked into the brand. For each pair of Toms shoes consum- ers buy, the company donates a pair of Toms shoes to children who need shoes but cannot afford them. In spring 2013 Toms Shoes donated 13 million pairs of shoes in 59 countries. It is now expanding its efforts to eyeglasses in 15 countries. The “baked in brand” strategy of Toms Shoes has been described as a metastory—story telling through action. The consumer act of buying Toms shoes tells the story about the brand and the consumer. The story came first. The “for profit” status of the firm makes doing the right thing sustainable.65

Critical Thinking Questions 1. Should marketers, whose primary motivation is to

increase the bottom line, deserve the goodwill and burnished reputation that arise through partnerships with nonprofit organizations?

2. Cause marketing teaches consumers that they can improve the world by their consumption, to con- tribute only when they receive something in return and at no additional cost. Do you agree with that statement?

3. Do the concerns that surround cause marketing apply to the new form of cause marketing such as Toms Shoes?

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 93

State and federal actions have also increased in the direction of protecting and expand- ing the rights of gays and lesbians on a number of fronts including open service in the military and rights as couples, including legalizing gay marriage. In addition, nearly nine out of ten Fortune 500 companies protect workers based on sexual orientation.68

Before we begin, it is important to emphasize that gay consumers, like heterosexuals, vary in terms of ethnicity, geographic region, occupation, and age. These and other factors influence their behavior and, in most instances, play a much larger role in their consump- tion process than does their sexual orientation.

The gay market is substantial in both size and purchase power. The size of the gay market is estimated to be about 7 percent of the adult U.S. population, or roughly 16 million people over the age of 18. Purchasing power is estimated at between $750 and $900 billion.69 Not surprisingly, many companies have concluded that the gay market is a highly attractive seg- ment to pursue. Examples include:70

American Airlines created a page on its website specifically for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) consumers. Wyndham Hotels partnered with the airline by giving a 20 percent discount on all reservations made through the page. IBM has a “sales team dedicated to bringing GLBT decision-makers in contact with IBM.” Ikea generated considerable public outcry in 1994 for its gay-themed ad. It reentered the gay market in 2006 with a spot that “shows a black and Asian male couple with their daughter and Golden Retriever and ends with the voiceover: ‘Why shouldn’t sofas come in flavors, just like families?’ ” Unlike the reaction in 1994, no public debate was created by this ad.

Any firm that desires to capture the loyalty of the gay community must have inter- nal policies that do not discriminate against gay employees. A recent survey found that 82 percent of gay consumers are more likely to buy from companies they know are gay friendly.71 The Human Rights Campaign Foundation (www.hrc.org) helps provide such information through its corporate equality index (CEI), which measures how equitably a company treats its GLBT employees, customers, and investors.

Product Issues In many cases the lifestyles of gay consumers do not differ sufficiently from those of other consumers to require product modifications. For example, three of the top four reasons for choosing a hotel were the same for GLBT customers as for heterosex- uals. In order of importance, they were convenience, customer service, and recommenda- tions from friends or family.72 However, product modification opportunities are sometimes possible and beneficial. For example, in the realm of television, content that targets news, concerns, programs, and movies of specific interest to GLBT audiences is increasingly popular. The Logo and here! networks have been launched recently in response to this growing demand. In addition, with the increased focus on same-sex marriage, companies such as Pottery Barn and Tiffany’s are modifying their bridal registries to be gender neu- tral, and websites such as Gayweddings (www.gayweddings.com) are emerging to serve this market.

Another area in which product modifications are often necessary is financial services. As the director of segment marketing for American Express explains:

Often, gay couples are very concerned about issues like Social Security benefits and estate plan- ning, since same-sex marriages often are not recognized under the law.73

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Part Two External Influences94

Ameriprise has a GLBT web page devoted to this market and scores 100 percent on the CEI index. As their website states:

Ameriprise Financial was one of the first financial services firms to offer dual client analysis for domestic partners and single people in relationships. Dual client analysis allows financial advi- sors to help domestic partners create a shared plan for the future. Our financial advisors use a comprehensive approach to financial planning that includes tax, protection, estate, retirement and investment planning strategies.

Communication Issues There are a large number of gay-oriented print media in the United States and Canada. Given the size and spending power of the gay market, it is not surprising that spending in gay-oriented print media has more than tripled since 1997 to its current level of over $350 million. And a large and increasing number of Fortune 500 companies now advertise in gay media.74

Compared with the general population, gay consumers tend to be more tech savvy and more likely to search online for information.75 Marketers are taking this into account in developing their websites.76 For example, iTunes offers GLBT podcasts, Orbitz has a gay and lesbian page on its travel site, and, as we have seen, Ameriprise has a dedicated web page for the GLBT community. In addition, marketers such as Virgin Mobile are using targeted banner ad campaigns to promote their products through websites that target the GLBT community such as OutTraveler.com, SheWired.com, and gay.com.

Since most products don’t require alteration for the gay market, firms may decide to approach the market by placing one of their standard ads in gay-oriented media. Anheuser- Busch, Miller Brewing, Baileys Original Irish Cream, and American Express are among the firms that first approached this market with standard ads. However, a majority of ads (62 percent) in gay print media are now created specifically for gay consumers.77 The ads may portray a gay couple instead of a heterosexual couple in a standard ad. Or the entire ad may contain a gay theme, such as the Tylenol ad shown in Illustration 3–7.

It has been estimated that roughly half of the gay community rarely or never read gay- oriented publications and spend considerable time using standard media.78 As one gay man stated, “We are not only reading Out and The Advocate all the time. If you go into any gay man’s apartment you’re very likely to see Vanity Fair and People as well.”79 This is also true online, where eight of the ten top websites visited by gay consumers are general sites, such as Yahoo!, Google, Amazon, CNN, and eBay, which are not specifically devoted to gay issues.80

Using ads with gay themes in standard mass media can generate concerns regarding backlash from the portion of the market that does not accept the gay community, as well as the desire to have ads that directly appeal to the largest number of viewers.81 A recent study compared mainstream ads (heterosexual couples in the ad) with explicitly gay and lesbian ads (male or female couples) or implicit gay and lesbian ads (ads that had gay symbolic icons, such as the rainbow flag, pink triangle, and freedom rings). The study found that gays and heterosexuals equally liked the mainstream ads. In addition, although heterosexu- als disliked explicit gay and lesbian ads, their attitudes were not negatively influenced by the implicit gay and lesbian ads. Finally, both explicit and implicit gay and lesbian ads were liked more than mainstream ads by those who identified themselves as gay or lesbian.82 For marketers wanting to move into the mainstream market with appeals that are as broad as possible and still target gay consumers, this research suggests that using symbolic gay icons (which the mainstream market tends to be relatively unknowledgeable of) appears to be an effective tactic. This is important because research shows that gay consumers reward companies that advertise in gay media outlets and/or use gay themes in their advertising.

Finally, in addition to advertising in gay media, support of gay community events such as Gay Pride week is another important avenue firms use in approaching this market.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 95

Gender-Based Marketing As we saw in the chapter’s opening vignette, gender roles in the United States are shift- ing. The shift is going both ways, with more women taking on traditionally male-oriented tasks and more men taking on traditionally female-oriented tasks. It’s hard to imagine that just a few generations ago, the prevailing stereotype of an automobile purchase involved a male making the purchase alone. Today, women influence 80 percent of all vehicles sold, make over half of all new vehicle purchases (up from 20 percent in 1984), and purchase 40 percent of all SUVs.83

Changes in gender roles for women have been dramatic, with increased participation in the workforce, increased wealth and purchase power, and increased participation in active lifestyles, to name just a few. Marketers of products and services ranging from automo- biles, to sportswear, to financial services clearly understand the importance of women as a market segment. Consider the following examples:

Cadillac targets professional women with campaigns for models such as their CTS featuring Kate Walsh and the tagline “The real question is, when you turn your car on, does it return the favor.” Harley Davidson has a page on their website called Women Riders and spon- sors Garage Party events for women, who are an increasing proportion of Harley’s customer base.84

Nike has an entire golf and apparel line targeted to women, along with an entire section on its website featuring these products as well as the Nike Training Club app available through iTunes.

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Ads targeting the gay

community can range

from standard ads

run in gay-oriented

media to ads such

as as this Tylenol

ad with clear gay

themes.

ILLUSTRATION 3-7

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Part Two External Influences96

The terms sex and gender are used interchangeably to refer to whether a person is biologically a male or a female. Gender identity refers to the traits of femininity (expres- sive traits such as tenderness and compassion) and masculinity (instrumental traits such as aggressiveness and dominance). These traits represent the ends of a continuum, and indi- viduals have varying levels of each trait, with biological males tending to be toward the masculine end of the continuum and biological females toward the feminine end.85

Gender roles are the behaviors considered appropriate for males and females in a given society. As the previous discussion of automobile purchasing indicates, gender roles in America have undergone massive changes over the past 30 years. Much of this shift has been for behaviors previously considered appropriate primarily for men to be acceptable for women too. But also, as we saw in the opener, there is a shift for behaviors previously considered appropriate primarily for women to be acceptable for men too.

Gender roles are ascribed roles. An ascribed role is based on an attribute over which the individual has little or no control. This can be contrasted with an achievement role, which is based on performance criteria over which the individual has some degree of con- trol. Individuals can, within limits, select their occupational role (achievement role), but they cannot generally determine their gender (ascribed role).

It can be useful to distinguish traditional or modern gender orientations on the basis of preference for one or the other of two contrasting married lifestyles:

Traditional. A marriage in which the husband assumes the responsibility for providing for the family and the wife runs the house and takes care of the children. Modern. A marriage in which husband and wife share responsibilities. Both work, and they share homemaking and child care responsibilities.

Americans have certainly moved toward a preference for a modern lifestyle, from only 35 percent in 1977 to 71 percent in the most recent polls.86 In addition, only 25 percent agree that women should return to their traditional roles and 87 percent agree that fathers are just as capable as mothers of caring for their children.87 However, while males and females both express strong preferences for the modern lifestyle as a general concept, most recognize that it comes with a cost. For example, 80 percent of mothers with children age five or under would prefer to stay home with their children if it were totally up to them,88 and nearly half of both men and women believe that it was easier when “women stayed at home and men went to work.”89

As the opener indicated, men’s participation in household duties is on the rise. It is important to realize, however, that the focus there was on all men, whether married or single. However, for married men, while participation in household tasks has increased, the general pattern still follows more traditional gender roles. The following Gallup Poll results show the breakout of household chores in terms of who is most likely to do them. The figures for each activity represent the percent response to the question, “Who is most likely to do each of the following in your household?”

Activity Husband (%) Wife (%)

Keep the car in good condition 69 13 Do yard work 57 12 Handle investments 35 18 Do grocery shopping 16 53 Do laundry 10 68 Clean house 9 54

Source: F. Newport, “Wives Still Do Laundry, Men Do Yard Work,” Gallup, 2008 www.gallup.com, accessed May 26, 2008.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 97

These numbers have not changed much since the mid-1990s. And the fact that only 2 of the 11 activities are ones for which the male took majority responsibility means wives are left to do most of the work at home even though they also work outside the home. Given that 62 percent believe that “sharing household chores” is very important to a successful marriage,90 this can lead to strong resentments, as the following quote demonstrates:

“It’s a blowout fight every month,” Hope (32 and a book editor) confesses. “It’s the only thing we fight about.” Hope says getting Cohen (34 and a medical resident) to do his agreed-upon tasks requires constant reminders. “He’ll tell me he’ll wash the dishes before we go to bed, and maybe he will,” she says. “But by around 9:30, with dirty dishes still in the sink, I’m broiling.”91

With high levels of role overload and stress associated with dual-income families, many Americans are realizing that they can’t have it all, and where there is a choice, some are opting for change. Sometimes the change is toward the nontraditional, as in the increasing numbers of “stay-at-home” dads.92 Sometimes the change is toward the traditional, as in the recent increase in “stay-at-home” moms.93

As we have seen, women have a variety of role options and a range of attitudes con- cerning their gender roles. The ads in Illustration 3–8 reflect two sharply contrasting views of the female role. Next, we examine some of the marketing implications of the changing roles of women in American society.

Market Segmentation Neither the women’s nor the men’s market is as homogeneous as it once was. At least four significant female market segments exist:94

1. Traditional housewife. Generally married. Prefers to stay at home. Very home and family centered. Desires to please husband and children. Seeks satisfaction and mean- ing from household and family maintenance as well as volunteer activities. Experi- ences strong pressure to work outside the home and is well aware of forgone income opportunity. Feels supported by family and is generally content with role.

Women fulfill a mul-

titude of roles today

and have a wide

range of attitudes

about their roles in

society. These two

ads take radically

different approaches

to the portrayal of

women and women’s

attitudes.

ILLUSTRATION 3-8

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Part Two External Influences98

2. Trapped housewife. Generally married. Would prefer to work but stays at home because of young children, lack of outside opportunities, or family pressure. Seeks satisfaction and meaning outside the home. Does not enjoy most household chores. Has mixed feelings about current status and is concerned about lost opportunities.

3. Trapped working woman. Married or single. Would prefer to stay at home but works because of economic necessity or social or family pressure. Does not derive satis- faction or meaning from employment. Enjoys most household activities but is frus- trated by lack of time. Feels conflict about her role, particularly if younger children are home. Resents missed opportunities for family, volunteer, and social activities. Is proud of financial contribution to family.

4. Career working woman. Married or single. Prefers to work. Derives satisfaction and meaning from employment rather than, or in addition to, home and family. Experi- ences some conflict over her role if younger children are at home but is generally content. Views home maintenance as a necessary evil. Feels pressed for time.

Although the above descriptions are oversimplified, they indicate the diverse nature of the adult female population. Notice that women may move in and out of these categories over their lifetimes. For example, an otherwise career working woman may feel more like a trapped working woman if she finds it necessary to work while her children are young. And while the career working woman category has grown significantly over the past three decades, the other segments are still sizable, unique, and important.

The male market is likewise diverse in both its attitudes and behaviors toward gender roles, work, and household chores. One classification distinguishes between modern and traditional men, whereby modern men are more focused on such factors as (a) fashion, (b) shopping, and (c) cooking.95

Product Strategy Many products are losing their traditional gender typing. Guns, cars, motorcycles, computer games and equipment, golf equipment, financial services, and many other once masculine products are now designed specifically with women in mind. The expanding wealth, independence, and purchasing power of women, and the time pres- sure on them make them an important target market. Consider the following:

Women-headed households represent roughly 28 percent of all households. The Barbara K tool line (now Barbara’s Way) targeted at women was launched in 2003 and has been highly successful. According to CEO Barbara Kavovit, “Women have made so many strides but can’t fix things in their homes.” The tools are designed to be stylish and functional, and have special features targeting women, such as cushioned handles.96

Assaults against women are a major social problem. Smith & Wesson launched Lady- Smith, a line of guns designed specifically for women. They found that “if a woman is going to pull out a gun for personal protection, she doesn’t want a cute gun.” So rather than “feminize” men’s guns with colored handles, Smith & Wesson targeted a key suc- cess criterion by redesigning its guns to fit women’s hands. The high percentage of women working outside the home, particularly when coupled with children, can lead to high levels of time pressure and a resulting need for conve- nience products and services.97 A wealth of such products and services have emerged to meet this need, as shown in Illustration 3–9.

As women’s roles have expanded, the consumption of potentially harmful products has become socially acceptable for women. This, of course, raises the ethical issue of targeting groups that have not historically been heavy users of products such as alcohol or tobacco.

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 99

Marketing Communications A con- siderable amount of research suggests that males and females process and respond differently to various communications ele- ments, including sexual appeals, music, verbal style, and so forth.98 As just one example, females respond more favorably to a “help-others” type of appeal for a charity, whereas males respond best to a “self-help” appeal.99 This is caused by differing world- views that affect a range of communications responses as well as consumption behaviors.

Men and women also consume different media and use the same media differently. For example in social media, information is a more prominent goal for men (36 percent) than women (28 percent), while finding coupons and promotions is a more promi- nent goal for women (47 percent) than men (33 percent).100 Also, types of social network sites women frequent are different from those frequented by men. The top five sites for women and men based on Google Ad Plan- ner data are as follows:

Women Men

Bebo Slashdot MySpace Reddit Classmates.com Digg Xanga Last.fm Ning Delicious

Source: Statistics from “Study: Males vs. Females in Social Network Sites,” at http://royal.pingdom.com, accessed March 1, 2011.

Since women are quite diverse as a group, marketers must also consider such factors as ethnicity, age, life stage, and employment status differences when designing market- ing communications. Ads portraying women must be careful about offending any of the various segments.101 For example, an ad that implied that housework was unimportant or that women who work outside the home are somehow superior to those who do not could insult traditional housewives. Ads that show women primarily as decoration or as clearly inferior to males tend to produce negative responses across all female segments.102 Despite such negative reactions, many ads still use these tactics.103 However, some companies are hitting this issue straight on. Dove launched its “Real Beauty” campaign, which features realistic depictions of women, in response to idealized and unrealistic portrayals of women in advertising that have been shown to reduce self-esteem.

Finally, in terms of gender role portrayal, there are still relatively few ads showing men using products traditionally designed for women or performing tasks traditionally per- formed by women. And according to one study, only one in four men feels that consumer product ads are designed to speak to them.104 However, this is changing. JIF has moved away from the “Choosy mothers choose JIF,” to “Choosy moms and dads choose JIF,” along with positive depictions of father and child interactions in their ads. The Dixie Ultra ad in Illustration 3–10 also demonstrates these changing roles. Increases in such portrayals are likely over time.

Firms have

responded to

increased time pres-

sure with new prod-

ucts and positioning

strategies.

ILLUSTRATION 3-9

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Part Two External Influences100

Retail Strategy As we saw in the chapter opener, men and women shop differently even for the same products. Differences in loyalty, brand switching, coupon usage, and shopping styles within the store all need to be accounted for by retailers as more men take on the grocery shopping task.

In addition, men and women react differently to various aspects of retail and service environments. For example, when there is a service failure, men appear to focus mostly on problem resolution, whereas women also focus on the process by which the problem is resolved. Being able to have a voice in the resolution process is much more important for women than men. Such differences need to be built into employee training programs.105

The Dixie Ultra ad

is still somewhat

unusual in that it por-

trays a male involved

in a traditional female

task. Although gen-

der roles are chang-

ing, it is much more

common to portray

women performing

traditional male tasks

than the reverse.

ILLUSTRATION 3-10

LO1: Understand core American cultural values Cultural values are widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable. Three categories of values that affect behaviors are those related to the self, others, and the environment. Sometimes numerous values are at work in affecting a given trend, as is the case with organic

consumption, which is affected by values relating to family and nature.

LO2: Summarize changes in self, environment, and other-oriented values In terms of self-oriented values, we place some- what less emphasis on hard work as an end in itself,

SUMMARY

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 101

although we continue to work some of the longest hours among industrialized nations. We are trending toward greater emphasis on sensual gratification. And, while the recent recession may have tempered spend- ing, there appears to be a move back toward greater emphasis on immediate gratification. Finally, while religion is important, America remains a relatively secular culture.

Values that affect our relationship to our environ- ment have become somewhat more performance ori- ented and slightly less oriented toward change. There is a strong and growing value placed on protecting the natural environment, and we increasingly value risk taking.

In terms of those values that influence an indi- vidual’s relationship with others, Americans remain individualistic. We have substantially less of a mascu- line orientation now than in the past. We also place a greater value on older persons and diversity.

LO3: Discuss values as they relate to green marketing Americans have shifted their view from one of over- coming nature to more of admiring nature. This trans- lates into greater concerns regarding the protection of our environment and the emergence of green market- ing. Green marketing involves (1) developing products whose production, use, or disposition is less harmful to the environment than the traditional versions of the product; (2) developing products that have a positive impact on the environment; or (3) tying the purchase of a product to an environmental organization or event.

LO4: Discuss values as they relate to cause- related marketing Americans are high on the value of problem solving. This makes us prone to want to put efforts toward

causes that are important to us in an attempt to fix or improve the situation. Cause-related marketing is marketing that ties a company and its products to an issue or cause with the goal of improving sales and corporate image while providing benefits to the cause. Companies associate with causes to create long-term relationships with their customers, building corpo- rate and brand equity that should eventually lead to increased sales.

LO5: Discuss values as they relate to market- ing to gay and lesbian consumers The value placed on diversity continues to increase, including openness to alternative lifestyles and family structures including same-sex couples. The gay mar- ket is estimated at roughly 16 million people over the age of 18 with purchasing power between $750 and $900 billion. Many companies view the gay market as highly attractive and have committed consider- able resources to targeting this market with specific products and promotional efforts. Supportive internal policies toward gay employees as well as support for important gay causes are among the critical factors in approaching this market.

LO6: Discuss values as they relate to gender- based marketing The ongoing shift from a traditionally masculine view toward a balanced masculine-feminine view has resulted in changing gender roles. Gender roles have undergone radical changes in the past 30 years. A fundamental shift has been for the female role to become more like the traditional male role. Male roles are also evolving, with men beginning to take on what have traditionally been considered female tasks. Virtually all aspects of our society, including marketing activities, have been affected by these shifts.

Achievement role 96 Ascribed role 96 Cause-related marketing (CRM) 90 Cultural values 78 Enviropreneurial marketing 85

Gender 96 Gender identity 96 Gender role 96 Green marketing 88 Greenwashing 89

Modern gender orientation 96 Traditional gender orientation 96 Voluntary simplicity 81

KEY TERMS

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Part Two External Influences102

18. Describe additional values you feel could, or should, be added to Figure 3–1. Describe the marketing implications of each.

19. Pick the three values you feel the authors of this book were most inaccurate about in the chapter in describing the current American values. Justify your answers.

20. Pick the three values you feel the authors were most inaccurate about in describing the emerging American values. Justify your answers.

21. Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 3–1. 22. Which values are most relevant to the purchase or

use of the following? Are they currently favorable or unfavorable for ownership/use? Are they shifting at all? If so, is the shift in a favorable or unfavorable direction?

a. Dietary supplements b. The Salvation Army c. Financial investments (stocks, mutual

funds, etc.) d. Home theater systems e. Tanning salon f. Expensive Jewelry

23. Do you believe Americans’ concern for the environment is a stronger value than their materialism?

24. What ethical issues do you see relating to green marketing?

25. Explain greenwashing and its possible role in the FTC’s revision of the Green Guides.

26. Cause-related marketing is done to enhance a firm’s sales or image. Some critics consider such marketing to be unethical. What is your position?

27. In which of the four categories of responders to cause-related marketing are you? Why?

28. Suppose AT&T showed a gay couple using its long-distance service or P&G showed a gay couple using one of its laundry products in ads on network television. Is a backlash by those who do not accept the gay community a likely response? How are such consumers likely to respond? Why?

29. Do you think housewives may be defensive or sensitive about not having employment outside of

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is a cultural value? Do all members of a culture share cultural values?

2. Describe the current American culture in terms of each of the 18 values discussed in this chapter.

3. How is voluntary simplicity related to the materialism value? What are the marketing implications of voluntary simplicity? Do these implications vary by product class?

4. What is green marketing? 5. What values underlie green marketing? 6. How is enviropreneurial marketing related to new

product success and market share? Link this to the value of green marketing in creating a competitive advantage.

7. Describe the basic conflict between the environmental movement and many businesses.

8. What is cause-related marketing? Why is it often successful?

9. What are the major decisions a firm faces with respect to the gay market?

10. What is meant by gender? 11. What is gender identity? 12. What is a gender role? 13. How does an ascribed role differ from an

achievement role? 14. What is happening to male and female gender

roles in America? 15. What are the differences between a traditional and

a modern gender role orientation? 16. Describe a segmentation system for the female

market based on employment status and gender role orientation.

17. What are some of the major marketing implications of the changing role of women?

REVIEW QUESTIONS

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Chapter Three The Changing American Society: Values 103

the home? If so, what implications will this have for marketing practice?

30. Develop an advertisement for the following for each of the four female market segments described in the chapter.

a. Bicycles b. iPad

c. Exercise equipment d. Breakfast cereal e. Vacation cruises f. Cosmetics

31. Find and copy or describe an advertisement for an item that reflects Americans’ position on the following values:

a. Active/Passive b. Material/Nonmaterial c. Hard work/Leisure d. Postponed/Immediate gratification e. Sensual gratification/Abstinence f. Religious/Secular g. Cleanliness h. Performance/Status i. Tradition/Change j. Risk taking/Security k. Problem solving/Fatalistic l. Admire/Overcome nature m. Individual/Collective n. Limited/Extended family o. Diversity/Uniformity p. Competition/Cooperation q. Youth/Age r. Masculine/Feminine 32. Interview a person who consumes one or more

organic food items. What values influence this consumption pattern?

33. Interview a salesperson who has been selling the following for at least 10 years. See if this individual has noticed a change in the purchasing roles of women over time.

a. Electric guitars b. Cell phones c. Computers d. Homes e. Financial services 34. Interview a career-oriented working wife and a

traditional housewife of a similar age. Report on differences in attitudes toward shopping, products, and so forth.

35. Form a team of five. Have each team member interview five married adult males. Based on these interviews, develop a typology that classifies them by their attitude toward and participation in household or child-rearing activities.

36. Pick two different environmental segments from Table 3–1. Find one advertisement you think is particularly appropriate or effective for each. Copy or describe each ad and justify its selection.

37. Interview a salesperson for each of the following. Ascertain the interest shown in the item by males and females. Determine if males and females are concerned with different characteristics of the item and if they have different purchase motivations.

a. Art b. Automobiles c. Golf clubs d. Personal care items e. Clothing f. Gardening tools 38. Interview 10 male and 10 female students. Ask

each to describe the typical owner or consumer of the following. If they do not specify, ask for the gender of the typical owner. Then probe to find out why they think the typical owner is of the gender they indicated. Also determine the perceived marital and occupational status of the typical owner and the reasons for these beliefs.

a. Pet snake b. Pasta maker c. Large life insurance policy d. Power tools e. Habitat for Humanity contributor f. Personal fitness trainer

APPLICATION ACTIVITIES

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